CHAPTER I

CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP

1.1 Definition of Leadership

Leadership is creativity in action. It is the ability to see the present in terms of the
future while maintaining respect for the past. Leadership is based on respect for history
and the knowledge that true growth builds on existing strengths. Leading is in part a
visionary endeavor, but it requires the fortitude and flexibility necessary to put vision into
action and the ability to work with others an to follow when someone else is the better
leader. Leaders also need resilience to function in normal and not-so-normal times.
The definition of a leader is a person who is in front and lead a gathering. While
the definition of leadership there are many different definitions of leadership. This is
because the leadership needed in various fields. To understand the leadership needs to be
peeled from the etymological and definitive. Etymological aspects put forward issues and
review the language, while the definitive aspect rests on the notion put forward by the
experts.
1. Etymologically
Leadership was adopted from the English language that is leadership.
Leadership comes from the root word to lead is a verb which means to lead / head /
captain / guides.
Starting from the notion etymologically then lead the work of someone about
how - how to lead people.
2. Definitively
Recorded from some experts on the definition of leadership
1) Leadership is the moral and intellectual ability to visualize and work for what is
the best for company and its employees. (Mullins 2001)
2) Leadership is the ability to influence people to willingly follow ones guidance or
adhere to ones decisions. (Leslie dan Lloyd 1995)
3) Leadership is the ability to persuade others to seek defined objectives
enthusiastically (John et al. 1987)
1

4) Leadership is the ability to influence, motivate, and direct others in order to

attain desired objectives (Don dan John 1992)
5) Leadership is influence, nothing more and nothing less (John C.
Maxwell)
1.2 Leadership According to Scientific Management and Social
Scientific management pioneered by scientist Frederick W. Taylor in the early
20th century and developed into as ciene of leadership. Understanding leadership
according to some figures:
1. "Activities affecting the people to work together to achieve a goal that you want"
(Ordway Tead, 1935).
2. " The process of directing and task relationships activities affecting the members of
the group" (Stoner,1982).
3. " Leadership is the ability to influence, motivate, and direct others in order to attain
desired objectives" (Don and John, 1992).
4. " Leadership is the ability to influence people to willingly follow one's guidance or
adhere to one's decisions" (Leslie and Lloyd, 1995).
5. " The effort using a style affects and not forced to motivate the individual in
achieving goals" (Gibson et al., 1997).
6. " Leadership is the moral and intellectual Ability tovisualize and work for what is
best for the company and its employees" (Mullins, 2001).
7.
8.
9.

" Leadership is activity of influencing people to strive willingly for mutual

objectives" (George R. Terry)
" Leadership is the exercecies of authority and the making og decisions" (Robert
Dubin)
"Leadership is the process of influencing the activities of an organized group
toward goal achievement. " (Rauch & Behling, 1984)

10."Leadership is process of giving purpose (meaningful direction) to collective effort,

and causing willing effort to be expended to achieve purpose." (Jacobs & Jaques,
1990)
11. "Leadership is the ability to step outside the culture to start evolutionary change
processes that are more adaptive" (E. H. Schein, 1992)
12. "Leadership is the process of making sense of what people are doing together so
that people will understand and be committed" (Drath & Palus, 1994)

13. "Leadership is about articulating visions, embodying values, and creating the
environment within which things can be accomplished. " (Richards & Engle, 1986)
14. "Leadership is the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others
to contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organization" (House et
al., 1999)
While the understanding of leadership according to social sciences according to
some figures :
1. "Leadership is the influential increment over and above mechanical compliance
with the routine directives of the organization" (Katz & Kahn, 1978: 528)
2. "Leadership may be considered as the process (act) of influencing the activities of
an organized group in its efforts toward goal setting and goal achievement"
(Stogdill, 1950:3)
Of the various definitions of leadership according to some experts, it can be
concluded that leadership is an attempt to influence, guide, motivating and inspiring
others to achieve the goals of the organization or group. Leadership involves 7 things :
leader, influence, follower, intention, shared purpose, change, and personal responsibility.
1.3 Role of Leaders
The core problem for leader in organization involves getting others to do what is
necessary to accomplish the organizations goals. This is complex process, because the
goals as well as the means for accomplishing them are often unclear, subject to
discussion or negotiation, and can change over time.
Once goals are determined, leaders must find a way to create the conditions that will
cause (or allow) subordinates to work hard and to direct that work toward organizational
ends. This may call for many different kinds of influence behaviour aimed in many
directions; negotiating a larger budget; getting other departments to deliver accurate and
timely information; providing vision, direction or training to subordinates; simplifying or
complicating work; obtaining a deserved salary increase for someone, and so forth. All
these activities-up, sideways, and down-ultimately are aimed at getting others, especially

subordinates, to do what is necessary to accomplish successfully the work of system

being led (Cohen and Fink, 2001).
The leaders role according to Robbins and Coulter (1999) are:
1.

Leaders are troubleshooters. When the team has problems and asks for assistance,
team leaders sit it on meetings and try to help resolve the problems.
Troubleshooting rarely involves technical or operational issues because the team
members typically know more about the tasks being done than does the team
leader. The leader is most likely to contribute by asking penetrating questions,
helping the team talk through problems, and getting needed resources from
external constituencies.

2.

Leaders are conflict managers. When disagreements arise, they help process the
conflict. They help indentify issues such as the source of the conflict, whos
involved, the issues, the resolution options available, and the advantages and
disadvantages of each. By getting team members to address questions such as
these. The leader minimizes the disruptive aspects of intrateam conflicts.

3.

Leaders are coaches. They clarify expectations and roles, teach, offer support,
cheerlead, and do whatever else is necessary to help team members keep their work
performance levels high.
A leader leads, he does not push. He pulls his followers to heights of

accomplishment they may not have believed were possible. A leader knows the
individual characteristics of his key followers, knows what qualities will elicit their best
efforts, and is developer of at least some of his followers. The consequence and
satisfaction to thos being led are of prime importance. A leader serves at the same time
he leads. He has an ability to awaken emotional as well as rational powers of the
follower. He can incite others. In fact, leadership appears to be more emotional than

intellectual or rational. The leader realizes this and seeks to cultivate the emotional
nature of the followers. He knows that power comes from dedication, not knowledge
alone (Terry, 1972).
1.4 Distinguishing between Leader and Leadership
a. Leader
A leader has to implement a personal agenda, and the organizational agenda.
The personal agenda consists of the goal close to the leaders heart. The organizational
agenda establishes the framework within which all work is done. Employees must
know what is to be done, when it is to be done, and their part in making it happen. The
good leader must be able to state the agenda in a few sentences that everyone can
grasp. Moreover, a leader needs to have a pragmatic and understandable operating
philosophy. The framework of an operating philosophy is created from learning,
innovating, and deciding.
A leader may not recognize the personal characteristics that cause
people to follow him or her, but the followers respond to those
characteristics (Crosby, 1997).
Since the process of leadership cannot be separated from the person as leader,
the following traits and talents are required for an individual who will adequately
fulfill the role of leader: character, charisma, switching mindsets, and know-how.
1. Character: Sheehy (1990) argued that character is the most crucial and most
illusive element of leadership. As applied to human beings, it refers to the
enduring marks in our personality which includeour inborn talents as well as the
learned and acquired traits imposed upon us by life and experience.
2. Charisma: The function of a charismatic leader is the vital part of leadership.
Charismatic leaders are able to express themselves fully. They also know who
they are, what their advantages and disadvantages are, and how to completely use

their advantages and compensate for their disadvantages. Moreover, they know
what they want, why they want it, and how to communicate what they want in
order to gain cooperation and support from others (Bennis, 1989).
3. Switching mindsets: The leaders success in confronting challenges rests entirely
on the leaders ability to change mindsets, create new realities and thereby see
new alternatives and possibilities. A mindset is a consistent but unexamined
framework of assumptions and viewpoints about the nature of reality as it pertains
to business. It is a lens or a filter that controls your mind, your thoughts, your
perceptions and your actions. Through switching leaders' mindsets, leaders could
alter the entire range of business actions and solutions available to achieve new
success in leadership.
4. Know-how: Leadership in different areas requires different technical expertise.
Bennis (1989) stated that leaders must possess "business literacy" (p.89). That is,
leaders must have knowledge of and be experts at what they are doing. Leaders
must have horizontal and vertical knowledge of how the business works and a full
understanding of what is required to do the task well.
b. Leadership
As an adjective, Leadership is deliberately causing people-driven action in a
planned fashion for the purpose of accomplishing the leaders agenda (Crosby, 1997).
All forms of leadership must use power. However, power needs not be coercive,
dictatorial or punitive to be affective. Instead, power can also be used in a noncoercive manner to orchestrate, mobilize, direct and guide members of an institution
or organization in the pursuit of a goal or series of objectives (Thomas, 2011).
Peters and Waterman (1982) stated that "The real role of leadership
is to manage the values of an organization" (p. 255).

