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Padmasri Dr.B.V.

Raju Institute of Technology


Switchgear & Protection
Prepared by
Prof.P.Paulclee And N.Ramchander Asst Professor
,
Department of
Electrical and Electronics .Engineering


PADMASRI DR. B.V.RAJU INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
DEPARTMENT OF
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

CourseContent

Switchgear and Protection


PreparedBy
Prof.P.PaulClee

Mr.N.Ramchander
AssistantProfessor

3
SWITCH GEAR AND PROTECTION
(SYLLABUS)
Objective : This course introduces all varieties of Circuit Breakers and Relays
for protection of Generators, Transformers and feeder bus bars from over voltage
s and other hazards. It emphasis on Neutral grounding for overall protection. UN
IT I Circuit Breakers-1
Circuit Breakers: Elementary principles of arc interruption, Recovery, Restrikin
g Voltage and Recovery voltages.- Restriking Phenomenon, Average and Max. RRRV,
Numerical Problems - Current Chopping and Resistance Switching - CB ratings and
Specifications : Types and Numerical Problems. Auto reclosures. UNIT II Circuit B
reakers-2
Description and Operation of following types of circuit breakers: Minimum Oil Ci
rcuit breakers, Air Blast Circuit Breakers, Vacuum and SF6 circuit breakers. UNI
T III Electromagnetic and Static Relays
Principle of Operation and Construction of Attracted armature, Balanced Beam, in
duction Disc and Induction Cup relays. Relays Classification: Instantaneous, DMT
and IDMT types. Application of relays: Over current/ Under voltage relays, Dire
ction relays, Differential Relays and Percentage Differential Relays. Universal
torque equation, Distance relays: Impedance, Reactance and Mho and OffSet Mho re
lays, Characteristics of Distance Relays and Comparison. Static Relays: Static R
elays verses Electromagnetic Relays. UNIT IV Generator Protection
Protection of generators against Stator faults, Rotor faults, and Abnormal Condi
tions. Restricted Earth fault and Inter-turn fault Protection. Numerical Problem
s on % Winding Unprotected.
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4 UNIT V Transformer Protection


Protection of transformers: Percentage Differential Protection, Numerical Proble
m on Design of CT s Ratio, Buchholtz relay Protection. UNIT VI Feeder and Bus-Bar
Protection
Protection of Lines: Over Current, Carrier Current and Three-zone distance relay
protection using Impedance relays. Translay Relay. Protection of Bus bars Diffe
rential protection. UNIT VII Neutral Grounding Grounded and Ungrounded Neutral S
ystems.- Effects of Ungrounded Neutral on system performance. Methods of Neutral
Grounding: Solid, Resistance, Reactance Arcing Grounds and Grounding Practices.
UNIT VIII Protection against over voltages Generation of Over Voltages in Power
Systems.-Protection against Lightning Over Voltages - Valve type and Zinc-Oxide
Lighting Arresters - Insulation Coordination -BIL, Impulse Ratio, Standard Impu
lse Test Wave, Volt-Time Characteristics. TEXT BOOKS: 1. Switchgear and Protecti
on by Sunil S Rao, Khanna Publlishers 2. Power System Protection and Switchgear
by Badari Ram , D.N Viswakarma, TMH Publications
REFERENCE BOOKS: 1. Fundamentals of Power System Protection by Paithankar and S.
R.Bhide.,PHI, 2003. 2. Art & Science of Protective Relaying by C R Mason, Wiley
Eastern Ltd. 3. Electrical Power Systems by C.L.Wadhwa, New Age international (P
) Limited, Publishers, 3nd editon 4. A Text book on Power System Engineering by
B.L.Soni, Gupta, Bhatnagar, Chakrabarthy, Dhanpat Rai & Co.
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5 Objectives of this Course


In this course, we plan to teach the following:

1.Fundamentalprinciplesoffuseandovercurrentprotectionand applicationtofeederandm
. 2.Fundamentalprinciplesofdistancerelayingandapplicationto transmissionsystemp
ndamentalprinciplesofdifferentialprotectionandapplication totransformer,busbarandg
maturewindingprotection. 4.RoleofCurrentandVoltagetransformersinpowersystem pr
y coordination in transmission and distribution system. 6. Introduction to Numer
g. DSP fundamentals like aliasing, sampling theorem, Discrete Fourier Transform and
tion to current and voltage phasor estimation. 7. Numerical relaying algorithms f
rent, distance and differential protection with application to transmission system,
ormerandbusbarprotection.
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Introduction to Power System Protection

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INTRODUCTION
1.1. Need for protection:
A power system is not only capable to meet the present load but also has the fle
xibility to meet the future demands. A power system is designed to generate elec
tric power in sufficient quantity, to meet the present and estimated future dema
nds of the users in a particular area, to transmit it to the areas where it will
be used and then distribute it within that area, on a continuous basis. To ensu
re the maximum return on the large investment in the equipment, which goes to ma
ke up the power system and to keep the users satisfied with reliable service, th
e whole system must be kept in operation continuously without major breakdowns.
This can be achieved in two ways:
The first way is to implement a system adopting components, which should not fai
l and requires the least or nil maintenance to maintain the continuity of servic
e. By common sense, implementing such a system is neither economical nor feasibl
e, except for small systems.
The second option is to foresee any possible effects or failures that may cause
longterm shutdown of a system, which in turn may take longer time to bring back
the system to its normal course. The main idea is to restrict the disturbances d
uring such failures to a limited area and continue power distribution in the bal
ance areas. Special equipment is normally installed to detect such kind of failu
res (also called faults) that can possibly happen in various sections of a system,
and to isolate faulty sections so that the interruption is limited to a localiz
ed area in the total system covering various areas. The special equipment adopte
d to detect such possible faults is referred to as protective equipment or protec
tive relay and the system that uses such equipment is termed as protection system.
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1.2. Basic requirements of protection:
A protection apparatus has three main functions/duties: 1. Safeguard the entire
system to maintain continuity of supply 2. Minimize damage and repair costs wher
e it senses fault 3. Ensure safety of personnel.
These requirements are necessary, firstly for early detection and localization o
f faults, and secondly for prompt removal of faulty equipment from service. In o
rder to carry out the above duties, protection must have the following qualities
:
Selectivity: To detect and isolate the faulty item only. Stability: Sensitivity:
To leave all healthy circuits intact to ensure continuity or supply. To detect
even the smallest fault, current or system abnormalities and operate correctly a
t its setting before the fault causes irreparable damage. Speed: To operate spee
dily when it is called upon to do so, thereby minimizing damage to the surroundi
ngs and ensuring safety to personnel.
To meet all of the above requirements, protection must be reliable which means i
t must be: Dependable: It must trip when called upon to do so. Secure: It must n
ot trip when it is not supposed to.
1.3 Basic components of protection
Protection of any distribution system is a function of many elements and this ma
nual gives a brief outline of various components that go in protecting a system.
Following are the main components of protection. Fuse is the self-destructing o
ne, which carries the currents in a power circuit continuously and sacrifices it
self by blowing under abnormal conditions. These are
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9 normally independent or stand-alone protective components in an electrical sys


