VB Technical University of Ostrava

Faculty of Mining and Geology

Institute of Environmental Engineering

Water management facilities III

Ing. Vojtch Vclavk, Ph.D.

Contents
1. Basic terminology .................................................................................................................. 4
1.1 Water ................................................................................................................................ 4
1.2 Water management constructions .................................................................................... 4
1.3 Structures ensuring the intake and distribution of water .................................................. 7
1.4 Structures ensuring the transportation of water................................................................ 8
1.5 Constructions for utilization of water energy ................................................................... 8
2. Special Typological Features of Water Management Constructions ..................................... 9
2.1 Relation of a WM structure towards the water stream ..................................................... 9
2.2 Recent challenges of water management construction..................................................... 9
3. Documents for Projecting Water Management Structures, Ground Investigation and
Exploration Work, Relation of Water Management Structures to the Environment........... 10
3.1 Geodetic data .................................................................................................................. 10
3.2 Geological, hydro-geological and geotechnical documents ........................................... 10
3.3 Relation of WM structures to the environment .............................................................. 12
4. Load of Water Management Structures ............................................................................... 13
5. Backwater reservoirs and their functions ............................................................................. 14
5.1 Water dams ..................................................................................................................... 14
5.1.1 Dams made of local materials ................................................................................. 16
5.1.2 Solid (gravitation) dams .......................................................................................... 20
5.2 Weirs .............................................................................................................................. 27
5.2.1 Fixed weirs .............................................................................................................. 28
5.2.2 Movable weirs ......................................................................................................... 31
5.3 Supplement fittings of the backwater constructions ...................................................... 42
6. Monitoring measurement at existing dams .......................................................................... 47
6.1 Deformation measurement ............................................................................................. 47
6.2 Upward hydraulic pressure measurement ...................................................................... 49
6.3 Seepage measurement .................................................................................................... 50
6.4 Hydrologic measurement ............................................................................................... 50
7. Water supply structures ........................................................................................................ 51
8. Water transport structures .................................................................................................... 53
9. Water routes ......................................................................................................................... 56
9.1 Inland navigation ............................................................................................................ 56
9.2 Navigation of waterways ................................................................................................ 57
9.3 Inland canals ................................................................................................................... 58
9.4 Structures on water routes .............................................................................................. 58
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10. Waterways improvements .................................................................................................. 59

10.1 System of waterways development .............................................................................. 60
10.2 Waterways classification .............................................................................................. 60
10.3 Stream channel relocation ............................................................................................ 60

1. Basic terminology
1.1 Water

the most wide-spread substance on the Earth,

is a vital part of life of all the botanical and animal species,
it is represented in all the physical states,
under normal conditions, the water is a liquid, is achromatic, with no scent and no taste,
it is little compressible.

Sources of water:
Surface the water on the surface of the Earth in different formations,
Under-surface the water in the Earths crust,
Soil water the water contained in the soil and ground,
Underground water the underground water in the liquid state,
Riverine water shallow underground water in the sediment loads of
the water streams,
Artesian water underground water which is under pressure,
Fossil water underground water preserved in the cavities of the rocks
originating in the previous geological epoch,
Suspended water underground water formed by the rain-drop water
soaking in the ground.
Classification of water according to the Czech National Standard (SN 75 7211):
unpolluted water;
slightly polluted water;
polluted water;
severely polluted water;
very severely polluted water.