All leadership is value laden. Also, all leadership, whether good or bad, is
moral leadership. Leadership is a process of influence which involves an ongoing
transaction between a leader and followers (Hollander, 1978). Leadership, however,
does not exclusively reside in the leader. Rather it is a dynamic relationship between
leaders and followers alike. Leadership is always plural; it always occurs within the
context of others.Leaders and followers intend real changes. All forms of leadership
are essentially about transformation (Rost, 1993).
Transformation is about leaders and followers intending to pursue real changes
actively. Leadership is not about maintaining the status quo; it is about initiating
change in an organization instead. The process of leadership always involves a certain
number of transactional changes.
The important requirement of the leadership process is for leaders to
remember the followers to pursuit their mutual purposes and goals. Through education
and training, leaders must serve as effective teachers or mentors to make their
followers co-responsible in the pursuit of their mutual purposes and goals (Nanus,
1989). Leadership is an extension of the leaders beliefs. A highly personal core
competence is only from within the leader. In leadership and the customer revolution,
Rick Tate (2003) said Leadership touches the heart and soul.

1.5 Differences Between Managers and Leaders

Tabel 1.1 Differences between managers and leaders of Abraham Zalesnik (1992):
Attitude
toward
goals

Managers
Take an impersonal,
passive outlook.
Goals arise out of
necessities, not desires.

Leaders
Take a personal, active
outlook, shape rather
than respond to ideas,
alter
moods,
evoke
images, expectations.
Change how people think

Conceptions
of work

Negotiate and coerce.

Balance opposing views.
Design
compromises.
Limit choices.
Avoid risk.

Realitions
with others

Prefer working with

people, but maintain
minimal
emotional
involvement,
Lack
empathy.
Focus on process, how
decisions are made rather
than what decisions to
make.
Communicate by sending
ambigous
signals.
Subordinates
perceive
them as inscrutable,
detached, manipulative.
Organization
accumulates bureaucracy
and political intrigue.
Comes from perpuating
and strengthenig existing
institutions.
Feel
part
of
the
organization.

Sense
self

of

about whats desirable

and
possible.
Set
company direction.
Develop fresh
approaches to problems.
Increas options. Turn
ideas
into
exciting
images.
Seek risk when
opportunities appear
promising.
Attracted to ideas. Relate
to
others
directly
intuitively,
empathetically.
Foccus on subtance of
events and decisions,
including their meaning
for participants.
Subordinats
describe
them with emotionally
rich adjectives love,
hate.Relations appear
turbulent,
intense,
disorganized.
Yet
motivation
intensifies,
and
unanticipated
outcomes proliferate.
Comes from struggles to
profoundly alter human
and
economic
relationships.
Feel separate from the
organization.

Tabel 1.2 Difference between managers and leaders of Warren Bennis (1991) :
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Manager
Administers
Is a copy
Maintains
Focuses on systems and structure
Relies on control
Has a short-range view
Asks how and when
Has his eye on the bottom line
Imitates

Leader
Innovates
Is an original
Develops
Focuses on people
Inspires trust
Has a long-range perspective
Asks what and why
Has his eye on the horizon
Originates
8

10.
11.
12.

Accepts the status quo

Is the classic good soldier
Does things right

Challenges it
Is his own person
Does the right thing

Tabel 1.3 Difference between managers and leaders of Rodd (2006) :

Manager

Leader
Give direction: find a way forward,
communicate a clear direction,
identify new goals, services and
structures
Offer inspiration: have ideas and
articulate thoughts that motivate
others
Build teamwork: use teams as the
most effective form of leadership,
spending their time building and
encouraging collaboration

Plan: set objectives, forecast, analyse

problems, make decisions, formulate
policy
Organize: determine what activities are
required to meet objective
Co-ordinate inspire staff to contribute
both invidually and as a group to the
organizations objectives
Control: check performance against
plans, develop people and maximize
their potential to achieve agreed
outcomes

Set an example: model what leaders

do and how they do it
Gain acceptance: act in ways that
engender acknowledgement of their
leadership status in followers

Tabel 1.4 Difference between managership and leadership of Stoner, Freeman, Gilbert in
Danim (2008) :
Managership
Building and maintainingan
organizational structure
Path following
Doing thing right
The manager maintains, relies and
control
A preoccupation with the here-andnow of goal attainment

Leadership
Building maintaining an organizational
culture
Path finding
Doing the right thing
The leader develops, inspires trust
Focused on the creation of a vision
about a desired future state
9

Leaders have empathy with other

people and give attention to what
event and action means

Managers maintain a low level of

emotional involvement
Designing and carry out plant, getting
things done, working effectively with
people
Being taught by the organization

Establishing a mission, giving a sense

of direction
Learning from the organization

Tabel 1.5 A comparison of leader and managers of David I. Bertocci, 2009 :

Leaders
Goal oriented
Inspires/ empowers
Thoughful
Results oriented
Effective
Long term planner
Policy oriented
Mission oriented
Attracts talents
Foccus on concepts
Utilizes staff work
Operates in internal and eksternal
politics
Delegates
Sees the whole

10

Managers
Task oriented
Directs
Industrious
Action oriented
Efficient
Short term planner
Implementation oriented
Program oriented
Recruits talent
Focuses on details
Provides staff work
Operators in internal politics
Oversees
See parts of the whole

CHAPTER II
THEORY OF LEADER
2.1 Trait Theory
Trait theories can be described as a branch of the Great Man Theory. These
theories hypothesize that the specific traits of an individual give them better propensity to
be a leader. These personality traits or behavioral characteristics are inherent in the family
and passed on genetically. This theory emphasizes that leaders share many common traits
and characteristics that make them successful.
The theory was popularized in the 1937 by Gordon Alport and Hans Eysenck
(1947). Trait theories of leadership differentiated leaders from nonleaders by focusing on
personal qualities and characteristics. (Stephen P. Robbins, 2008).
According to Eysenck (1947) this theory based primarily on physiology and
geneticsinterested in temperament (the aspect of personality that exists from birth).
Divided personality into two biologically-based categories of temperament:
Extraversion/Introversion
a. Extraversion characterized by being outgoing, talkative, and in need of external
stimulation
b. Eysenck's arousal theory of extraversioneverybody has certain optimal level of
arousal at which he/she performs best
1. extraverts chronically under-aroused and need external stimulation to bring them
up to an optimal level of performance
2. introverts chronically over-aroused and need peace and quiet to bring them to an
optimal level of performance

Neuroticism/Stability

11

a. Neuroticism or emotionality characterized by high levels of negative affect such as

depression and anxiety.
b. Neuroticism based on activation thresholds in the part of the brain responsible for the
fight-or-flight response.
1. Activation can be measured by heart rate, blood pressure, cold hands, sweating,
and muscular tension.
2. Neurotic people, who have low activation thresholds and are unable to control
their emotional reactions, experience negative affect in the face of minor stressors.
3. Emotionally stable people, who have high activation thresholds and good
emotional.
The two dimensions (axes), extraversion-introversion and emotional stability
instability, define four quadrants:
a.

Stable extraverts (sanguine qualities such as outgoing, talkative, responsive,

easygoing, lively, carefree, good leaders)

b.

Unstable extraverts (choleric qualities such as touchy, restless, excitable,

changeable, impulsive, irresponsible)

c.

Stable introverts (phlegmatic qualities such as calm, even-tempered, reliable,

controlled, peaceful, thoughtful, careful, passive)

d.

Unstable introverts (melancholic qualities such as quiet, reserved, pessimistic,

sober, rigid, anxious, moody)

Psychoticism
Further research demonstrated the need for a third category of temperament is
Psychoticism/Socialization. These are people with tendencies to psychosis, meaning that
they are more likely to have problems dealing with reality. Psychotic people sometimes

12

have hallucinations and often have delusions such as odd beliefs about being watched.
(Hans and Sybil Eysenck, 1947).
2.2 Behavioral Theory
Douglas McGregor (1906 - 1964) is one of the forefathers of management theory.
McGregor developed a philosophical view of humankind with his Theory X and Theory
Y in 1960. His work is based upon Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs, in that he grouped the
hierarchy into lower-order needs (Theory X) and higher-order needs (Theory Y). He
suggested that management could use either set of needs to motivate employees, but
better results would be gained by the use of Theory Y, rather than Theory X. (McGregor,
1960).
These two opposing perceptions theorized how people view human behavior at
work and organizational life :
a. Theory X
This is the authoritative and traditional style of management. Theory X
managers assume that people are lazy, don't want to work and it is the job of the
manager to force or coerce them to work. People are viewed as a "cost" that must be
monitored and controlled. It is based on three basic assumptions:
1. The average person inherently dislikes work and will avoid it if at all possible.
2. Most people have to be coerced, controlled, directed and threatened to get them to
work towards organizational goals.
3. The average person prefers to be directed, avoids responsibility, isn't ambitious
and simply seeks security.
In practice Theory X managers tend to be autocratic and controlling, and feel
it is up to them to ride people and make them do their work. These managers tend to
micro-manage, be extremely task oriented and not put much emphasis on building
13

positive relationships. Little emphasis is shown towards developing a positive work

environment, and recognition and appreciation would be rare. People working for
these managers tend to be motivated by fear and feel unappreciated.
b. Theory Y
This is a more dignified and enlightened management style. Theory Y
managers assume people will perform well if treated positively, and that higher order
needs dominate most individuals. People are viewed as "assets" that should be valued
and developed. It is based on six basic assumptions:
1. The physical and mental effort of work is as natural as play, so the average person
does not inherently dislike work.
2. People will exercise self-direction and self-control in order to achieve objectives.
3. Rewards of satisfaction and self-actualization come from the effort to achieve
objectives.
4. The average person learns not only to accept but to seek responsibility.
5. Most people have a capacity for imagination, ingenuity and creativity.
6. The intellectual potential of most people is only partially realized.
In practice Theory Y managers tend to be participative when making
decisions, and value both results and relationships. These managers tend to delegate
and empower their people because they trust them and feel they will do good work
(i.e., managers are "coaches"). Priorities will be given to developing positive work
environments, and expressing regular recognition and appreciation. These managers
will also feel that people are important and worth developing. People working for
these managers tend to feel appreciated and dignified, and will generally have good
morale and feel motivated.