tem unlike a circuit breaker, which necessarily requires the support of external
components.
Accurate protection cannot be achieved without properly measuring the normal and
abnormal conditions of a system. In electrical systems, voltage and current mea
surements give feedback on whether a system is healthy or not. Voltage transform
ers and current transformers measure these basic parameters and are capable of p
roviding accurate measurement during fault conditions without failure.
The measured values are converted into analog and/or digital signals and are mad
e to operate the relays, which in turn isolate the circuits by opening the fault
y circuits. In most of the cases, the relays provide two functions viz., alarm a
nd trip, once the abnormality is noticed. The relays in olden days had very limi
ted functions and were quite bulky. However, with advancement in digital technol
ogy and use of microprocessors, relays monitor various parameters, which give co
mplete history of a system during both prefault and post-fault conditions.
The opening of faulty circuits requires some time, which may be in milliseconds,
which for a common day life could be insignificant. However, the circuit breake
rs, which are used to isolate the faulty circuits, are capable of carrying these
fault currents until the fault currents are totally cleared. The circuit breake
rs are the main isolating devices in a distribution system, which can be said to
directly protect the system. The operation of relays and breakers require power
sources, which shall not be affected by faults in the main distribution. Hence,
the other component, which is vital in protective system, is batteries that are
used to ensure uninterrupted power to relays and breaker coils. The above items
are extensively used in any protective system and their design requires careful
study and selection for proper operation.
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1.4 Summary
Power System Protection Main Functions 1. To safeguard the entire system to main
tain continuity of supply. 2. To minimize damage and repair costs. 3. To ensure
safety of personnel. Power System Protection Basic Requirements 1. Selectivity:
To detect and isolate the faulty item only. 2. Stability: To leave all healthy c
ircuits intact to ensure continuity of supply. 3. Speed: To operate as fast as p
ossible when called upon, to minimize damage, production downtime and ensure saf
ety to personnel. 4. Sensitivity: To detect even the smallest fault, current or
system abnormalities and operate correctly at its setting. Power System Protecti
on Speed is Vital!! The protective system should act fast to isolate faulty sect
ions to prevent: Increased damage at fault location. Fault energy = I2 Rf t, whe
re t is time in seconds. Danger to the operating personnel (flashes due to high
fault energy sustaining for a long time). Danger of igniting combustible gas in
hazardous areas, such as methane in coal mines which could cause horrendous disa
ster. Increased probability of earth faults spreading to healthy phases. Higher
mechanical and thermal stressing of all items of plant carrying the fault curren
t, particularly transformers whose windings suffer progressive and cumulative de
terioration because of the enormous electromechanical forces caused by multi-pha
se faults proportional to the square of the fault current. Sustained voltage dip
s resulting in motor (and generator) instability leading to extensive shutdown a
t the plant concerned and possibly other nearby plants connected to the system.
\
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Power System Protection Qualities Dependability Security Reliability Dependabili
ty: It MUST trip when called upon. Security: It must NOT trip when not supposed
to. Power System Protection Basic Components
1.Voltage transformers and current transformers: To monitor and give accurate fe
edback about the healthiness of a system. 2.Relays: To convert the signals from
the monitoring devices, and give instructions to open a circuit under faulty con
ditions or to give alarms when the equipment being protected, is approaching tow
ards possible destruction. 3. Fuses: Self-destructing to save the downstream equ
ipment being protected. Circuit breakers: These are used to make circuits carryi
ng enormous currents, and also to break the circuit carrying the fault currents
for a few cycles based on feedback from the relays. DC batteries: These give uni
nterrupted power source to the relays and breakers that is independent of the ma
in power source being protected.
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Unit-I
[Circuit Breakers I]

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Contents
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Overview of Power system Why protect? Causes and type
s of faults Factors influencing protection system design Aspects of protection s
ystem Zones of protection Protection types and classes Important consideration w
hile applying protection ANSI reference numbers
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Contents
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Overview of Power system Why protect? Causes and type
s of faults Factors influencing protection system design Aspects of protection s
ystem Zones of protection Protection types and classes Important consideration w
hile applying protection ANSI reference numbers
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Components of a power system


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2005. T.S. Sidhu

Components of a power system


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Components of a power system


Generating power
Phase A Phase B Phase C
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_ 120 240 360
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Components of a power system


Exporting power
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Transmission System
Load
AC Generator
Step-Up Transformer
Step-Down Transformer
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Components of a power system


Transmission System
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Components of a power system


Transmission & Distribution
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Components of a power system


Load
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Sub Station
T ransmission V oltage From Power Company
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Components of a power system


Generation to Load
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Components of a power system


Distribution connection
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Utility T ransformer Meter
Load Center Meter T ransformer From Utility Service
Load Center
Overhead Service
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Components of a power system


Domestic load
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Components of a power system


Substation SLD at Generation
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Components of a power system


Substation SLD at load centre
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Components of a power system


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MV Indoor distribution
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Protection Why Is It Needed ?


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All Power Systems may experience faults at some time.
PROTECTION IS INSTALLED TO : Detect fault occurrence and isolate the faulted equ
ipment. SO THAT :
Damage to the faulted equipment is limited;
Disruption of supp
lies to adjacent un-faulted equipment is minimized. PROTECTION IS EFFECTIVELY AN
INSURANCE POLICY - AN INVESTMENT AGAINST DAMAGE FROM FUTURE FAULTS.
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Protection Why Is It Needed ?


Faults on power systems risk :
Severe damage to the faulted equipment :
ing of conductors or equipment windings;

Excessive current may flow;


Arcing - energy dissipation;

Causes burn

29
Risk of explosions for oil - filled switchgear, or when in hazardous environment
s.
Damage to adjacent plant :
As the fault evolves, if not cleared quickly;
the voltage depression / loss of supply.
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Due to

Protection Why Is It Needed ?


Faults on power systems risk :
Danger to staff or the public :
Risk of shock from direct contact with the fault
ed equipment; Danger of potential (voltage) rises in exposed metalwork accessibl
e to touch; Fumes released by burning insulation;
Burns etc.
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Disruption to adjacent plant : Prolonged voltage dips cause motors to stall;
s of synchronism for synchronous generators / motors.
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Los

Protection Why Is It Needed ?


Summary :
Protection must :
Detect faults and abnormal operating conditions;
aulted equipment.

Isolate the f

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So as to :

Limit damage caused by fault energy;

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Limit effect on rest of system.

Power System Faults - Causes


Lightning Wind Ice and Snow storm Flying objects Contamination of insulator
sical contact by animals Human errors Falling trees Insulation aging
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Power System Faults - Causes


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Underground Cables

Diggers Overloading Oil Leakage Ageing


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Power System Faults - Causes


34
Overhead Lines
Lightning Kites Trees Moisture Salt Birds Broken Conductors
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Power System Faults - Causes


35
Machines
Mechanical Damage
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Unbalanced Load

Types of Fault
a b c e a b c e a b c
36
/E
//E
/
a 3 b c
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3/E
a b c e
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Types of Fault
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Cross country fault
a b c e a b c e
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Types of Fault
Open circuit + /e
a b c e
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Fault between adjacent parallel Lines
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Types of Fault
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Changing fault in cable
a
b
c
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Voltages And Currents During Faults


Fault
Fault Currents
5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 -1000 -2000 -3000 -4000 -5000 Time
40
Ia Ib Ic In
Amps
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Voltages And Currents During Faults


Fault
Fault Voltages
600 400 200
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Va
Volts
0 -200 -400 -600 Time
Vb
Vc
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Factors Influencing Protection System Design 42


Types of fault and abnormal conditions to be protected against
Quantities availa
ble for measurement
Types of protection available
Speed
Fault position discrimin
ation Dependability / Reliability
Security / Stability
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Factors Influencing Protection System Design 43


Overlap of protections Phase discrimination / Selectivity Instrument transforme
s (CTs & VTs) Auxiliary supplies Back-up protection Cost Duplication of protecti
on
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Aspects of Protection System


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Reliability

Speed

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Discrimination (Zones, Phases)

Simplicity

Protection Aspects - Reliability


R1 F R2 R3 R4
45
G1
G2
Reliability
Security
Dependability
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Protection Aspects - Reliability


46
Security
Dependability
AND
OR
1
2
1
2
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Protection Aspects - Reliability


G1
R1 F R2 R3 R4
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G2
Reliability

Dependability

D
S
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Security

Protection Aspects - Reliability

Dependability / Reliability

48
Protection must operate when required to
Failure to operate can be extremely dam
aging and disruptive Faults are rare : Protection must operate even after years
of inactivity
Improved by use of : Back-up protection
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and duplicate protection

Protection Aspects - Reliability


Security / Stability
Protection must not operate when not required to, e.g. due to:
Load switching
Faults on other parts of the system
Recoverable power swings
49
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Protection Aspects - Speed