1.2 Water management constructions

Water and melioration constructions
Water dams are bodies which function as a block in the valley of the stream flow, and
which close the area determined to hold the mass of water for various water management
purposes and which help to withhold flood waves.
Weirs are heaving apparatuses, backwater holders, located in the riverbed of the stream,
which permanently or temporarily store the water for various water management purposes:
apprehending the hydraulic fall of water for water power stations,
raising the level of the underground water,
extending the nautical depth for the ships,
enabling the intake of water for land irrigation.
Water routes are the routes across seas, oceans, lakes, ponds, dams, navigable water-ways,
canals and channels which are suitable for the ships to sail through.
Modifications of the streams complex of water management actions taken in order to
ensure better and easier use of water streams.
Hydro-energetic constructions are water constructions designed for making use of water
energy.
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Water drainage melioration actions taken to drain the surplus water away from flooded
land.
Irrigation systems water is supplied to the ground, which improves the grounds humidity
conditions. By irrigation, we can supply the necessary nutrients to the ground.
Ponds are reservoirs which accumulate water for various purposes, especially for fishfarming.
Sanitary water management constructions
Public water mains they are the complex of all the appliances which ensure the water
supply to a consumer.
Sewage system the complex of appliances which serves for harmless drainage of the raindrop water, waste water and industrial waste water.

Pic. 1 Dams and water dams: a) Cross profile of the earth-fill dam; b) Cross profile of the
concrete gravity dam; c) Lateral dam; d) Side embankments limiting the deluge of the dam;
e) Contour dam of the accumulation reservoir

Pic. 2 Weirs: a) Cross profile of the fixed weir; b) Weir with trapezoidal shape of the
damming body; c) Fixed weir of the older type; d) Cross profile of the movable weir (flap
weir); e) Floor-plan of the movable weir
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1.3 Structures ensuring the intake and distribution of water

Intake (inflow) structures these ensure the intake of the required amount of water from
water streams, weirs and reservoirs.
Structures for distribution of water here range canals, pipes, water galleries and tunnels.
Canals man-made water ways with free water level, constructed as imitations of the
riverbeds of streams.
Piping device for distribution of liquids and gases.
Water galleries, tunnels they are used for conveying larger masses of water between the
catchment areas and for re-directing the flow of water during the construction of the dam.
Flow of liquid with free water level, but mainly pressurized.
Pumping station serves for pumping the collected water from the lower level to the upper
level.
Power absorbers serve for absorbing the water energy (conducting the water by slide,
stilling basin).

Pic. 3 Intake structures: a) Intake structure from the weir; b) Intake structure on the side of
the reservoir (for Hydroelectric power plant); c) Multiple storey structure from the
reservoir;
Structures fro transportation of water: d) cross profile of the canal in the embankment; e)
cross profile of the canal in the HPP incline; f) Cross profile of the galleries (tunnels);
g) Pressure piping HPP

1.4 Structures ensuring the transportation of water

Lock chambers these help ships to overcome the difference between the heights of two
basins.
High-lift locks these help ships to overcome great elevation distances (up to 100 m).
Ports they provide space for re-loading of cargos, for passengers to change for another
means of transport, shelter for the ships during floods, during movements of the ice and
during over-wintering, ships can be repaired here etc.
Docks space mainly for the purposes of loading and unloading the goods and connection to
other means of transport (road, rail).

Pic. 4 Water routes. Canal: a) Linear profile; b) Cross profile; c) Situation; d) The scheme of
the lock chamber (with direct filling and emptying)

1.5 Constructions for utilization of water energy

Water power station hydro-technical structure which serves for production of the electric
power.
River scheme water power station located right by the backwatering body.
Derivation scheme water is directed towards or backwards from the power station by
means of artificial connection (canal, gallery, pressure piping).
Locking structure it is actually always a weir, mostly a movable weir on the floatable
water stream.
Water dams backwatering structures (also manipulation objects belong here).
Empty sluices water is directed through them, e.g. when a power station failure or black
outs occur (e.g. a defect on a canal).

2. Special Typological Features of Water

Management Constructions
While designing the conception and construction solution for a water management
structure, local conditions play a great role, especially: geological, morphological,
hydrological, climatic, hydro-geological and so on.
While designing a WMC (water management construction) the greatest demands are
placed on bearing capacity, stability and water-tightness of the subsoil.
WM structures (objects) must be resistant for a long period of time against a permanent
contact with water stream (oscillation of water level, drying out of the surface) and against
intensive work of climatic effects.
WM structures built on flowing streams are characterized with their multi-functionality
purposes and functions arise from the water management and local demands.
When building a WM structure (water reservoirs, weirs, channels, canals etc.) the nearby
area is highly affected, which results in: transformation of the landscape, change in the
existing communications, resettlement and moving out etc.