14

2.3

Contingency Theory
Because of the perceived failure by researchers to obtain consistent results from

either the behavioural or trait theories, researchers began to focus on situational

influences. The goal was to match leadership style with work conditions in order to
achieve leadership effectiveness. Isolating the situational conditions proved to be
somewhat difficult. Three of the most successful contingency theories are presented here.
1. The Fiedler Contingency Model
One of the first models of this type was developed by Fred Fiedler. It proposes
that effective group performance depends on the proper match between the leaders
style and the degree to which the situation gives control to the leader.
a) Identifying Leadership Style. Fiedler created the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC)
questionnaire, which purports to measure whether a person is task- or relationshiporiented. High LPC scores indicate a relationship-oriented leader; low LPC scores
indicate a task-oriented leader. Fiedler assumed that an individuals leadership
style is fixed. If the situation and style are not optimal, then the situation needs to
be modified or the leader needs to be replaced.
b) Defining the Situation. Fiedler identified three contingency dimensions that
defined the key situational factors that will determine the appropriate leadership
style.
1) Leader-member relations: the degree of confidence, trust, and respect
members have in their leader. Measured as good or poor.
2) Task structure: the degree to which the job assignments are structured or
unstructured. Measured as high or low.
3) Position power: the degree of influence a leader has over hiring, firing,
discipline, promotions, and salary increases. Measured as strong or weak.
c) Eight Potential Situations. The combination of the measurements of these three
dimensions creates eight potential situations (octets) that a leader might face.
d) Matching Leaders and Situations.

15

1) Task-oriented leaders tend to perform better in situations that are either very
favorable to them or which are very unfavorable (category I, II, III, VII, or
VIII).
2) Relationship-oriented leaders perform better in moderately favorable
situations (categories IV through VI).
3) Recently Fiedler has condensed these eight situations down to three based on
the degree of control: task-oriented leaders perform best in situations of high
and low control while relationship-oriented leaders perform best in moderate
control situations.
e) Using the Model to Improve Leadership Effectiveness. Because Fiedler believes
an individuals leadership style is fixed, there are really only two ways to improve
leader effectiveness:
1) Change the leader to fit the situation.
2) Change the situation to fit the leader. This can be done by restructuring tasks
or increasing/decreasing the power the leader has to control factors such as
salary increases, promotions, and disciplinary actions.
f) Fiedler Contingency Model Summary. Considerable evidence supports substantial
parts of Fiedler's model. In the more recent and simplified version of the model,
there is even stronger evidence to support its conclusions. However, the LPC
questionnaire is problematic and the contingency variables are complex and
difficult for practitioners to assess, making this a difficult model to use on a
practical basis.
2. Leader-Member Exchange (LMX) Theory
Unlike the other leadership theories mentioned thus far, the LMX theory does
not assume that managers treat all workers the same way.
a) Grouping.
Because of time pressures, leaders establish a special relationship with a small
group of their

followers:

the in-group. These individuals

receive

disproportionate amount of the leaders attention and are more likely to receive
special privileges. Out-group members get less of the leaders time, fewer of the

16

preferred rewards and have leader-follower relations based on formal authority

interactions.
b) Group Selection.
While the selection process is unclear, leaders tend to choose in-group members
(high LMX) because they have attitude and personality characteristics that are
similar to the leader or a higher level of competence than do the out-group
members (low LMX). While the leader does the choosing, it is the followers
characteristics the drive the leaders categorizing decision. The selections appear
to be relatively stable over time.
c) Maintaining LMX.
Leaders induce LMX by rewarding those employees with whom they want a
closer linkage and punishing those with whom they do not. High LMX employees
are allowed to communicate frequently with the supervisor, while low LMX
employees are discouraged from doing so.

d) LMX Theory Summary.

Research has been generally supportive and may be tied to the concept of the selffulfilling prophecy: when leaders expect the best from a set of employees, they
tend to get it. In general, research has shown the following:
1) Leaders do differentiate among followers.
2) The in-group and out-group disparities are not random.
3) In-group members will have higher performance ratings, lower turnover
intentions, greater satisfaction with their superior, and higher overall
satisfaction.
3. The Path-Goal Theory.
Developed by Robert House, this theory extracts elements from the Ohio State
leadership research as well as the expectancy theory of motivation.
a) The Leaders Purpose. In Path-Goal theory, the leader's job is to provide followers
with information, support, or other resources necessary for them to achieve their
goals. Effective leaders clarify the path to goal achievement and remove any
roadblocks the workers encounter along the path.
17

b) Leader Behaviors. Unlike Fiedler, House assumes leaders are flexible and that the
same leader can display any or all of the necessary behaviours for effectiveness in
a given situation. There are four identified leadership behaviors in this theory:
1) Directive: these leadership behaviors include letting followers know what is
expected of them, scheduling work to be done, and giving specific guidance as
to how to accomplish tasks.
2) Supportive: these behaviors include being friendly and showing concern for
the needs of followers.
3) Participative: the leader consults with followers and uses their suggestions
before making a decision.
4) Achievement-Oriented: the behaviors for this type of leader include setting
challenging goals and expecting followers to perform at their highest level.
c) Contingency Variables. This theory proposes two classes of contingency variables
that moderate leadership behavior:
1) Environmental Variables: factors that are outside the control of the employee
such as task structure, the formal authority system, and the worker. These
variables determine the type of leader behavior required for outcomes to be
maximized.
2) Employee Characteristics: variables such as locus of control, experience, and
perceived ability, which are the interpersonal characteristics of the employee.
These variables determine how the environment and leader behavior are
interpreted.
d) Path-Goal Theory Predictions. The theory proposes the leader behaviour will be
ineffective when it is redundant with the sources of environmental structure or
incongruent with employee characteristics. Specific predictions (i.e., effective
matches between leadership behaviors and contingency variables) include:
1) Directive leadership behaviors are more appropriate when tasks are ambiguous
or stressful.
2) Supportive leadership is more effective when employees are performing
structured tasks.

18

3) Directive leadership is inappropriate when employees have high perceived

ability or considerable experience.
4) Participative leadership behaviors are more appropriate for employees with
internal locus of control.
5) Achievement-oriented behaviors are appropriate when tasks are ambiguously
structured.
e) Path-Goal Theory Summary. The theory itself, due its complexity, has received
mixed support. While this theory is attractive, it may be quite a while before we
can safely say that it has practical uses in the workplace.
2.4 Situational Theory
Paul Hersey and Ken Blanchard developed situational leadership theory. The
theory was first introduced as Life Cycle Theory of Leadership and was renamed to
situational leadership in the 1970s (1969). The basis for this theory/style is that there is no
one best leadership style. The style employed is driven by the immediate task and the
maturity of the group to which they are leading.

19

Hersey and Blanchard characterized leadership style in terms of the amount of

Task Behavior and Relationship Behavior that the leader provides to their followers. They
categorized all leadership styles into four behavior types, which they named S1 to S4:
a. S1: Telling is characterized by one-way communication in which the leader defines
the roles of the individual or group and provides the what, how, why,when, and where
to do the task.
b. S2: Selling while the leader is still providing the direction, he is now using two-way
communication and providing the socioemotional support that will allow the
individual or group being influenced to buy into the process.
c. S3: Participating this is now shared decision making about aspects of how the task
is accomplished and the leader is providing less task behaviors while maintaining high
relationship behavior.
d. S4: Delegating the leader is still involved in decisions; however, the process and
responsibility has been passed to the individual or group. The leader stays involved to
monitor progress.
Of these, no one style is considered optimal for all leaders to use all the time.
Effective leaders need to be flexible, and must adapt themselves according to the
situation.
Readiness
According to Hersey and Blanchard, knowing when to use each style is largely
dependent on the readiness of the person or group one is leading. The four different
readiness levels are:
a. R1 People at this level of readiness lack the knowledge, skills, or confidence to
work on their own, and they often need to be pushed to take the task on. They are
unable and unwilling.

20

b. R2 at this level, people might be willing to work on the task, but they still dont
have the skills to complete it successfully. The person is, therefore, unable but willing
or motivated.
c. R3 Here, people are ready to perform the task. They will be called able but
unwilling or insecure.
d. R4 These people are able to work on their own. They have high confidence and
strong skills, and theyre committed to the task. They are, therefore, able and willing
or motivated.