Speed
50
Milliseconds Count
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Protection Aspects - Speed


Speed Fast operation :
Minimizes damage and danger
51
Very fast operation :
Minimizes system instability
Discrimination and security can be costly to achiev
e as it generally involves additional signaling / communications equipment.
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Protection Aspects - Speed


Speed
Catastrophic Damage Steel Copper Cable
52
D a m a g e
100
200 Time (ms)
300
500
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Fault Discrimination - Zones Of Protection


53
Fault Position Discrimination
Power system divided into PROTECTED ZONES
or section
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Must isolate only the faulty equipment

Fault Discrimination - Zones Of Protection


Busbar Protection
54
Busbar Protection
G
Trf
Line Protection
G
Generator Protection Motor Protection
M
Generator Protection
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Zones of Protection - Protection Overlap


55
Overlap of Protections
No blind spots
Where possible use overlapping CTs
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Zones of Protection - Protection Overlap


56
BBP 1
BBP 2
H
J
Z G
LP H LP J
K
L
LP K
LP L
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Fault Discrimination - Phases


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Phase Discrimination
Correct indication of phases involved in the fault
ipping and autoreclosing applications
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Important for single phase tr

Example 1 Dependability / Security


R6 R3
B6
58
R4
B5
R1
B1
R2 F
B2
B3
R7
B7
R5
B4
Directional relays provided as shown
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Breakers marked as shown

Fault at F

Example 1 Dependability / Security


R6 R3
B6
59
R4
B5
R1
B1
R2 F
B2
B3
R7
B7
R5
B4
Resulted in operation of R1, R2, and R5, which in turn tripped their respective
breakers
Was there loss of dependability or security?
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Example 1 Dependability / Security


R6 R3
B6
60
R4
B5
R1
B1
R2 F
B2
B3
R7
B7
R5
B4
Resulted in operation of R1, R2, and R5, which in turn tripped their respective
breakers
Was there loss of dependability or security?
Yes, relay R5 lost its sec
urity for this fault
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Example 2 Zone discrimination


R6 R3
B6
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R4
B5
R1
B1
R2
B2
B3
R7
B7
R5
B4
System as shown with relays and breakers marked
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Example 2 Zone discrimination


R6 R3
B6
62
R4
B5
R1
B1
R2
B2
B3
R7
B7
R5
B4
System as shown with relays and breakers marked
A single fault has resulted in t
he operation of breakers B1, B2, B3 and B4. There was no loss of security or dep
endability Identify the location of the fault
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Example 2 Zone discrimination


R6 R3
B6
63
R4
B5
R1
B1
R2
B2
B3
R7
B7
R5
B4
Fault in the overlap zone at breaker B2 as shown
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Cost
64
The cost of protection is equivalent to an insurance policy against damage to pl
ant, and loss of supply and customer goodwill.
Acceptable cost is based on a bal
ance of economics and technical factors. Cost of protection should be balanced a
gainst the cost of potential hazards.
There is an economic limit on what can be
spent. MINIMUM COST : Must ensure that all faulty equipment is isolated by prote
ction.
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Cost
TOTAL COST should take account of :
65
Relays, schemes and associated panels and panel wiring
Setting studies
Commissio
ning CTs and VTs
Maintenance and repairs to relays
Damage repair if protection f
ails to operate
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Cost
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Large numbers of switching and distribution points, transformers and feeders
nomics often overrides technical issues

Eco

66
Protection may be the minimum consistent with statutory safety regulations
Speed
less important than on transmission systems Back-up protection can be simple an
d is often inherent in the main protection Although important, the consequences
of mal-operation or
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failure to operate is less serious than for transmission systems
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Cost
TRANSMISSION SYSTEMS
67
Emphasis is on technical considerations rather than economics
Economics cannot b
e ignored but is of secondary importance compared with the need for highly relia
ble, fully discriminative high speed protection Higher protection costs justifia
ble by high capital cost of power system elements protected
Risk of security of
supply should be reduced to lowest practical levels High speed protection requir
es unit protection Duplicate protections used to improve reliability
Single phas
e tripping and auto-reclose may be required to EEED-BVRIT maintain system stabil
ity
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Types of Protection
68
Fuses
For : LV Systems, Distribution Feeders and Transformers, VTs, Auxiliary Su
pplies Direct Acting AC Trip
For : LV Systems, Pole Mounted Reclosers
Overcurren
t and Earthfault Widely used in all Power Systems
Non-Directional
Voltage Depend
ant Directional
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Types of Protection
Differential
For : Feeders, Busbars, Transformers, Generators, etc.
E/F Biased (or low-impedance)
Pilot Wire
Digital
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High Impedance

Restricted

Types of Protection
70
Distance
For : Distribution Feeders and Transmission and Sub-Transmission Circui
ts Also used as Back-up Protection for Transformers and Generators
Phase Compari
son For : Transmission Lines
Directional Comparison
For : Transmission Lines
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Types of Protection
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Miscellaneous
Under and Over Voltage Under and Over Frequency
Special Relays for
Generators, Transformers, Motors, etc. Control Relays Auto-Reclose, Tap Change
Control, etc.
Tripping and Auxiliary Relays
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Classes of Protection
Non-Unit, or Unrestricted Protection :
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No specific point downstream up to which protection will protect
Will operate fo
r faults on the protected equipment; May also operate for faults on downstream e
quipment, which has its own protection;
Need for discrimination with downstream
protection, usually by means of time grading.
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Classes of Protection
73
Unit, or Restricted Protection : Has an accurately defined zone of protection
An
item of power system plant is protected as a unit; Will not operate for out of
zone faults, thus no back-up protection for downstream faults.
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Important Considerations When Applying Protection


Current and Voltage Transformers
These are an essential part of the protection scheme to
74
reduce primary current and volts to a low level suitable to input to relay.
They
must be suitably specified to meet the requirements of the protective relays. C
orrect connection of CTs and VTs to the protection is important. In particular f
or directional, distance, phase comparison and differential protections. VTs may
be electromagnetic or capacitor types.
Busbar VTs : Special consideration neede
d when used for line protection.
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Instrument Transformer Circuits


Never open circuit a CT secondary circuit, so :
be fused or protected by MCB.

Never fuse CT circuits;

VTs must

75
Do wire test blocks in circuit (both VT and CT) to allow commissioning and perio
dic injection testing of relays.
Earth CT and VT circuits at one point only;
Wir
e gauge > 2.5mm2 recommended for mechanical strength.
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Auxiliary Supplies
Required for : TRIPPING CIRCUIT BREAKERS CLOSING CIRCUIT BREAKERS PROTECTION and
TRIP RELAYS
76
AC AUXILIARY SUPPLIES are only used on LV and MV systems.
DC AUXILIARY SUPPLIES
are more secure than AC supplies. SEPARATELY FUSED SUPPLIES used for each protec
tion. DUPLICATE BATTERIES are occasionally provided for extra security.
MODERN P
ROTECTION RELAYS need a continuous auxiliary supply. During un-operated (healthy
) conditions, they draw a small QUIESCENT load to keep relay circuits energized.
D
uring operation, they draw a larger current which increases due to operation of
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Relay Outputs
77
TRIP OUTPUT CONTACTS :
Check that these are rated sufficiently to make and carry
the circuit breaker trip coil current. If not, a heavier duty tripping relay wi
ll be needed.
Use a circuit breaker normally open (52a) contact to interrupt tri
p coil current. This extends the life of the protection relay trip contacts. TYP
E OF CONTACTS :
Make (M) / Normally Open (NO) Close when energised, typically used for tripping.
Close when de-energised.
Break (B) / Normally Closed (NC)
Changeover (C/O)
Can be break before make (BBM) or make before break EEED-BVRIT (MBB).
N.RAMCHANDER-BVRIT