2.1 Relation of a WM structure towards the water stream

Building a WM structure always represents a certain intervention into the original regime
of the specific water stream.
While designing the overall disposition and the hydraulic circuits of the structures, it is
always necessary to take the conditions of the water flow, various flow rates, bed loads,
sediments and the winter mode into account.
Serious problems which occurred at significant WM structures are studied by means of
physical models. How the WM structure is designed as a whole and as a complex of
individual structures, thats a task of hydro-technical research.

2.2 Recent challenges of water management construction

The need for other WM structures arises mainly from new water treatment demands and
requirements of modern society.
In the near future, it will be necessary to ensure the supply of drinking and utility water
mainly from outward sources of water.
WM structures help to transform the flood waters within retention spaces, which is far
better that expanding and widening the riverbeds.
It is important to preserve the biological balance (minimal flow rate in a riverbed).
It is necessary to discuss the issue of water-ways within the transport system of the
country, and in the relationship towards the transport development on the European level.

3. Documents for Projecting Water

Management Structures, Ground Investigation
and Exploration Work, Relation of Water
Management Structures to the Environment
The impulse to build, modernize or re-furbish WM structures come out mainly from:
the need to develop water resources,
stabilization of a water stream,
protection against floods,
the use of energy and nautical use.
The design solution of the structure must be based on:
natural conditions of the location where the structure shall be built,
the relation of the WM structure towards the environment.
When designing WM structures, it is important to pay attention to these conditions:
purpose, function and standpoint of the future operation,
relation to the landscape and the whole environment,
construction conditions,
safety of the WM structure.
To specify the conditions exactly, it is necessary to carry out the required research
(geological, hydro-geological, pedological, hydro-geological and so on).

3.1 Geodetic data

Are vital data from the initial studies up to the detailed projecting solutions for the specific
WM structures.
Topographical maps are used, in the map scale of: 1:10 000, 1:25 000, 1:50 000, 1:100 000,
1:200 000.
In the water treatment industry, maps in the scale of 1:50 000 are used, in which all the
catchment areas are marked of the individual rivers and streams and the WM structures are
pointed on the map.
The situation (the situational focus) is done in the scale of 1: 1 000, 1:500.
The systems for map focusing:
the Balt system for alignment,
the Jadran system.
The elevation difference between the two systems is 0.41 m.
Geodetic works before the construction of a WM structure are carried out by specialists
geometricians.

3.2 Geological, hydro-geological and geotechnical documents

Geological data are of great significance to planning engineers and builders, with respect to
the close interaction of the WM structure with the subsoil.
Geological research and terrain exploration:
focuses on discovering geological composition of the land in the location where the certain
WM structure is to be founded and built,
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 ensures the conditions of stability and safeness of WM structures,

concentrates on the ways how to help to solve the effects of floods (building reservoirs,
weirs, canals), how to induce the stability of hills, flooding important areas with mineral
resources, abrasive processes (reshaping of hills at the water level),
deals with the mode of underground waters in the given area,
explores the deposit areas providing building materials (stabilization and sealing ground).
A) Preliminary geological research
It is supported with geological maps, recognition of the terrain, orientation borings are carried
out. The goal of that is to provide the ground data for a planning engineer so that he can
decide whether it is suitable or not, to realize the intentions with respect to the characteristics
of the subsoil.
B) Detailed geological research
It is carried out with the help of boreholes and dug holes, exploration shafts and galleries are
used. Then the findings are evaluated and a picture of the geological composition in the
subsoil is created. When the conditions are difficult, a physical model can be used.
Besides bores, geological research also takes advantage of geo-physical methods.
The principle of geo-physical methods is measuring the changes in physical fields which are
dependent on the changes in physical properties of rocks.
Geo-physical methods:
seismic (the spread of the motion inside the rock is measured, which was initiated by a
small explosion or vibration),
electrical,
gravitametric,
magnetic,
radiometric.
Geotechnical data these provide description of the firmness, reshaped properties,
characteristics of water permeability in the soil etc.
So called pressure-metric checks are used, the purpose of which is to explore deformable
properties of rocks, based on the deformation of the wall with deduced pressure.
Water pressure checks are used to acquire the characteristics of soil permeability, but also for
changes of the tectonic composition.
In the earth soil so called penetration checks are carried out (pushing a calibrated cone on the
bottom of the drill) and propeller checks to determine the cohesivness of the earth soil.
The characteristics of the permeability have got a great importance in the area of building
water management structures with regards to the loss of water by soaking in and with regards
to the influence on stability (effects of water hydrostatic pressure, internal erosion activities
etc.)
The permeability of the rock subsoil is usually evaluated on the basis of the results of water
pressure checks in the drills.
Hydro-geological data
Hydro-geological research deals with:
preliminary assessment of seepage ways in the subsoil after the water in the reservoir raises
up,
means of feeding and dewatering of the land with surface waters,
waters springing out from the depth of the subsoil (the springs on the base of the hill),
temporary flowing openings dependent on the rainfall.
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Exploration of the flood area