21

CHAPTER III
CHARACTERISTIC, TYPES AND STYLE OF LEADERSHIP
3.1 Characteristic of Leardership
Leardership Characteristics are certain traits, capacities, motives and pattern of
behavior that differentiate leaders from non-leaders (Kirikpatrick and Locke
1991).Whereas there was not a single trait or characteristic wich identified effective
leadership (Lear,1989) there was a consistent list ot traits that distinguished leaders from
non leders ( House & Aditya, 1997). Accordingly, many researchers in their studies have
focused on laeder traits and presented list of leader traits and atributes.
Tabel 3.1 Major leader traits and attributes, 2000-2007
Zaccaro, Kemp, & Bader (2004)
Cognitive capacities
Personality
Motives and needs
Social capacities
Problem-solving skills

Northouse (2004)
Intelligence
Self-confidence
Determinan
Integrity
Sociability

Tacit knowledge
Source: Provided the results of previous reviews of the trait approach to leadership for the
years between 2000 and 2007.
Tabel 3.2 Major leader traits and characteristics, 1990-1999
Gadner (1990)

Krikpatrick and

Youngjohn (1999)

and

Locke (1991)
Drive

Charisma

and

Leadership Motivation

Management skilla

judgment-in-action
Willingness to Accept

Honesty and integrity

Decision making

Responsibilities
Task competence
Understanding

Self-confidence
Cognitive ability

Dominance
Energy

Physical

vitality

stamina
Intelligence

of

followers
Skill in dealing with
people
Need to achieve

Knowledge

of

the Self-monitoring

business
Technical

22

knowledge
Adjustment
Creativity

Capacity to motivate
Courage,
resolution,steadiness
Capacity to win and
hold trust
Capacity to

Extraversion

manage,

decide, set priorities

Confidence
Ascendance,dominance,
assertiveness
Adaptability, flexibility
of approach
Surce Provides the results of previous reviews of the traits approach to leadership for the
years between 1990 and 1999.
Characteristcs of admired leaders
Effective leaders should have a caring demenor towards their employees
(duff,2007). According to Nahavandi (2000), The cornerstone to our new knowledge
is that most of us can learns to become better leaders. Effective leadership required a
high degree of acquired learning (Corderman,2005). Kirkpatrick and Locke (1991)
argued whether leadership traits were trainable or not. They devided the six traits ,
which differentiated leaders from non-leaders into two groups.

Table 3.3 Leadership Development

Less trainable traits
Cognitive ability
Drive
Leadership motivation
Honesty and integrity

Trainable traits
Knowledge of the business
Self- confidence

Leadership development programs have become a very critical factor for

organizations future achievedments. According to Green (2006), the reason was that
23

effective leadership was one of the most important factors that effected organizational
success.
3.2 Type and Style of Leadership
3.2.1 Autocratic leadership style
A leadership style where the leader make decisions without consulting their
team members, even if their input would be useful. In Lewins experiments he found
that caused the greatest discontent.
An autocratic style works best when:
a) There is no need for team input on the decision.
b) Where the decision would not change as a result of input actions would not be
affected whether they were or were not involved in the decision-making.
c) This style can be demoralizing, and it can lead to high levels of absenteeism
and staff turnover.
3.2.2 Democratic leadership style
A leadership style where the leader make the final decisions, but include team
members in the decision-making process. Democratic decision making usually
appreciated by the people, especially if they have been used to autocratic decisions
with which they disagreed. As a result, team members tend to have high job
satisfaction and high productivity.
3.2.3

Laissez-faire leadership style

A leadership style where leader give their team members a lot of freedom in
how they do their work, and how they set their deadlines. Free-reign leadership when
leader believes in minimal supervision, leaving most decisions to subordinates.
Empowerment when practice in which managers lead employees by sharing power,
responsibility, and decision making with them. Let it be the leadership
responsibilities are shared by all

24

The laissez-faire style minimizes the leaders involvement in decision making.

Laissez-faire works best when people are capable and motivated in making their own
decisions, and where there is no requirement for a central coordination.
3.2.4

Bureaucratic leadership
An autocrat does not require a bureaucracy, but the autocrat and the
bureaucracy goes together like a hand and glove. One reason has be do with
obedience to authority. In fact, one can make an argument that in large groups such
as the multinational corporations and government agencies authority is the most
common type of influence used. Universities, hospitals, banks and government
usually require this typeof leader in their organizations to ensure quality, increase
security and decreasecorruption. Leaders who would like to speed up the process

3.2.5

will experience frustration and anxiety and are not welcome.

Charismatic leadership
Charismatic leaders who are building a group, whether it is a political party, a
cult or a business team, will often focus strongly on making the group very clear and
distinct, separating it from other groups. They will then build the image of the group,
in perticular in the minds of their followers, as being far superior to all others.
Charismatic leader pay a great deal of attention in scanning and reading their
environment, and are good at picking up the moods and concerns of both individuals
and larger audiences. They then will hone their actions and words to suit the
situation.
Charismatic leaders use a wide range of methods to manage their image and,
if they are not naturally charismatic, may practice assiduously at developing their
skills. They may engender trust through visible self-sacrifice and taking personal
risks in the name of their beliefs. They will show great confidence in their followers.

25

They are persuasive and make very effective use of body language as well as verbal
language.
3.2.6

Transactional leadership
The transactional leader style give certain tasks to perform and provide
rewards or punishments to team members based on performance results. Managers
and team members set predetermined goals together, and employees agree to follow
the direction and leadership of the manager to accomplish those goals. The manager
possesses power to review results and train or correct employees when team
members fail to meet goals. Employees receive rewards, such as bonuses, when they
accomplish goals.

3.2.7

Transformational leadership
The transformational leadership style depends on high levels of
communication from management to meet goals. Leaders motivate employees and
enhance productivity and efficiency through communication and high visibility. This
style of leadership requires the involvement of management to meet goals. Leaders
focus on the big picture within an organization and delegate smaller tasks to the
team to accomplish goals.

3.2.8

Paternalistic leadership
The way a paternalistic leader works is by acting as a father figure by taking
care of their subordinates as a parent would. In this style of leadership the leader
supplies complete concern for his followers or workers. In return he receives the
complete trust and loyalty of his people. Workers under this style of leader are
expected to become totally committed to what the leader believes and will not strive
off and work indepedently. The relationship between these co-workers and leader are
extremely solid. The workers are expected to stay with a company for a longer

26

period of time because of the loyalty and trust. Not only do they treat each other like
family inside the work force, but outside too. These workers are able to go to each
other with any problems they have regarding something because they believe in
what they say is going to truly help them. One of the downsides to a paternalistic
leader is that the leader could start to play favorites in decisions. This leader would
include the workers to follow and start to exclude the ones who were less loyal.
3.2.9

Servant leadership
The servant leader facilitates goal accomplishment by giving it steam
members what they need in order to be productive. This leader is an instrument
employees use to reach the goal rather than a commanding voice that moves to
change. This leadership style, in a manner similar to democratic leadership, tends to
achieve

the

results

in

a slower

timeframe

than

other

styles,

although

employee engagement is higher.

3.2.10

Visionary leadership
Early ideas on visionary leadership were developed via the sociologist Max
Webers notions of charisma and the transformational and charismatic leadership
theories of the historian James MacGregor Burns and the management scholar
Robert House. The vision thing is something all great leaders have.Visionary
leadership is said to have positive effects on follower outcomes, resulting in high
trust in the leader, high commitment to the leader, high levels of performance among
followers, and high overall organizational performance. Leaders need a vision, but
great leadership turns that vision into reality.

27

28

3.2.11

6 Types of leadership style by Goleman

29

SUMMARY
Leadership is the ability to influence, direct, motivate others to achieve the
goals of the organization or group. In leadership, the needs of authority, feeling
sensitive to the led, and intellectual is necessary.
In the leadership style,someone or leader cant be stand just had one style in
their company field. That means if the leader just on use one style, the company
cant be survive in the future. Not only just in leader, but in employee,
organization also happen like that

30

CHAPTER IV
A WAY TO BUILD THE LEADERSHIP SOUL

4.1 Executives Effect their Organization

Regardless of the type of leadership at the top of an organization, the

processes through which strategic leaders impact and influence the
organization are similar. As the chief decision makers and the people in charge
of providing general guidelines for implementation of the strategies, top
executives influence their organization in a variety of ways :
1. Direct decisions
Leaders decisions regarding various aspects of the organization
shape the course of their organization. The choices regarding the vision
and mission for an organization influence all aspects of an organizations
functioning. The vision and mission affect the culture of an organization
by determining the basic assumption, what is important, what needs to be
attended to first, and what is considered less valuable. Similarly, the choice
of strategy a considered to be the almost-exlusive domain of top
management (Gupta, 1986)
In addition to the vision, mission, culture, and strategy, the decision
to adopt a new structure, adjust an existing one, or make any changes in
the formal interrelationship among employees of an organization rest
primarily with top management (Miller and Droge, 1986; Nahavandi,
1993; Yasai-Ardekani,1986,1989). The leader can determine the structure
of the organization through direct decisions on the type of structure or
indirectly through the way employees share and use information. Mickey
Drexler of the Gap and J.Crew does not e-mail and does not write memos.