ANSI Reference Numbers


2 21 25 27 30 32 37 40 46 49 50 51 51N 52 52a 52b Time Delay Distance Synchronis
ing Check Undervoltage Annunciator Directional Power Undercurrent or Under Power
Field Failure Negative Sequence Thermal Instantaneous Overcurrent Time Delayed
Overcurrent Time Delayed Earthfault Circuit Breaker Auxiliary Switch - Normally
Open Auxiliary Switch - Normally Closed 59 60 64 67 67N 79 81 85 86 87
78
Overvoltage Voltage or Current Balance Instantaneous Earth Fault (High Impedance
) Directional Overcurrent Directional Earthfault Alarm Auto-Reclose Frequency Si
gnal Receive Trip / Lock-Out Differential
EEED-BVRIT
N.RAMCHANDER-BVRIT

79
1
THE PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING
WHAT IS PROTECTIVE RELAYING?
We usually think of an electric power system in terms of its more impressive par
tsthe big generating stations, transformers, high-voltage lines, etc. While these
are some of the basic elements, there are many other necessary and fascinating
components. Protective relaying is one of these. The role of protective relaying
in electric-power-system design and operation is explained by a brief examinati
on of the over-all background. There are three aspects of a power system that wi
ll serve the purposes of this examination. These aspects are as follows: A. Norm
al operation B. Prevention of electrical failure. C. Mitigation of the effects o
f electrical failure. The term normal operation assumes no failures of equipment,
no mistakes of personnel, nor acts of God. It involves the minimum requirements fo
r supplying the existing load and a certain amount of anticipated future load. S
ome of the considerations are: A. Choice between hydro, steam, or other sources
of power. B. Location of generating stations. C. Transmission of power to the lo
ad. D. Study of the load characteristics and planning for its future growth. E.
Metering F. Voltage and frequency regulation. G. System operation. E. Normal mai
ntenance. The provisions for normal operation involve the major expense for equi
pment and operation, but a system designed according to this aspect alone could
not possibly meet present-day requirements. Electrical equipment failures would
cause intolerable outages. There must be additional provisions to minimize damag
e to equipment and interruptions to the service when failures occur. Two recours
es are open: (1) to incorporate features of design aimed at preventing failures,
and (2) to include provisions for mitigating the effects of failure when it occ
urs. Modern
THE PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING
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power-system design employs varying degrees of both recourses, as dictated by th
e economics of any particular situation. Notable advances continue to be made to
ward greater reliability. But also, increasingly greater reliance is being place
d on electric power. Consequently, even though the probability of failure is dec
reased, the tolerance of the possible harm to the service is also decreased. But
it is futile-or at least not economically justifiable-to try to prevent failure
s completely. Sooner or later the law of diminishing returns makes itself felt.
Where this occurs will vary between systems and between parts of a system, but,
when this point is reached, further expenditure for failure prevention is discou
raged. It is much more profitable, then, to let some failures occur and to provi
de for mitigating their effects. The type of electrical failure that causes grea
test concern is the short circuit, or fault as it is usually called, but there are
other abnormal operating conditions peculiar to certain elements of the system
that also require attention. Some of the features of design and operation aimed
at preventing electrical failure are: A. Provision of adequate insulation. B. Co
ordination of insulation strength with the capabilities of lightning arresters.
C. Use of overhead ground wires and low tower-footing resistance. D. Design for
mechanical strength to reduce exposure, and to minimize the likelihood of failur
e causable by animals, birds, insects, dirt, sleet, etc. E. Proper operation and
maintenance practices. Some of the features of design and operation for mitigat
ing the effects of failure are: A. Features that mitigate the immediate effects
of an electrical failure. 1. Design to limit the magnitude of short-circuit curr
ent.1 a. By avoiding too large concentrations of generating capacity. b. By usin
g current-limiting impedance. 2. Design to withstand mechanical stresses and hea
ting owing to short-circuit currents. 3. Time-delay undervoltage devices on circ
uit breakers to prevent dropping loads during momentary voltage dips. 4. Groundfault neutralizers (Petersen coils). B. Features for promptly disconnecting the
faulty element. 1. Protective relaying. 2. Circuit breakers with sufficient inte
rrupting capacity. 3. Fuses. C. Features that mitigate the loss of the faulty el
ement. 1. Alternate circuits. 2. Reserve generator and transformer capacity. 3.
Automatic reclosing.
2
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D. Features that operate throughout the period from the inception of the fault u
ntil after its removal, to maintain voltage and stability. 1. Automatic voltage
regulation. 2. Stability characteristics of generators. E. Means for observing t
he electiveness of the foregoing features. 1. Automatic oscillographs. 2. Effici
ent human observation and record keeping. F. Frequent surveys as system changes
or additions are made, to be sure that the foregoing features are still adequate
. Thus, protective relaying is one of several features of system design concerne
d with minimizing damage to equipment and interruptions to service when electric
al failures occur. When we say that relays protect, we mean that, together with ot
her equipment, the relays help to minimize damage and improve service. It will b
e evident that all the mitigation features are dependent on one another for succ
essfully minimizing the effects of failure. Therefore, the capabilities and the
application requirements of protective-relaying equipments should be considered
concurrently with the other features.2 This statement is emphasized because ther
e is sometimes a tendency to think of the protective-relaying equipment after al
l other design considerations are irrevocably settled. Within economic limits, a
n electric power system should be designed so that it can be adequately protecte
d.
THE FUNCTION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING
The function of protective relaying is to cause the prompt removal from service
of any element of a power system when it suffers a short circuit, or when it sta
rts to operate in any abnormal manner that might cause damage or otherwise inter
fere with the effective operation of the rest of the system. The relaying equipm
ent is aided in this task by circuit breakers that are capable of disconnecting
the faulty element when they are called upon to do so by the relaying equipment.
Circuit breakers are generally located so that each generator, transformer, bus
, transmission line, etc., can be completely disconnected from the rest of the s
ystem. These circuit breakers must have sufficient capacity so that they can car
ry momentarily the maximum short-circuit current that can flow through them, and
then interrupt this current; they must also withstand closing in on such a shor
t circuit and then interrupting it according to certain prescribed standards.3 F
using is employed where protective relays and circuit breakers are not economica
lly justifiable. Although the principal function of protective relaying is to mi
tigate the effects of short circuits, other abnormal operating conditions arise
that also require the services of protective relaying. This is particularly true
of generators and motors. A secondary function of protective relaying is to pro
vide indication of the location and type of failure. Such data not only assist i
n expediting repair but also, by comparison with
THE PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING
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human observation and automatic oscillograph records, they provide means for ana
lyzing the effectiveness of the fault-prevention and mitigation features includi
ng the protective relaying itself.
FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING
Let us consider for the moment only the relaying equipment for the protection ag
ainst short circuits. There are two groups of such equipmentone which we shall ca
ll primary relaying, and the other back-up relaying. Primary relaying is the first l
ine of defense, whereas back-up relaying functions only when primary relaying fa
ils. PRIMARY RELAYING
Fig. 1. One-line diagram of a portion of an electric power system illustrating p
rimary relaying.
4
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Figure 1 illustrates primary relaying. The first observation is that circuit bre
akers are located in the connections to each power element. This provision makes
it possible to disconnect only a faulty element. Occasionally, a breaker betwee
n two adjacent elements may be omitted, in which event both elements must be dis
connected for a failure in either one. The second observation is that, without a
t this time knowing how it is accomplished, a separate zone of protection is est
ablished around each system element. The significance of this is that any failur
e occurring within a given zone will cause the tripping (i.e., opening) of all cir
cuit breakers within that zone, and only those breakers. It will become evident
that, for failures within the region where two adjacent protective zones overlap
, more breakers will be tripped than the minimum necessary to disconnect the fau
lty element. But, if there were no overlap, a failure in a region between zones
would not lie in either zone, and therefore no breakers would be tripped. The ov
erlap is the lesser of the two evils. The extent of the overlap is relatively sm
all, and the probability of failure in this region is low; consequently, the tri
pping of too many breakers will be quite infrequent. Finally, it will be observe
d that adjacent protective zones of Fig. 1 overlap around a circuit breaker. Thi
s is the preferred practice because, for failures anywhere except in the overlap
region, the minimum number of circuit breakers need to be tripped. When it beco
mes desirable for economic or space-saving reasons to overlap on one side of a b
reaker, as is frequently true in metal-clad switchgear the relaying equipment of
the zone that overlaps the breaker must be arranged to trip not only the breake
rs within its zone but also one or more breakers of the adjacent zone, in order
to completely disconnect certain faults. This is illustrated in Fig. 2, where it
can be seen that, for a short circuit at X, the circuit breakers of zone B, inc