Deals with:
possible occurrence of leak-in ways,
occurrence of unstable valley hills,
deformation of hills in the area by abrasion (effects of wind waves),
flooding rock deposits,
seismic conditions in the wider area.
Exploration of the deposit areas of building materials
Deals with:
research of the properties of the materials (firmness, dampness, solid ability etc.),
the distance between the deposit and the construction site, transport and general supplies,
which must cover all the project needs,
conditions of mining possibilities, breaking characteristics of rocks, possibilities of
dewatering,
conditions of rehabilitation of the deposit site after the completion of the construction.
Hydrological and climatic data
Deals with:
rainfalls,
characteristics of flooding mode,
findings on sediments and the winter mode of the stream,
danger of temperature changes,
danger of wind, ice, snow, torrent rainfall.

3.3 Relation of WM structures to the environment

WM structures greatly affect the nature of water streams and their natural status.
The interventions to the water stream bed may be the following:
planned (here belong WM structures for water management purposes, positive and
negative effects on the environment are assessed in advance),
unplanned (e.g. floods, accidents and crashes etc.)
Note: In the course of preliminary and project preparation before starting a construction of a
WM structure, it is important to discuss the problems of such intervention to the environment
with the experts (EIA).
The significance of WM structures:
A)
B)
C)
D)
E)
F)

Modification of outflow conditions in the catchment area (raising the minimal flow rate
in the water streams).
Actions taken in order to reduce after flood damages (transformation of flood waves in
reservoirs).
Modification of the water level location (oscillation of water level of the underground
waters, change of soak-in mode).
Affecting the sediment mode of the stream (on gravel streams, influence of strong washaways from agriculture and forest lands).
Affecting temperature and winter mode of the water stream (changes of currents,
accumulation of water etc.).
Observing biological and chemical properties of the water stream (BSK5, CHSK, NL) as
a possible source of drinking water.
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4. Load of Water Management Structures

Load mechanical effects which can be solved by means of the theory of the continuum
mechanics (statics and dynamics).
Load is determined by forces which cause deformation and stress in the structure.
The load is variable in time.
Classification of load with regards to various phases of the existence of the object:

load during the time period of construction,

load during operation,

load during revisions and inspections etc.

With regards to designing the structures, the following values are distinguished:

standardized values of load (they are based on unfavorable values of load with very
little chance of them to be exceeded),

calculated values of load (these are determined as a product of standardized values

and reliability coefficient of load).
To the load coefficient the functionality coefficient is added, which is used to assess the
impacts which would occur in case the structure suffered damage.
For the calculations of these structures, the load is divided into:
permanent,
accidental,
long term,
short term,
special.
Load working on WM structures:
A)

Load caused by water that is hydro-static or hydro-dynamic pressure of water

(currents, overflow etc.), wave motion affects, impact events, powers of the soak-in
water.

B)

Load by own weight e.g. gravity dams.