31

He likes to use a public addres system to communicate face to face. His

employees learned to check their voice mail on a regular basis and be
ready for his questions at any time (Munk, 1998). A leader who consistntly
communicates only through formal reporting channels sets up a different
structure than one who crosses hierarchical lines and encourages other to
do so, as well.
2. Allocation of resources and control over the reward system
In addition to direct decisions, one of the most powerful effects of
top managers on their organization is through the allocation of resources
and the control they have over the reward system (Kerr and Slocum, 1987;
Schein, 2004). A top executive is the final decision maker on allocation of
resources to departements or individuals. If leaders want to encourage
continued innovation and creativity., they might decide that the R&D and
training departements of the organization will get the lions share of the
resources. Such allocations reinforce certain goals and actions, support a
particular organizational culture and strategy, and create structures that
facilitate desired outcomes and discourage undesirable ones(Kets de Vries
and Miller, 1986; Miller, 1987). Consider that Jeff Bezos, CEO of
Amazon.com, believes in spending resources on things that matter, which
include simple and functional offices rather than luxurious furniture,
creating small creative teams, and borrowing competitors succesful ideas
(Deutschman, 2004).
The formal and informal reward systems also can have a powerful
impact on the culture of an organization and on the behavior of its
members (Schein, 2004). For example, top managers can shape the culture
of their organization by rewarding conformity to unique norms and

32

standards of behavior at the expense of diversity of behaviors and opinions

(Nahavandi and Malekzadeh, 1988). This process could take place not
only through encouragement of certain behaviors but also through the
selection of other top managers and the promotion of those who adhere to
the leaders culture. Such a process is likely to take place regardless of the
leaders style of strategic leadership. For instance, an HCI will be most
comportable with other HCIs, whereas a PI will prefer other managers
with a similar style in key position. A comparable process is likely to take
place on an individual employee level. Employees whose actions fit the
vision, mission, and culture of the organization are more likely to be
rewarded. These processes create domino effects that further lead an
organization to reflect the style and preferences of its leader.
4.2 Leadership Effectiveness
The concept of leadership effectiveness is difficult to define because it
is a complex concept that attempts to capture myriad components: multiple
organizational contingencies and various personal and interpersonal behaviors.
Here we shall attempt a normative definition and explain how its many
components help us grasp a complex subject.
Effective leaders carry the dreams of others to the finish line. The
history of effective leadership is laden with inspiring tales of prophets,
explorers, military heroes, athletes, scientists, and educators. Effective leaders
have shaped nations, corporations, education systems, and the lives of millions
of people. From ancient times to the present, observers remain perplexed
about the actual essence of effective leadership and how to teach it. While

33

researchers report multiple studies about leadership effectiveness, they find

that myth and historical accounts of historical figures influence the definitions
and characteristics of effective leaders. Warren Bennis and Burt Nanus found
350 definitions of leadership in the literature, and others challenge the
lingering belief that personal physical, gender, and personality
traits determine successful leadership. Physical size is a factor in athletics and
other endeavors that require strength and agility, but weight, height, race,
gender, and personality traits are not dominant factors in determining effective
leadership.
4.2.1 Definition Leadership Effectiveness
People define the concept of leadership effectiveness in many
ways. Indeed, Stogdill (1974), Bass (1981), and Bass and Stogdill (1990)
catalogued and interpreted almost five thousand studies of the concept and
found great variance in its definition. Burns (1978) captured the problem
most vividly in a statement still widely quoted today: Leadership, he
said is one of the most observed and least understood phenomena on
earth (Burns 1978, 2). People seem to accept a default position that
leadership is simply what leaders do and that leaders are simply people in
positions of power over others. An alternative to this position will be
offered later. Still, we must have a starting point for our understanding of
leadership effectiveness - even if it means that almost immediately we will
create controversy.
James MacGregor Burns calls these changes toward more human
organizations transformational leadership that helps employees find

34

fulfillment in the workplace. Leadership studies have been divided into

five themes:
1) leadership as personal quality: a remnant of the great man theories of
the 1950s, when personality traits and other human capabilities that
gave individuals advantage over others dominated the literature on
leadership.
2) leadership as a type of behavior: an attempt to move beyond the great
man habit.
3) leadership depending on the situation: research focused on emerging
leadership in the context of group norms, tasks, position power, and
leader-member relations. Since situations are fluid, leadership
strategies must be adaptive to successfully complete a team project on
time and with high quality
4) leadership as relational: stresses that leadership and followership are
inextricably linked. Rosabeth Kanter and Amitai Etzioni and others
provide keys into the understanding of the use of power and influence
in organizations, and how power relationships are displayed in
corporate and school life
5) leadership as a moral quality for systemic improvement: Effective
moral leaders help create shared visions and respect for the values of
others in the organization. A growing area of inquiry on social justice
as a moral quality focuses on supporting the theories of leadership that
will guide leaders to shape schools and communities toward greater
equity and justice through educational programs.
John Hoyle recently added a sixth theme (6) leadership as a force
of love and spirituality: goes a step beyond moral quality and servant

35

leadership. Unselfish, loyal, and benevolent concern for the good of others
- even the unlovable - is key to effective leadership in todays schools.
John Hoyle and Michael Fullan suggest that school administrators apply
love as the key to high performance and problem solutions. The concept of
spiritual leadership in educational administration is new. Effective leaders
have a sense of spiritual awareness beyond mere religious doctrine to help
gain a sense of profound connection to human issues and problems beyond
themselves. Spiritual leaders sense a power greater than mere human
knowledge and experience.
One inclusive definition of leadership effectiveness is the
successful exercise of personal influence by one or more people that
results in accomplishing shared objectives in a way that is personally
satisfying to those involved. This definition arouses controversy when
examined from perspectives based on behavior in different contexts.
Although this definition most comfortably applies to the interpersonal,
small-group, and network levels found within typical work environments,
in almost all political arenas and in some huge organizations, leadership
effectiveness will be defined differently.
For organizations in which members or employees are significantly
affected by decisions and actions that take place at a distance with only
representative participation at best, leadership effectiveness is the
successful exercise of personal influence attempts by one or more people
that results in accomplishing organizational objectives congruent with a
mission while earning the general approval of their constituencies (in the

36

case of political leadership) or stakeholders (in the case of business and

civil society organizations). Stakeholders are people who have an interest
in an outcome.
In both cases, the definitions several conceptual components
require further explanation because each has inspired a literature of its own
to help clarify its meaning and to help us understand how to use it
appropriately.
4.2.2 Stakeholder View Of Leadership Effectiveness
About the only statement that can be made about leadership
effectiveness with any certainty is that, more often than not, it is in the eye
of the beholder. In large organizations, the various objectives being served
reflect the importance of serving diverse stakeholders. What appears
obvious at first - that the objective of business is to increase the bottom
line, or that the objective of a political party is to elect candidates becomes rather complex and muddled when seen in the midst of either
surviving in the marketplace or campaigning for office.
In the case of political parties, we can readily understand the
various constituencies and interests that must be convinced. In the business
world, stakeholder interests that once included only the investment
community and the board of directors now include employees, customers,
suppliers, regulators, local communities, civil society organizations, and
even competitors in some cases when joint ventures or the development of
industry standards is considered. Leadership effectiveness at the top of an
organization is no longer seen as simply increasing the bottom line or

37

satisfying any one priority because there are equally important, if

competing, interests to be served.
Similarly, at other levels in the organization, leadership
effectiveness is subject to a diversity of objectives. Work flow and
interdepartmental decision making processes, the pursuit of mutual
efficiency targets and the development of external relationships with key
stakeholders (e.g., customers and suppliers) are different objectives from
those that are created within a work team or that serve the interests of
ones own department and staff. All of this suggests that leadership
effectiveness includes a dimension associated not only with just ones
followers but also with ones colleagues.
4.2.3 Best Practices In Leadership Effectiveness
In order to identify best leadership effectiveness practices, people
need to decide which intended outcomes will be sought in utilizing the
leadership form of influence. Remember that the use of leadership as a
form of influence doesnt preclude the use of other influence styles such as
boss, manager, partner, or supervisor. The distinction keeps our discussion
focused when using these concepts. When we are being a boss, or a
manager, or a dictator, or a partner, we should recognize it as such and not
simply claim that whatever behavior a person with power exercises is
leadership.
A leadership influence style focuses on the mobilization of
colleagues in a consensual, collective effort to achieve the organizations
vision. This mobilization may also involve some real managerial

38

constraints. For example, organizations must be not only effective in

implementing their strategy, but also efficient. A profit must also
accompany managements mobilization of resources, and the organization
must be adaptable to both external demands for change and internal
processes to meet customer and employee needs.
Leadership effectiveness is fundamentally the practice of the
following principles:
1. Build a collective vision, mission, and set of values that help people
focus on their contributions and bring out their best.
2. Establish a fearless communication environment that encourages
accurate and honest feedback and self-disclosure.
3. Make information readily available.
4. Establish trust, respect, and peer-based behavior as the norm.
5. Be inclusive and patient, show concern for each person.
6. Demonstrate resourcefulness and the willingness to learn.
7. Create an environment that stimulates extraordinary performance.
An example of leadership effectiveness using these principles was
described by journalist Fara Warner in Fast Company magazine. In 1998,
Hyundai Motor America was in disarray, and its cars were common targets
of ridicule. Only ninety thousand cars were sold that year. Finbarr ONeill,
the companys general counsel, was acting CEO and meeting with
Hyundai dealers at their annual retreat. According to Warner, ONeill got
up and asked the dealers where they thought the company should be going.
They started throwing out suggestions, yelling out advice. Fin called