luding breaker C, will be tripped; but, since the short circuit is outside zone
A, the relaying equipment of zone B must also trip certain breakers in zone A if
that is necessary to interrupt the flow of short circuit current from zone A to
the fault. This is not a disadvantage for a fault at X, but the same breakers i
n zone A will be tripped unnecessarily for other faults in zone B to the right o
f breaker C. Whether this unnecessary tripping is objectionable will depend on t
he particular application.
Fig. 2. Overlapping adjacent protective zones on one side of a circuit breaker.
BACK-UP RELAYING Back-up relaying is employed only for protection against short
circuits. Because short circuits are the preponderant type of power failure, the
re are more opportunities for failure in short primary relaying. Experience has
shown that back-up relaying for other than short circuits is not economically ju
stifiable.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING
EEED-BVRIT
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84
A clear understanding of the possible causes of primary-relaying failure is nece
ssary for a better appreciation of the practices involved in back-up relaying. W
hen we say that primary relaying may fail, we mean that any of several things ma
y happen to prevent primary relaying from causing the disconnection of a power-s
ystem fault. Primary relaying may fail because of failure in any of the followin
g: A. Current or voltage supply to the relays. B. D-c tripping-voltage supply. C
. Protective relays. D. Tripping circuit or breaker mechanism. E. Circuit breake
r. It is highly desirable that back-up relaying be arranged so that anything tha
t might cause primary relaying to fail will not also cause failure of back-up re
laying. It will be evident that this requirement is completely satisfied only if
the back-up relays are located so that they do not employ or control anything i
n common with the primary relays that are to be backed up. So far as possible, t
he practice is to locate the back-up relays at a different station. Consider, fo
r example, the back-up relaying for the transmission line section EF of Fig. 3.
The back-up relays for this line section are normally arranged to trip breakers
A, B, I, and J. Should breaker E fail to trip for a fault on the line section EF
, breakers A and B are tripped; breakers A and B and their associated back-up eq
uipment, being physically apart from the equipment that has failed, are not like
ly to be simultaneously affected as might be the case if breakers C and D were c
hosen instead.
Fig. 3. Illustration for back-up protection of transmission line section EF.
The back-up relays at locations A, B, and F provide back-up protection if bus fa
ults occur at station K. Also, the back-up relays at A and F provide back-up pro
tection for faults in the line DB. In other words, the zone of protection of bac
k-up relaying extends in one direction from the location of any back-up relay an
d at least overlaps each adjacent system element. Where adjacent line sections a
re of different length, the back-up relays must overreach some line sections mor
e than others in order to provide back-up protection for the longest line. A giv
en set of back-up relays will provide incidental back-up protection of sorts for
faults in the circuit whose breaker the back-up relays control. For example, th
e back-up relays that trip breaker A of Fig. 3 may also act as back-up for fault
s in the line section AC. However,
6
THE PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING
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85
this duplication of protection is only an incidental benefit and is not to be re
lied on to the exclusion of a conventional back-up arrangement when such arrange
ment is possible; to differentiate between the two, this type might be called dup
licate primary relaying. A second function of back-up relaying is often to provid
e primary protection when the primary-relaying equipment is out of service for m
aintenance or repair. It is perhaps evident that, when back-up relaying function
s, a larger part of the system is disconnected than when primary relaying operat
es correctly. This is inevitable if back-up relaying is to be made independent o
f those factors that might cause primary relaying to fail. However, it emphasize
s the importance of the second requirement of back-up relaying, that it must ope
rate with sufficient time delay so that primary relaying will be given enough ti
me to function if it is able to. In other words, when a short circuit occurs, bo
th primary relaying and back-up relaying will normally start to operate, but pri
mary relaying is expected to trip the necessary breakers to remove the short-cir
cuited element from the system, and back-up relaying will then reset without hav
ing had time to complete its function. When a given set of relays provides backup protection for several adjacent system elements, the slowest primary relaying
of any of those adjacent elements will determine the necessary time delay of th
e given back-up relays. For many applications, it is impossible to abide by the
principle of complete segregation of the back-up relays. Then one tries to suppl
y the back-up relays from sources other than those that supply the primary relay
s of the system element in question, and to trip other breakers. This can usuall
y be accomplished; however, the same tripping battery may be employed in common,
to save money and because it is considered only a minor risk. This subject will
be treated in more detail in Chapter 14. In extreme cases, it may even be impos
sible to provide any back-up protection; in such cases, greater emphasis is plac
ed on the need for better maintenance. In fact, even with complete back-up relay
ing, there is still much to be gained by proper maintenance. When primary relayi
ng fails, even though back-up relaying functions properly, the service will gene
rally suffer more or less. Consequently, back-up relaying is not a proper substi
tute for good maintenance. PROTECTION AGAINST OTHER ABNORMAL CONDITIONS Protecti
ve relaying for other than short circuits is included in the category of primary
relaying. However, since the abnormal conditions requiring protection are diffe
rent for each system element, no universal overlapping arrangement of relaying i
s used as in short protection. Instead, each system element is independently pro
vided with whatever relaying is required, and this relaying is arranged to trip
the necessary circuit breakers which may in some cases be different from those t
ripped by the short-circuit relaying. As previously mentioned, back-up relaying
is not employed because experience has not shown it to be economically justifiab
le. Frequently, however, back-up relaying for short circuits will function when
other abnormal conditions occur that produce abnormal currents or voltages, and
back-up protection of sorts is thereby incidentally provided.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING
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86
FUNCTIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING
SENSITIVITY, SELECTIVITY, AND SPEED Sensitivity, selectivity and speed are terms commo
nly used to describe the functional characteristics of any protective-relaying e
quipment. All of them are implied in the foregoing considerations of primary and
back-up relaying. Any relaying equipment must be sufficiently sensitive so that
it will operate reliably, when required, under the actual condition that produc
es the least operating tendency. It must be able to select between those conditi
ons for which prompt operation is required and those for which no operation, or
time-delay operation, is required. And it must operate at the required speed. Ho
w well any protective-relaying equipment fulfills each of these requirements mus
t be known for each application. The ultimate goal of protective relaying is to
disconnect a faulty system element as quickly as possible. Sensitivity and selec
tivity are essential to assure that the proper circuit breakers will be tripped,
but speed is the pay-off. The benefits to be gained from speed will be considered
later. RELIABILITY That protective-relaying equipment must be reliable is a bas
ic requirement. When protective relaying fails to function properly, the allied
mitigation features are largely ineffective. Therefore, it is essential that pro
tective-relaying equipment be inherently reliable, and that its application, ins
tallation, and maintenance be such as to assure that its maximum capabilities wi
ll be realized. Inherent reliability is a matter of design based on long experie
nce, and is much too extensive and detailed a subject to do justice to here. Oth
er things being equal, simplicity and robustness contribute to reliability, but
they are not of themselves the complete solution. Workmanship must be taken into
account also. Contact pressure is an important measure of reliability, but the
contact materials and the provisions for preventing contact contamination are fu
lly as important. These are but a few of the many design considerations that cou
ld be mentioned. The proper application of protective-relaying equipment involve
s the proper choice not only of relay equipment but also of the associated appar
atus. For example, lack of suitable sources of current and voltage for energizin
g the relays may compromise, if not jeopardize, the protection. Contrasted with
most of the other elements of an electric power system, protective relaying stan
ds idle most of the time. Some types of relaying equipment may have to function
only once in several years. Transmission-line relays have to operate most freque
ntly, but even they may operate only several times per year. This lack of freque
nt exercising of the relays and their associated equipment must be compensated f
or in other ways to be sure that the relaying equipment will be operable when it
s turn comes. Many electric utilities provide their test and maintenance personn
el with a manual that experienced people in the organization have prepared and t
hat is kept up to date as new
8
THE PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING
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types of relays are purchased. Such a manual specifies minimum test and maintena
nce procedure that experience has shown to be desirable. The manual is prepared
in part from manufacturers publications and in part from the utilitys experience.
As a consequence of standardized techniques, the results of periodic tests can b
e compared to detect changes or deterioration in the relays and their associated
devices. Testers are encouraged to make other tests as they see fit so long as
they make the tests required by the manual. If a better testing technique is dev
ised, it is incorporated into the manual. Some organizations include information