C)

Load by wind, snow load by snow is applied during construction of roofs.

D)

Load by the weight of rocks and soil e.g. pressure from sediments. It may be
permanent or accidental long term load.

E)

Load by ice it has got features of static load (pressure of ice when temperatures rise),
dynamic load (hits by ice floes to the weir fields), short-term accidental load working on
the surface.

F)

Load by temperature changes here belong atmospheric temperature changes in the air,
with massive concrete constructions it is also necessary to count with the results of the
hydration heat of the concrete.

G)

Load by volume changes like shrinking, volume swelling, shape finishing etc.

H)

Load by strengths incorporated to the structure reinforcing, active support, anchoring

to the subsoil.

I)

Load by inertia forces of the seismic origin it has got features of dynamic load with
high frequency.
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5. Backwater reservoirs and their functions

5.1 Water dams
These are huge constructions built across a valley, and their purpose is to serve as a
water reservoir.
For manipulation with water inside the dam (water level oscillation, re-directing the
stream through the profile of the dam) we use manipulation devices.
According to their purpose we can distinguish water reservoirs to the following:
Protective they protect the area and buildings against high waters. They are built in the
upper parts of the stream where flood waves are transformed.
Water supply during the period with surplus flow they hold such amount of water in their
bodies which shall be necessary when there is lack of water in the flow.
Multipurpose reservoirs supply and protective functions are combined.
Division of the whole space of the reservoir:
Space for continuous water storage it is necessary for the correct placement of intake
devices, which must be protected against getting choked and the access of sediments which
could enter these devices must be prevented.
Space for supply water it is located above the space for continuous water storage, its
function is to accumulate water for water management purposes.
Controllable protective area it reaches from the water level in the supply space up to the
crown of the spillway, flood waves are caught here.
Uncontrollable protective area it is defined by the thickness of the overflow beam.

Pic. 5 Division of space in the water reservoir a) protective reservoir, b) supply reservoir, c)
multipurpose reservoir; 1 space for continuous water storage, 2 controllable protective
area, 3 uncontrollable protective area, 4 supply area
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Filling the reservoir with water it depends on the location towards the source. A reservoir
built right above the water stream is filled directly.
Emptying the reservoir is done by letting the water run off through the outlets or by the
water flowing over the safety devices (overflows) and intake devices.
Functions of a water dam:
accumulating water for water management purposes (drinking and utility water),
reducing damaging effects of floods (flood waves),
reaching a hydraulic fall for generating power from water energy,
reaching a fall for gravitation transport via pipes,
recreation purposes,
fish-farming.
Classification of water dams according to the material:
dams from local materials
ground materials (building material is ground),
rocky (building material are rocks with no binding agent),
dams made of bricks,
dams made of concrete,
dams made of other materials (wood, steel)
Classification of dams according to static impact:
1) Gravitation dams they resist the load which works on them with their own weight and
they transfer them to the subsoil. We can divide them into:
gravitation round-head buttress dams they transfer the load to the subsoil through
pillars,
gravitation cellular dams are made of simple concrete, and there are large cavities
left inside,
gravitation dam with vault action major part of load is lead by the gravity effect to
the subsoil, and the remaining part of the load by the vault action to the side hill of
the valley,
2) Arch dams they lead a major part of load to the side of the valley, and we can divide
them into:
dome dams arch dams with distinctive carving of the construction in the cross
profile,
arch dams with gravitation effect major part of load is lead by the vault action to
the side of the valley, and minor part by gravity effect to the subsoil,
3) Buttress dams dams the construction of which is divided into several features with
various functions and weights. Damming elements create a damming wall and they lead
the load to the complex of pillars, and the load is lead by their gravity effect to the subsoil.
We can divide them into:
buttress plate dams the damming wall is created by plates, which lead the load to
the pillars,
buttress arch dams the damming body is created by a complex of arches which lead
load to the pillars,
buttress dome dams these have a significant carving of arches also in the vertical
direction.
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4) Dams with special construction, here belong:

anchored dams the construction is attached to the subsoil with the complex of prestressed anchors below the foundation joint,
pre-stressed dams made of pre-stressed monolithic concrete,
sectioned dam majority of the dam is mounted from the section of basic or prestressed concrete or ferroconcrete.