39

time-out, left the room, came back with an easel with lots of paper on it,
and started writing a bunch of things down (Warner 2002, 84).
By the meetings end, ONeill had recorded 100 suggestions - and
was facing a decidedly less angry mob of dealers. Fin said, I cant work
on all of these at once, so lets pick the top 10, and thats where Ill start
(Warner 2002, 84). The dealers remember that as Hyundais defining
moment. It was the day that somebody took charge. Its when we got
leadership (Warner 2002, 84). Apparently ONeills influence in
stimulating the groups development of a set of shared objectives and
helping it move toward those objectives got immediate results. His action
provided momentum for desired change in a consultative fashion involving
all the dealers wanting to participate.
As ONeill began to organize the company to solve the issues
raised at that meeting, the turnaround began, and the disarray ended. The
board, seeing progress being made and still not having chosen a new CEO,
appointed ONeill to the position - a person who is self-described as not a
car guy. However, he knew what was needed and exercised effective
leadership as defined here.
4.2.4 Evaluating Leadership Effectiveness (Personal)
If being effective is important, it should be measured. How do we
know we are effective leaders? We have many ways to ascertain
performance. We cannot always easily know that our followers are
satisfied and that objectives are being met. Regular, observable feedback is
more likely at the small-group level than at the institutional level. Where it

40

is not observable, feedback from colleagues, subordinates (followers), and

other stakeholders can be obtained through 360-degree feedback
instruments. The concept of 360-degree feedback is to offer individuals the
opportunity to solicit meaningful performance feedback from those whom
they attempt to influence and those who are related to their achieving
organizational goals at all levels.
One of the ironies of determining leadership effectiveness in this
way is that it points out one of the differences between organizationally
based leadership and leadership achieved, say, through the political process
in the case of public office or through direct competition for other official
or informal positions of power. The use of a 360-degree instrument is most
useful in focusing on an individuals style, facility with leadership skills,
achievements, and relationships with stakeholders (or the lack thereof).
The individual, until removed by superiors, retains his or her powers
conferred by the organization. Because of the concepts of chain of
command and unity of command, the position holders actions, especially
when they are a problem to his or her subordinates, are less likely to be
known by the person who must act to improve them. Thus, one of the
major contradictions of organizational leadership (at least in a business
context) is that leaders are not accountable to followers. Rather, they are
appointed by their superiors to lead their subordinates as followers. If they
please their superiors, no matter how ineffective they are as leaders in their
subordinates eyes, they remain in power.

41

In the political world, after Election Day constituents - through

correspondence, lobbyists, issue oriented campaigns, and the media - let
public officials know where they stand. Polls undertaken by an
officeholder enable the officeholder to gather performance feedback
similar to using 360-degree instruments in the business world.
4.2.5 Evaluating Leadership Effectiveness (Organizational)
How well organizations create the right environment can be
determined by surveys as well as by structured action research techniques
that involve all employees in developing and assessing the criteria for the
culture they will find most satisfying and productive. For Fred Fiedler
(1967), a leading researcher in the field of leadership effectiveness, key
goals are high employee satisfaction and low stress accompanied by high
performance
4.3 How to be a leader
Who is a leader? At the most basic level, a leader is someone who leads
other. But what makes someone a leader? What is it about being a leader that
some people understand and use to their advantage? What can you do to be a
leader? .
In our secular society we tend to think of a leader as a person whos
well connected or who is powerful or charismatic or wealthy. They judge
leaders by what they have. But. A true leader sees his work as a self-less
service towards a higher purpose. Leadership is not power and dominance.
(Glennbeck: 2011).

42

A leader is someone who leads a group of people in an organization.

while a good leader is a person-oriented leader not only on the objectives to be
achieved together, but also have a sense of high concern to colleagues
There are many theories about how to be a leader, one of them in
according to F. John Reh in Management & Leadership: What is Leader ,
explains that there are some things to do to be a leader :
1. The Leader's Vision
A leader has a vision. Leaders see a problem that needs to be fixed
or a goal that needs to be achieved. It may be something that no one else
sees or simply something that no one else wants to tackle. Whatever it is, it
is the focus of the leader's attention and they attack it with a single-minded
determinatio
2. The Drive To See It Through
It is not enough to just have a vision. Lots of people see things that
should be done, things that should be fixed, great step forward that could
be taken. What makes leaders different is that they act. They take the steps
to achieve their vision.
Is it a passion for the idea, an inner sense of drive, or some sense of
commitment? Whatever it is, it is the strength that lets leaders move their
vision forward despite all the obstacles, despite all the people saying it
can't be done, it's too costly, we tried that before, or a dozen other excuses.
The true leader perseveres and moves forward
3. Trait And Skills A Leader Must Have
There are things that set leaders apart from other people. Some
people are born with these characteristics. Others develop them as they
improve as leaders. These are not magic bullets. They are things you can
do and be if you want to be a leader.
a. Traits Of A Leader

43

There are as many traits of a leader as there ae lists of what makes a

leader. Here are the fundamental traits of a leader from my
perspective:
1) Has integrity. People have to believe that you are pursuing your
dream because it's the right thing to do, not just because you are
2)

ego driven.
Is a people person. Understands the differences that make people
unique and is able to use those individual skills to achieve the goal.

3)

Is positive. A leader encourages and rewards people and makes you

want to do it and do it right. A leader is not a negative person and
doesn't waste time and effort tellng everyone what they're doing
wrong.

b. Leadership Skills
Beyond the personal traits of a leader, there are specific skills
someone must master if they want to be a leader.
1) Effective communication - it's more than just being able to speak
and write. A leader's communication must move people to work
toward the goal the leader has chosen.
2)

Motivation - a leader has to be able to motivate everyone to

contribute. Each of us has different "buttons". A leader knows
how to push the right buttons on everyone to make them really
want to do their best to achieve the leader's goal.

3)

Planning - the leader has a plan to achieve the goal. He/she

doesn't get too bogged down in the details, that's what managers
are for, but rather uses a high level plan to keep everyone moving
together toward the goal.
44

4. Bottom Line
Leaders dream dreams. They refuse to let anyone or anything get in
the way of achieving those dreams. They are realistic, but unrelenting.
They are polite, but insistent. The constantly and consistently drive
forward toward their goal.
A good leader must have more than skill to leading. but must have
Qualities of a Good Leader. according of Ferguson, These are qualities that
can be learned and improved upon over time to be a good leader:
1. Innovative and Confident
Leaders must be able to do the job, but ability alone is not enough.
True leadership requires a willingness to be bold, to consider unusual
approaches to problems, to do more than just follow tried-and-true
methods. Leaders are self-confident and have no need to put others down
to feel good about themselves. They are willing to stand up for their ideas
and debate them with others. This kind of intellectual competition is
characteristic of a good leader. In Planning for Nonplanners, Darryl Ellis
and Peter Pekar, Jr. call this characteristic constructively competitive.
They also note that exceptional leaders know how to be competitive
without alienating others
2. Respectful of Others
Maintaining the balance of competing with the respect it may be
difficult for young employees who think the way forward is to outshine
their colleagues. But both workers and supervisors as leaders must respect
each other. if it does not respect the work colleagues certainly would not
be motivated to cooperate with you.
3. Ethical

45

Ethics are a code of rules about how we act toward others. They
deal with right and wrong.It is extremely important that you act ethically
in all aspects of your lifeat home, school, and at work. As a leader, you
set the tone for your entire organization. Your followers will constantly be
observing your words and actions, so it is key that you act ethically in
every instance. Be sure that you understand your organizations ethics
policies and have the conviction to uphold them.
4. Courteous
In Why Employees Dont Do What Theyre Supposed to Do and
What to Do About It, Ferdinand F. Fournies reminds leader to treat their
members with such common courtesies as saying please and thank
you, apologizing for being late to a meeting, and not interrupting people
while they are speaking. Other leaders in business and industry
recommend the golden rule: Treat others as you would like to be treated.
SUMMARY
Leader is the person who leads or command a group, organization
or country. He followed by others because of his/ competence, integrity,
capability that more than others. Many factors that made someone be a
leader even a good leader. The most important difference between leader is
about his/her ability to inspire others. Leader inspires others with ability,
but a good leader inspires them apart with the ability to also confidently
(motivate).