on the purpose of the relays, to give their people better appreciation of the i
mportance of their work. Courses may be given, also. Such activity is highly rec
ommended. Unless a person is thoroughly acquainted with relay testing and mainte
nance, he can do more harm than good, and he might better leave the equipment al
one. In some cases, actual field tests are made after installation and after car
eful preliminary testing of the individual relays. These field tests provide an
excellent means for checking the over-all operation of all equipment involved. C
areful maintenance and record keeping, not only of tests during maintenance but
also of relay operation during actual service, are the best assurance that the r
elaying equipment is in proper condition. Field testing is the best-known way of
checking the equipment prior to putting it in service, but conditions may arise
in actual service that were not anticipated in the tests. The best assurance th
at the relays are properly applied and adjusted is a record of correct operation
through a sufficiently long period to include the various operating conditions
that can exist. It is assuring not only when a particular relaying equipment tri
ps the proper breakers when it should for a given fault but also when other rela
ying equipments properly refrain from tripping.
ARE PROTECTIVE PRACTICES BASED ON THE PROBABILITY OF FAILURE?
Protective practices are based on the probability of failure to the extent that
present-day practices are the result of years of experience in which the frequen
cy of failure undoubtedly has played a part. However, the probability of failure
seldom if ever enters directly into the choice of a particular type of relaying
equipment except when, for one reason or another, one finds it most difficult t
o apply the type that otherwise would be used. In any event, the probability of
failure should be considered only together with the consequences of failure shou
ld it occur. It has been said that the justification for a given practice equals
the likelihood of trouble times the cost of the trouble. Regardless of the prob
ability of failure, no portion of a system should be entirely without protection
, even if it is only back-up relaying.
PROTECTIVE RELAYING VERSUS A STATION OPERATOR
Protective relaying sometimes finds itself in competition with station operators
or attendants. This is the case for protection against abnormal conditions that
develop slowly enough for an operator to have time to correct the situation bef
ore any harmful consequences develop. Sometimes, an alert and skillful operator
can thereby avoid having
THE PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING
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to remove from service an important piece of equipment when its removal might be
embarrassing; if protective relaying is used in such a situation, it is merely
to sound an alarm. To some extent, the preference of relying on an operator has
a background of some unfortunate experience with protective relaying whereby imp
roper relay operation caused embarrassment; such an attitude is understandable,
but it cannot be supported logically. Where quick and accurate action is require
d for the protection of important equipment, it is unwise to rely on an operator
. Moreover, when trouble occurs, the operator usually has other things to do for
which he is better fitted.
UNDESIRED TRIPPING VERSUS FAILURE TO TRIP WHEN DESIRED
Regardless of the rules of good relaying practice, one will occasionally have to
choose which rule may be broken with the least embarrassment. When one must cho
ose between the chance of undesired or unnecessary tripping and failure to trip
when tripping is desired, the best practice is generally to choose the former. E
xperience has shown that, where major system shutdowns have resulted from one or
the other, the failure to tripor excessive delay in tripping-has been by far the
worse offender.
THE EVALUATION OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING
Although a modern power system could not operate without protective relaying, th
is does not make it priceless. As in all good engineering, economics plays a lar
ge part. Although the protection engineer can usually justify expenditures for p
rotective relaying on the basis of standard practice, circumstances may alter su
ch concepts, and it often becomes necessary to evaluate the benefits to be gaine
d. It is generally not a question of whether protective relaying can be justifie
d, but of how far one should go toward investing in the best relaying available.
Like all other parts of a power system, protective relaying should be evaluated
on the basis of its contribution to the best economically possible service to t
he customers. The contribution of protective relaying is to help the rest of the
power system to function as efficiently and as effectively as possible in the f
ace of trouble.2 How protective relaying does this is as foIlows. By minimizing
damage when failures occur, protective relaying minimizes: A. The cost of repair
ing the damage. B. The likelihood that the trouble may spread and involve other
equipment. C. The time that the equipment is out of service. D. The loss in reve
nue and the strained public relations while the equipment is out of service. By
expediting the equipments return to service, protective relaying helps to minimiz
e the amount of equipment reserve required, since there is less likelihood of an
other failure before the first failure can be repaired.
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The ability of protective relaying to permit fuller use of the system capacity i
s forcefully illustrated by system stability. Figure 4 shows how the speed of pr
otective relaying influences the amount of power that can be transmitted without
loss of synchronism when short circuits occur.4 More load can be carried over a
n existing system by speeding up the protective relaying. This has been shown to
be a relatively inexpensive way to increase the transient stability limit.5 Whe
re stability is a problem, protective relaying can often be evaluated against th
e cost of constructing additional transmission lines or switching stations. Othe
r circumstances will be shown later in which certain types of protective-relayin
g equipment can permit savings in circuit breakers and transmission lines.
Fig. 4. Curves illustrating the relation between relay-plus-breaker time and the
maximum amount of power that can be transmitted over one particular system with
out loss of synchronism when various faults occur.
The quality of the protective-relaying equipment can affect engineering expense
in applying the relaying equipment itself. Equipment that can still operate prop
erly when future changes are made in a system or its operation will save much fu
ture engineering and other related expense. One should not conclude that the jus
tifiable expense for a given protective-relaying equipment is necessarily propor
tional to the value or importance of the system element to be directly protected
. A failure in that system element may affect the ability of the entire system t
o render service, and therefore that relaying equipment is actually protecting t
he service of the entire system. Some of the most serious shutdowns have been ca
used by consequential effects growing out of an original failure in relatively u
nimportant equipment that was not properly protected.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING
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HOW DO PROTECTIVE RELAYS OPERATE?
Thus far, we have treated the relays themselves in a most impersonal manner, tel
ling what they do without any regard to how they do it. This fascinating part of
the story of protective relaying will be told in much more detail later. But, i
n order to round out this general consideration of relaying and to prepare for w
hat is yet to come, some explanation is in order here. All relays used for short
-circuit protection, and many other types also, operate by virtue of the current
and/or voltage supplied to them by current and voltage transformers connected i
n various combinations to the system element that is to be protected. Through in
dividual or relative changes in these two quantities, failures signal their pres
ence, type, and location to the protective relays. For every type and location o
f failure, there is some distinctive difference in these quantities, and there a
re various types of protective-relaying equipments available, each of which is d
esigned to recognize a particular difference and to operate in response to it.6
More possible differences exist in these quantities than one might suspect. Diff
erences in each quantity are possible in one or more of the following: A. Magnit
ude. B. Frequency. C. Phase angle. D. Duration. E. Rate of change. F. Direction
or order of change. G. Harmonics or wave shape. Then, when both voltage and curr
ent are considered in combination, or relative to similar quantities at differen
t locations, one can begin to realize the resources available for discriminatory
purposes. It is a fortunate circumstance that, although Nature in her contrary
way has imposed the burden of electric-power-system failure, she has at the same
time provided us with a means for combat.
Fig. 5. Illustration for Problem 2.
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PROBLEMS
1. Compare protective relaying with insurance. 2. The portion of a power system
shown by the one-line diagram of Fig. 5, with generating sources back of all thr
ee ends, has conventional primary and back-up relaying. In each of the listed ca
ses, a short circuit has occurred and certain circuit breakers have tripped as s
tated. Assume that the tripping of these breakers was correct under the circumst
ances. Where was the short circuit? Was there any failure of the protective rela
ying, including breakers, and if so, what failed? Assume only one failure at a t
ime. Draw a sketch showing the overlapping of primary protective zones and the e
xact locations of the various faults. Case a b c d e f Breakers Tripped 4, 5, 8
3, 7, 8 3, 4, 5, 6 1, 4, 5, 6 4, 5, 7, 8 4, 5, 6
THE PHILOSOPHY OF PROTECTIVE RELAYING
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Arc Extinguishers
A common method used to extinguish an arc. In general, it confines, divides and
cools the arc.
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An An Arc Extinguisher is the component of the circuit breaker that extinguishes
an arc when the contacts are opened opened. An arc is a discharge of electric cur
rent crossing a gap between two contacts contacts. Circuit breakers must be desi
gned to control them because arcs cannot be prevented. There are four techniques
to extinguish an arc and there are several arc control methods. methods
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What is an Arc?