46

CHAPTER VI
LEADERSHIP IN PUBLIC HEALTH

Public health leadership includes a commitment to the community and the

values for which it stands. A community perspective requires a system thinking
and complexity orientation. Community refers not only to the local community in
which a person works but also to the larger global community that can affect the
health of the public over time. Whatever helath crises occur in other parts of the
world will have an effect on what will eventually affect the health of the public in
our local communities. It also includes a commitment to social justice, but public
health leaders must not let this commitment undermine their ability to pursue a
well-designed public health agenda. In addition, public health leader need to act
within the governing paradigms of public health, but this does not mean they
cannot alter the paradigms. Leaders propose new paradigms when old ones lose

47

their effectiveness. The major governing paradigm today relates to the core
functions and essential services of public health.
6.1 Public Health Leadership Principles
Louis Rowitz (2003) explained that one way of filling out the
definition of public health leadership in particular is to consider some of the
principles that public health leaders should use to guide their action.
Following is a list of 16 such principles.
1) Principle 1
The public health infrastructure and the system in which it is
embedded must be strengthened by utilizing the core function of public
health and its essential services as a guide to the changes that should occur.
The future of public health will be determined by the way in which core
functions are carried out and essential services are provided. Public health
leaders must evaluate the health status of the population, evaluate the
capacity of the community to address its health priorities, and implement
preventive measures to reduce the effect of or even avoid public health
crises. Leaders must not rely on the current assurance models (service
interventions) but need to implement new assurance models built on
integrated and collaborative system of service and program delivery.
Leaders must also help to restructure the policies and law that govern
health and public health. Leaders must be policy makers who have a view
of the future grounded in the realities of the present and built on the
experiences of the past.
2) Principle 2

48

The goal of public helath is to improve the health of each person in

the community. Public health leaders believe deeply that health promotion
and disease prevention are possible. In fact, a focus on prevention is
intrinsic to public health. In this regard, public health contrast with the
medical care system, which places an emphasis on treatment and
rehabilitation. Every citizen needs to learn about the benefits of public
health and how quality of life can be greatly improved if certain rules are
followed and if people take personal responsibility for their own health
needs.
A public health leader who truly believes in this principle will
become a teacher and mentor for the community. Education will be the
prevailing program model rather than medical care. A visionary leader sees
the total health system existing in the community and helps to ensure that
the system is integrated and comprehensive, provides the services that are
necessary, and does not contain duplicate services and programs, which
are a waste of valuable resources.
3) Principle 3
Community coalitions need to be built to address the communitys
public health needs. Public health is both a community responsibility and a
population-based activity. This means that the mission of public health is
work with all groups in a community to improve the health of all members
of the public.
Community needs to take responsibility for its future. It may be too
dependent on those who work in human services. Promoting good health is

49

every citizens responsibility. Public helath leaders can play a critical role
in helping the community move from a value system based on dependency
to one based on shared responsibility. Public health leaders in the human
services field are thus the true servant leaders.
4) Principle 4
Local and state public health leaders must work together to protect
the health of all citizens regardless of gender, race, ethnicity, or
socioeconomic status. Public health leaders firmly believe in the principle
that all people are created equal. Public health leaders see that they have a
responsibility to press for improvements in health care. They also have a
responsibility to develop health promotion programs for women as well as
men.
Cultural and ethnic groups often have difficulty in accessing health
programs because of color, language, or socioeconomic status. Public
health leaders have important taks to perform in protecting the rights of the
unserved and underserved. We live in culturally diverse society. Our
diversity is a strength as well as a weakness. Public health leaders must
deal with their personal prejudices each day and consciously move beyond
them to create a public health system that respect the needs of every
citizen.
5) Principle 5
Rational community health planning requires collaboration
between public health agency leaders, the local board of health (if such a
board exists), other local and county boards, and other external community

50

stakeholders. The relationship between the administrator of the local

health department and the chair of the board of health needs to be a close
one and based on a philosophy of equality and trust. The chair and the
other members of the board of health do more than approve the health
department budget and select the health administrator. The board members
are resident of the community. They are the protectors of the communitys
interests and, with the administrator, serve an important gatekeeper
fuction. Shared leadership and a shared vision are critical here. The health
department and the board of health must be partners, not adversaries,
which means they must work collaboratively to achieve agreed-upon
outcomes. The exchange of information is an important part of the
relationship, because relevant information is essential for the making of
good public health decisions.
6) Principle 6
Novice public health leaders must learn leadership techniques and
practices from experienced public health leaders. Mentoring is a critical
part of leadersip. Mentoring is beneficial to leaders throughout their
careers. Furthermore, leaders who have been mentored have a
responsibility to pass on the gift of learning they received.
7) Principle 7
One issue of import is whether leaders are born or made. If
leadership is innate, leaders wouldnt need to develop their skills, but if
leaders are made, anyone has the potential to become a leader. The most
defensible position is that leaders are both born and made that some

51

people are natural leaders with the talents necessary for successful
leadership but nonetheless need to develop their leadership abilities.
In fact, public health leaders must continuously work to develop
their leadership skills. Leaders never stop learning. Tehey are like
detectives who pick up clue after clue in order to find the solution to a
mystery. Leaders seek solution to challenges, but the attainment of new
knowledge is just as important for finding these types of solutions. Not
only that, but each solution leads to new challenges and the need for
additional learning.

8) Principle 8
Leaders must be committed not only to lifelong learning but to
their own personal growth. Self-esteem is a key factor in personal growth
and is essential to the personal competence necessary to cope with lifes
challenges.
The seven Rs of self-esteem:
1. Respect. It is necessary to respect and trust your employees.
2. Responsibility and Resources. Encouraging creativity

among

employees and delegating responsibility for task are essential.

3. Risk Taking. Only through risk taking can innovation occur.
4. Rewards and Recognition. People need to be recognized for their
accomplishments.
5. Relationship. The quality and quantity of personal relationship have an
effect on self-esteem.
6. Role-Modeling. The work practices of an organization should be
consistent with its values.
7. Renewal. It is critical to maintain a strong belief in lifelong learning.
9) Principle 9

52

The Infrastucture of public health must be built on a foundation of

health protection for all, democratic ideals and values. The assumption
underlying this principle is that physical, psychological, emotional,
economic, and social health are all elements of the health of a community.
By acting as role models for the community, public health leaders
strengthen the infrastructure of public health in the community.
10) Principle 10
Public health leaders should think globally but act locally.
Although public health professionals practice their craft primarily at the
community level, they should not ignore the rest of the world. Public
health leaders need to be vigilant in looking for potential health problems.
Public health leader thus have several overlapping communities to which
they owe allegiance, and they must understand how to coordinate their
multiple allegiances.
11) Principle 11
Public health leaders need to be good managers. Managers do not
have to be leaders, but tomorrows leaders will need to possess both
management and leadership skills.
12) Principle 12
Public health leaders need to walk the walk. They must not only
define a vision but sell the vision and inspire others to accept it and try to
realize it. In his book on visionary leadership, Nanus pointed out that there
are four major types of leadership activity. First, a leader has to relate to
the managers and other workers in the organization. The leader should be
the guide to and motivator of action in the organization. Second, the leader
has to relate to the environment or community outside the organization.
Third, the leader has to influence all phases of the operation of the

53

organization. Finally, the leader has to anticipate future events and move
the organization forward in a manner that takes these events into account.
If it is clear that managed care organizations will provide medical
care for all members of a community need to get the public health
department out of the direct service business and into population-based
health promotion and disesase prevention.
13) Principle 13
Public health leaders need to be proactive and not reactive. Up to
the present, they have mostly tended to respond to public health crises as
they occurred rather than focus on preventing crises. A reactive stance will
probably always be aprt of the strategy aof any state or local health
department. Public health agencies and professionals need to develop
action plans to address the health needs of the citizens in their service area.
Assessment activities will help to evaluate the health status of the
community and give guidance for action. Action planning is more than
planning for a crisis, which is an anticipatory activity that assumes a
problem is on the horizon. Action planning is essentially preventive. Its
goal is to create programs to prevents the occurrence of problems rather
than create programs to deal with problems after they occur.
14) Principle 14
Each level of the public health system has a need for leaders. In
fact, a leader does not need to have an official position to be a leader, and
nonpositional power is likely to become more and more important.
However, a defined leadership position does not hurt. Change will come
from many different sources, and leaders will step forward to make sure
the required task are accomplished.
15) Principle 15

54

Public health leaders practice their craft in a community setting and

must understand what a community is. Public health leaders have
traditionally had a strong belief in community. Their focus, after all, is on
improving the health of the communities they live and work in. Public
health leaders also believe they can strengthen their communities by
working with community leaders to bring about change. If they are to be
effective in bringing about change, they need to study and learn how their
communities functions. In particular, they need to know how to empower
the members of their communities and get them to take their share of the
responsibility for improving their own health.
16) Principle 16
Public health leaders must practice what they preach. If they are
promoting family values, they must live lives that are consistent with these
values. Leader often become prisoners of their official position and are
unable to find a workable balance between their professional commitment
and their private lives. Indeed, achieving a balance between work and
home is becoming more difficult. Decisions regarding the balance between
work and home must be built into the culture of the places where we are
employed. So the balance is making the right choice.

6.2 Core Functions of Public Health

Public health leaders, to an extent, see the world in terms of core
functions (or, in other words, a core functions paradigm). They also see it in
terms of a leadership paradigm and a management paradigm. Sometimes

55

leaders will substantially revise a paradigm or replace it with another. This is

called a paradigm shift. A paradigm shift, which usually takes a long time to
be completed, creates a new set of rules, procedures, and perspectives.
The functions of assessment, policy development, and assurance are
tied to the phases of public health practice. Assessment involves the
identification of health problems, policy development involves the
identification of possible solutions, and assurance involves the implementation
of the supposed solutions (usually in the form of programs and servives).
Public health leaders have major responsibilities associated with each core
function.

Figure 6.1 A System Approach to Public Health Leadership and Application

of The Core Functions
The assessment of need in a community starts the system cycle,
allowing leaders to think and act strategically as well as tactically. Leaders

56

then decide on the best strategies for improving health and engage in action
planning, which is oriented toward developing tacticts for meeting the
responsibilities of public health through the practice of the public health core
functions. Public health leaders also need to monitor public health activities to
ensure they are effective.
6.2.1

Assessment Practices
There are three organizational practices tied to the core function of
assessment. The first, which concerns the health need of community,
involves establishing a systematic needs assessment process that is
coordinated by the local health department and its leadership team and
directed toward gathering data on the health status and health needs of the
community.
The second practice involves the investigation of health hazards in
the community, especially timely epidemiological research to identify the
magnitude of the health problems, their duration and location, health
trends, and populations at risk.
The third practice is the analysis of identified etiologic and
contributing factors that place certain segments of the population at risk
for adverse health outcomes. Public health leaders need to understand how
to analyzed data and how to use dat for decision making.

6.2.2

Policy Development Practices

There are three organizational practices identified for the policy
development core function. The first (the fourth practice of ten
organizational practices) involves the following activities : acting as an

57

advocate for public health, building community constituencies, and

identifying resources in community. These activity are important because
they help generate supportive and collaborative relationships with public
and private agencies as well as with potential community partners and
thereby create organizational mechanisms for the effective planning,
implementation, and management of public health programs and services.
These activities are also essential for developing action plans in
cooperation with community partners.
The fifth practice is the setting of priorities. Criteria used in
ranking health problems include the size and seriousness of the problems,
the acceptability of the problems, the economic feasibility of solving them,
and the effectiveness of the interventions developed to address them.
Priority setting is not a completely objective process. Public health leaders,
in determining health priorities for the community, use value clarification
skills, visioning skills, and partnership skills.
The sixth practice is the development of plans and policies to
address the prioritized health needs of the community. The development
process involves establishing goals and objectives to be accomplished by
means of a systematic plan that focuses on local community health needs
and equitable distribution of financial and nonfinancial community
resources. This practice requires the participation of the community
stakeholders and representatives from other related agencies. Public health
leaders will guide the development of goals and objectives and help
translate them into action steps.

58

6.2.3

Assurance Practices
The final four organizational practices are associated with the
assurance core function. The seventh involves managing resources and
developing an organizational infrastructure to carry out the public health
agenda. Critical leadership and management skills are necessary for the
acquisition, allocation, and control of human, physical, cultural, and fiscal
resources. Managing resources also encompasses maximizing the
operational functioning of the local health system through the coordination
of community agencies efforts and the avoidance of the duplication of
services. Public health leaders will search for new resources and alter their
organizations to better reflect changing health priorities in the community.
The

eighth

organizational

practice

involves

action

plan

implementation, which often involves the creation of services and

programs. Plan implementation demans creativity and sound leadership,
because legislative mandates must be interpreted and statutory
responsibilitie must be translated into program. Public health leaders stress
innovation in program development, delegate programmatic responsibility
to other, and take an oversight role in monitoring program performance.
The ninth practice involves the evaluation of program activities.
First, there is the issue of quality assurance whether the program activities
are being performed in accordance with professional and regulatory
standards. Second, there is the issue of effectiveness.Third, there is the
question of revision. Leaders will need to support program evaluation,
evaluate the data collected, and support performance monitoring.

59

The last assurance practice involves the provision of public health

information to the community. Public health agencies have a responsibility
to educate the resindents of the community on ways to improve personal.
They need to develop health education initiatives in order to increase
health knowledge, change attitudes about unhealthy behaviors, and foster
healthy habits. To meet their educational responsibility, public health
leaders need to learn health communication skills, translate research
intervention results into practice, and create linkages to academic
institutions in order to develop health education strategies. They also need
to use social marketing and health communication strategies to reach
community residents and to use mentoring and training to educate the
public health workforce. The goal is to get the entire public to view public
health issues a important. People must be made to realize that public
health hazards put everyone at risk, not just the poor.

60

Table 6.1
Core Functions
Assessment

Leadership and the Organizational Practices

Organization Practices
Leadership Activities
1. Asses the health needs of the community.
Lead the community assessment prosess.
2. Investigate the occurrence of health effects and health
Collect and utilize information to enhance the investigation.
hazards in the community.
3. Analyze the determinants of identified health needs.
Integrate data with decision making.

4. Advocate for public health, build constituencies, and Build coalitions, empower others, engage in public health
Policy development

identify resources in the community.

5. Set priorities among health needs.

advocacy, recognize community assets.

Clarify values, create a vision, tie visions to mission, use

6. Develop plans and policies to address priority health partners to set priorities.
needs

Organize goals and objectives, translate goals into action.

7. Manage resources and develop organizational structure.

Search for new resources, make organizational changes to

better addres community needs.

8. Implement programs.
Assurance

Stress innovation, delegate programmatic responsibility to

9. Evaluate program and provide quality assurance.

others, oversee programs.

Support program evaluation, evaluate data collected, monitor
performance.

10. Inform and educate the public.

Use mentoring and training to educate workforce, use social

marketing and health communication to educate public.
Source: Adapted from W. W. Dyal, Public Health Infrastructure and Organizational Practice Definitions, 1991, Public Health Practice Program
Office, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
61

6.3 The Important of Leadership in Public Health

Potential Health Issues in the Future (Louis Rowitz) :
1. Emerging infectious diseases
2. Injury and violence
3. Environmental Health
4. Infant mortality
5. Population growth
6. Antibiotic resistance
7. Immune suppression
8. Chronic disease and aging
9. Behavioral health
10. Diabetes
11. Cardiovascular Disorders
12. Emerging threats
13. Deterioration of communities
14. Genetics testing
15. Tobacco
Of health issues in the future is not surprising increased attention to
changes in the concept of public health, however there are always changes and

62

always been a fact of life. To set the changes of health care and public health
professionals should be involved in the development level and politics. For it
is necessary to develop a vision for public health. And in realizing this vision,
the professional must have the skills and competencies leadership. Skills and
competencies of leadership in public health is in communication skills, skills
in planning, decision-making skills, conflict resolution and negotiation and
also cultural competency skills (Louis Rowitz). It is important o address
whatever health problems come up.
Change did not stop with the new millennium, neither in society in
general, nor in the area of public health. Therefore, public health leaders have
to be trained to work in an environment of constant change. Because different
eras bring forth different social circumstances, different types of leaders are
needed at different times. It is clear that leaders will guide social
developments whatever the social climate is.
This is clearly a time of major change in which leaders from all
segments of our society will need to address the issues that are causing the
change and arising out of the change. Leadership will be different in the future
where global stewardship and a view of the world that ignores boundaries will
guide our leadership activities. Protection of our environment and our
communities will also guide our activities. Quality of life issue will also be a
dominant factor in our thinking and work.
The challenge for public health leaders are invited different groups in
the community to solve the problem of public health importance. There is a
real risk in an effort to influence the political process. Government public

63

health community and local, state, and federal might have conflicting agendas.
Special interest groups often seek to disrupt the public health agenda through
contributions to political parties and lobbying to prevent the passing of
legislation. If public health leaders are involved in the passage of legislation,
they need to monitor the impact of these laws.
Public health leaders must be more proactive and do not follow a lot of
people. In other words, they need to deploy a series of changes in public
health programs. Public health leaders have the leadership skills to improve
public health organizations, and they must apply it to the task.
In a society capable of renewal [leaders] not only welcome the future
and the changes it brings, but believe they can have a hand in shaping that
future. (John Gardner on Self Renewal). Therefore it is very important for
leadership in public health. Leadership in public health is :
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Creativity in action
Ability to see the present in terms of the future
Vision with courage and fortitude to put the vision into reality
Flexibility with a commitment to change things for the better
Requires ability to work with others
Ability to back off when someone else is the better lead
To lead is also the willingness to follow
Ability to work within the context of an organization without letting the

organization defeat the leader

9. Commitment to the community and the values for which it stands
10. Leaders are everywhere in public health
Public health leadership include a commitment to the surrounding
community and values. The community health leadership also includes a
commitment to social justice, however, public health leaders must not allow
those commitments reduce their ability to lead the public health agenda has
been prepared well. In addition, leaders in public health must work within the

64

paradigm that governs public health, but it does not mean that they can not
change the paradigm. Leader proposed a new paradigm when the old
paradigm loses its effectiveness.
Public health leadership also play a role in policy-making and policy
development Policy development is a complex process when the participants
to consider alternative actions and determine alternative which will be applied.
A policy development process of the team, as well as many individuals and
organizations that may be involved, which include local health agencies and
state, elected officials, community groups, public health professionals, health
care providers and the private sector.
Public health leaders need to become advocates for their institutions.
Public health advocacy is seen as an important instrument for social change.
Public health leaders are responsible for protecting the health of community
members and develop appropriate interventions for community members in
the face of health problems or health risks.
Public health leaders reduce in advocacy is not just because they are
frustrated by the inability to gain acceptance in the communities they serve,
but also for advocacy be confused with lobbying. Lobbying is an activity
undertaken for the benefit of specific (usually by an organization or a group of
related organizations). Advocacy in support of public policy include changes
in the research, development policy statement, action plan, implementation,
and evaluation.
In an effort to empower community members to become selfadvocates, public health leaders need to understand that empowerment will not
work if the empowerment treated as a trend. Public health leaders, because of
their skills and their leadership positions within public health organizations

65

tend to have more prestige as advocates of their health and have more control
than members of the public. The goal is to alert all members of society that
they have a voice in policy.
SUMMARY
There are health issues in the future, this has resulted in a change in
health care and public health. Changes require a professional should have the
skills and leadership competencies. The challenge for public health leaders are
invited different groups in the community to solve the problem of public health
importance. Public health leadership include a commitment to the surrounding
community and values. Public health leaders also play a role in policy-making
and policy development. Public health leaders need to become advocates for
their organization. As policy maker and as an advocate of public health leaders
are always assessing and evaluating the policies and laws that have been
established.

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