Do you ever recall pulling a plug from a wall socket and seeing what appeared to
be sparks? What you were observing, observing on a very small scale, was an att
empt at arc formation between bet ee t the e wall a co contacts tacts a and dt t
he ep plug ug contacts in your hand. For the sake of this discussion, , let s de
fine an arc as a discharge of electric current crossing a gap between two contac
ts.
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Arcs are formed when the contacts of a circuit breaker are opened p under a load
. Arcs can be very destructive and vary greatly in size and intensity. The size
of the arc depends on the amount of current present when the contacts are pulled
apart. F example, For l an arc th that tf forms when h normal l load current is
broken is insignificant compared t th to the arc th that tf forms when h a shor
t h t circuit i it i is broken. Because arcs cannot be prevented, circuit breake
rs must be designed to control them.
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98

The heat associated with an arc creates an i i d gas environment. ionized i t Th


e more ionization, the better the conditions are for an arc to be maintained and
grow. The bigger the arc, the more heat created, which increases ionization. Ar
cing is a condition that must be dealt with quickly and effectively by a circuit
breaker.
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The important thing to remember here is that the ability of the circuit breaker
to control the arc is the key to its short circuit interrupting capability. This
is a critical factor for selecting circuit breakers breakers. A short circuit i
s the most devastating overcurrent condition. condition
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100

Current Zero or Zero Point is a very important p aspect p to arc extinguishing.


g g At current zero, conditions are optimal for preventing p g an arc from conti
nuing. g The current is said to be "Current Zero" when 180 and 360 360. the sine cu
rve is at 0 0, 180
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102

Voltage is also a very important consideration because it is the pressure that k


eeps the current moving. L ft unchecked, Left h k d voltage lt will ill keep k p
ushing hi the current through current zero and give new lif life t to th the arc
. Voltage does not take kindly to being stopped in its tracks during the extingu
ishing of an arc. If it reignites, it can damage the whole electrical system. y
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Circuit breakers take this process into account by simultaneously opening the co
ntacts and extinguishing the arc. arc The successful extinguishing of the arc de
pends on the Dielectric Strength of the gap between the contacts. The dielectric
strength is the maximum voltage a dielectric can withstand without breaking dow
n. A Dielectric is any insulating material between two conductors conductors. In
these discussions, the circuit breaker contacts are the conductors and the insu
lating material can be air, gas or a vacuum. If the dielectric strength is great
er than the voltage trying to re re-ignite the arc, the arc extinguishing will b
e successful.
103
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104

The invention of a device called DEDE-ION arc extinguisher in the early 1900s by
Westinghouse was a revolutionary advance in arc interruption. Improved versions
were used for years with a majority of circuit breakers and continue to be used
today with low voltage circuit breakers.
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105
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106
A c Cont Arc Control ol Techniques Techniq es

Each approach has made improvements to its initial concept p in an effort to ext
inguish g arcs more efficiently. Arc control methods utilize one or more of the
following general techniques:
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107
St t hi A Stretching Arc
The arc is produced when the contacts part. As the gap widens, widens the arc is
stretched and cooled to the point where it is extinguished
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B ki Arc Breaking A into i t Smaller S ll Pieces Pi
The arc is produced when the contacts part. The arc moves up into the arc divide
r and splits, cools and is extinguished
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Blowing g Out Arc
In this method, a highhigh-pressure gas blows the arc into an arc divider to be
extinguished
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Enclosing Contacts

In this method, the contacts are housed in an oxygenyg -free enclosure with a di
electric oxygen such as a vacuum, gas or cooling oil. Without oxygen, oxygen the
arc cannot sustain itself and the arc is extinguished.
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Enclosing Contacts
In this method, method the contacts are housed in an oxygen oxygenfree enclosure
with a dielectric such as a vacuum, gas or cooling oil. Without oxygen, the arc
cannot sustain itself and the arc is extinguished. EEED-BVRIT

112
Arc A c Control Cont ol Methods

There are six methods used around the y to deal with arc control. world today Th
e two most commonly used methods are arc chute and vacuum interrupter. interrupt
er The other four methods are SF6, minimum oil magnetic coil and puffer. oil, pu
ffer
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A c chute Arc ch te method

The arc chute method only uses the Breaking Arc into Smaller Pieces technique. A
rc chutes are normally associated with low voltage circuit breakers due to effic
iency and cost cost. In general, an arc chute will confine, divide and cool l an
arc, resulting lti in i the th arc being b i unable bl to t sustain itself. The
re is one arc chute for each set of contacts.
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Vacuum Vac m Interrupter Inte pte Method

The vacuum interrupter p method uses the Enclosing g Contacts technique to extin
guish arcs. The vacuum enables the contacts to be smaller and eliminates the div
ider, divider making this method the most cost effective and efficient above 100
0V. One vacuum interrupter is provided for each set of contacts. t t
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Arcing takes place within a sealed evacuated enclosure. The contacts are located
inside and arcing occurs when the contacts are separated. Because the environme
nt inside the interrupter envelope is a vacuum, an arc cannot be easily easil su
stained. It will not reach the intensity possible with an arch chute. EEED-BVRIT
116

117
SF6 method

The SF6 method also uses the Enclosing Contacts technique. It was a precursor to
the vacuum interrupter and used SF6 gas as the dielectric. The heat energy gy c
reated by y the arc works to break apart the SF6 molecules. The larger the arc,
the greater the breakdown of the gas which aids in extinguishing the arc. The te
chnology is related more to European manufacturers of medium and higher voltage
circuit breakers.
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118
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minimum minim m oil method

The minimum oil method also uses Enclosing Contacts with oil as the dielectric.
The arc energy is absorbed as it rips hydrogen away from the oil molecule. The o
il itself also helps p to cool the arc. As current zero is approached, more oil
is drawn into the system, further cooling and Deionizing the arc. It is used tod
ay in low voltage situations and potentially explosive environments where an arc
chute is not desirable.
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magnetic coil method

The magnetic coil method uses the g Arc into Smaller Pieces Breaking technique.
It is very similar to the arc chute method method. The natural movement of an ar
c is upward in this instance, upward, instance into an arc chute. chute A coil,
called a blowout coil, is located in th center the t of f th the arc chute. h t
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The arc is broken into two. The arcs are lengthened and cooled as they rise high
er. The cooling reduces the rate of ionization When the ionization drops below t
he level necessary to sustain the arcs, they extinguish at current zero zero. Pr
ior to vacuum interrupter technology becoming the method of choice with medium v
oltage power breakers for extinguishing arcs arcs, the magnetic coil method serv
ed well for many years.
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p ffe method puffer

The puffer method uses the Blowing Out g Contacts techniques. q Arc and Enclosin
g It uses SF6 gas as the dielectric. It is the most efficient and cost effective
method above 38 kV.
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This type interrupter is basically a pair of separable contacts, a piston and a


cylinder, mounted in a reservoir of gas. As the contacts part, the piston moves
up to drive the g gas through g the arc to interrupt it. It also utilizes coils
and takes advantage of natural magnetic affects to create a force sufficient to
extinguish the arc.
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CIRCUIT BREAKERS
The circuit breaker is the most important and p of all types yp of power p circu
it interruption p complicated equipment. This is due to its highly important p y
of interrupting p g the p powerful short circuit capability current, over and a
bove its normal role of g, isolating g and interrupting p g nominal load conduct
ing, currents. Circuit Breakers have two basic functions Switching F lt interrupt
ion Fault i t ti
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Close the current path and carry the steady state load current without overheati
ng. Maintain sufficient contact pressure when closed to prevent a high resistanc
e path between contacts. Rapidly open the contacts under fault condition so that
current interruption does not resulting excessive burning of the contacts. Alwa
ys Al provide id adequate d t phase h and d phase h t to ground insulation.
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ARC Phenomena in Circuit Breakers
When the contacts are being separated arcing is possible even when the circuit e
mf is considerably below the minimum cold electrode breakdown voltage, voltage b
ecause of large local increase in voltage due to the circuit self inductance. Th
e arc is extinguished every time the current passes through zero and can restrik
e only if transient recovery voltage across the electrode already separated and
continuing to separate reaches a sufficiently high value know as breakdown volta
ge.
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Arcing Chamber
It is a closed volume containing a fixed contact, a moving contact and the inter
rupting medium. medium An arc is created when the contacts part. The i t interru
pting ti medium di i is responsible ibl f for quenching the arc and establishing
the nominal l l of level f isolation i l ti between b t th open contacts. the t
t Several chambers may be connected in series to serve higher voltage levels. I
n this case a grading capacitor is installed in parallel with each chamber to ba
lance the voltage across the contacts when parting.
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130
Insertion resistor
The sudden modification of circuit characteristics, , when circuit breakers oper
ate, p , produces peak voltage impulses where the level is determined by y the c
ircuit characteristics. These impulses may reach very high levels and must be re
duced. A well-known method is closing or opening in two or three steps on resist
ors.
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On trip: the voltage impulse levels are generally acceptable when interrupting n
ominal or short circuit currents, currents but they can be dangerously high when
interrupting small capacitive or inductive currents. On close: sudden energizin
g of a circuit always generates voltage impulses with moderate levels levels, wi
th the exception of closing or reclosing on long unloaded lines where the impuls
es, impulses function of the line length, instant of closing or reclosing and di
screpancy of the three poles, poles can reach extremely high levels.
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Operating Mechanism
The operating mechanism is where the needed energy to part the contacts and to e
xtinguish the arc is developed. developed The most common operating mechanisms i
n circuit i it breakers b k are Spring operated Hydraulically operated Pneumatic
ally operated. operated
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Control
Closing and tripping coils Control relaying system Pressure switches and gauges
Surveillance and alarm system g system y to restore the Re-inflating energy spen
t on the operation.
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Functioning Characteristics
Correct function
The circuit breaker control must ensure correct closing action, whatever the clo
sing current value, and ensure breaking (opening) at the required moment by rele
asing, releasing by mechanical action or via a relay, the energy stored in the a
ccumulators.
Operation cycles
The circuit breaker has to be capable of executing different operation cycles an
d achieve fast breaking of short circuit currents -- the faster, the better for
the network.
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Classification Depending Upon the interrupting medium
A circuit i i breaker b k h has to interrupt i weak k capacitive or inductive cu
rrents, up to high short h t circuit i it currents t and, d as a result, lt to t
extinguish powerful electric arcs. The main problem bl i then, is th essentiall
y, ti ll an arcing i problem. bl Another problem is over voltage impulses; this
i related is l t d to t the th nature t of f the th circuit i it where h it is i
installed.
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Interrupting Medium
Mineral oil Compressed air Sulfur hexafluoride (SF6)
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Fault Current
PLOT
Graph
+35
IFAULT
VFAULT
additional information
line thickness
annotations
I [pu], V [pu]
peak 32 pu (41 kA)
Fault Inception
+12.5
label and unit
notes section
-10 0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
Fault 0.1Interruption
Time (Sec)
Power System Transients
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Circuit Breakers (CB)
CB: interrupting highest short circuit currents needs sophisticated arcing chamb
er technology UR [kV] IB [kA] 36 160 36 275 245 63 362 50 Type SF6 Air Blast Oil
SF6 (one chamber)
Load switch: load currents routinely switching Disconnector: very small currents
safety switch
Power System Transients
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Live Tank HV breaker
Power System Transients
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Dead Tank HV breaker
Power System Transients
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Breaker with Switching Resistors
Power System Transients
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Short Circuit Interruption (1)
Equivalent Circuit
RL LL IS
Fixed Contact
US
U1
Moving Contact
CL
UN
U2
US
Fault!
IS
10
5
0 US
UN
rated current
Us
Fault!
-10 -40
-5
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
t [ms]
Power System Transients
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Short Circuit Interruption (2)
Equivalent Circuit
RL LL IS
Fixed Contact
US
U1
Moving Contact
CL
UN
U2
US
Fault!
IS
10
5
0 US
UN
rated current
Us
Fault!
-10 -40
-5
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
t [ms]
Power System Transients
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Short Circuit Interruption (3)
Equivalent Circuit
RL LL IS
Fixed Contact
US
U1
Moving Contact
CL
UN
U2
US
Fault!
IS
10
5
0 US
UN
rated current
Us
Fault!
-10 -40
-5
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
t [ms]
Power System Transients
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Short Circuit Interruption (4)
Equivalent Circuit
RL LL IS
Fixed Contact
US
U1
Moving Contact
CL
UN
U2
US
Fault!
IS
10
5
0 US
UN
rated current
Us
Fault!
-10 -40
-5
f =
1 2 LLCL
-30
-20
-10
0
10
20
30
t [ms]
Power System Transients
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Curent Zero: Current Interrution
Current Arcing Voltage Fixed Contact
100 V 1 2
t [s]
US
10 A
Residual Current
Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV)
Arc allways extinguishes at current zero (voltage eak), enegy dissiation high
enough --> Arc cease conducting high resistivity --> Current interrution - TRV
e Power System Transients
Moving Contact
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Curent Zero: No Current Interrution
Current Arcing Voltage Fixed Contact
100 V 1 2
t [s]
US
10 A
Arc allways extinguishes at current zero (voltage eak), but contact distance is
too small --> Arc kees conducting --> Current continous to flow undisturbed
Power System Transients
Moving Contact
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Curent Zero: Thermal Re-Ignition
Current Arcing Voltage Fixed Contact
100 V
1 2
t [s]
US
10 A
Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV)
Residual Current
New Current Rise
Voltage Collase
Loosing the Thermal Race The TRV causes a residual current which heats u the arc
lasma => arc gains conductivity => voltage collases => current rises again
Power System Transients
Moving Contact
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Curent Zero: Dielectric Re-Ignition
Current Arcing Voltage
Current stos flowing!
100 V
10
Fixed Contact
NOTE: time scale! 20
t [s]
50 A
Transient Recovery Voltage (TRV)
Residual Current
US
New Current Rise
Moving Contact
Dielectric Strength insufficient
The TRV reaches a value which causes a dielectric breakdown of the (still oenin
g) contact ga
Power System Transients
Voltage Collase
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CB: modeling
Mechanical delay time (from command to contact searation): min 10...20 ms
w w
oening time = contact searation current interrution: default at zero crossing d
eending on CB tye and current wave form include arcing time in oening time Arc
voltage current relationshi highly comlex (arameters: CB design, thermodynami
cs) generic models mostly insufficient secial modeling necessary zero arcing vo
ltage for high voltage systems constant value (10...100 V) for low voltage syste
ms
Arcing time: 1...5 cycles
w w
Arc modeling
w
w w
Power System Transients
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