5.1.1 Dams made of local materials

They are made mainly of local earth soil or of separate rocks. They are divided into:
earth soil dams the basic building material is earth soil;
rock dams the basic building material are separate rocks with no binding agent;
boulder dams dams made of large pieces of rocks, boulders;

EARTH SOIL DAMS

Earth soil dams usually have got trapezoidal cross-section. The surface of the dam on the side
of the reservoir is so called water face slope, the other side is called ebb side. The upper
surface of the dam is called the crown. The intersection of the water face side of the dam with
the bottom of the reservoir is called the face toe of the dam. The intersection of the water face
slope of the dam with the bottom of the reservoir is called the ebb toe of the dam.
Stabilizing part of the dam leads the tension into the subsoil of the dam, ensures the
stability of the damming body. It is made of such earth soil which has got:
great volume weight,
large angle of internal friction,
low compressibility,
sufficient volume constancy.
Sealing part of the dam prevents the water to come through the dam. The earth soil used
must have a low coefficient of water permeability. The sealing of the dam is made of clay,
soil, bricks, concrete, ferroconcrete, asphalt, wood, steel or plastics.
The sealing is placed:
water face reducing of the wetness of the water face stabilization part of the dam,
middle part is better protected from damage.
The most commonly used material is clay or soil with low coefficient of water permeability.
The sealing core is embedded to the leak subsoil of the dam, if it is in an easily accessible
depth.
The clay sealing must be protected before drying out and before freezing by a huge layer of
the soil material.
Advantage of the clay sealing it easily adapts to deformations and it doesnt get damaged by
the subsidence of the dam.
Disadvantage of the clay sealing it can be built only when there are favorable
meteorological conditions.
Sealing made of concrete and ferroconcrete is built as a wall in the middle of the dam, or as a
plate placed at the water face slope.
Protective part it protects the damming body against the effects of water in the water
reservoir, especially against shock waves, against washing-out by the rainfall water flowing
down the ebb side and against the wind erosion.

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For the protection lining of the water face these techniques are used: pavement made of rocks
(into concrete, dry method). Instead of rock pavement, concrete pavement is greatly used
nowadays (concrete plates with dilatation joints or concrete cobblestones).
For the protection lining of the water face we mostly use sowing, sodding and planting with
shrubbery.
Classification of earth soil dams
Earth-fill dam the earth soil is mined, transported, placed into the dam and then
compacted by earthwork machinery;
Silted earth-filled dam the earth soil is supplied by silting, which settles at the dam. Most
commonly we use clayey sands;
Semi-silted earth dam the earth soil is supplied in dry state and then it is slushed by
slushers in the damming body;
Homogenous earth dam the whole structure is built of the earth soil which at the same
time ensures the stabilization and sealing function. We most commonly use a mixture of
soils, gravel and sands.
Non-homogenous earth dam they are made of various soils placed to the dam which
contain a binding agent;
Dimensions of the cross-section of the earth dam
They must comply with the calculations of stability, water soak-in through the dam and with
communication demands.
The height of the dam is determined according to the maximum water level in the reservoir,
the water cannot in any case get over the crown of the dam (freeboard height shouldnt be less
than 2 m, water breakers are constructed).
The width of the crown of the dam is set to 3 m at the minimum, but mainly it is 5 to 6 m. The
incline of the crown is either bilateral or unilateral directed towards the water face.
The incline angles are usually not steeper than 1:2.5 up to 1:3 on the water face side, and 1:2.0
up to 1:2.5 on the ebb side.

ROCK AND BOULDER DAMS

The composition of the cross-profile of the rock dam corresponds with the composition of the
cross profile of non-homogenous earth dam.
They are built of loose rocks or of rockfill (the volume of the rock being from 0.05 to 0.5 m3).
The rock must be healthy, resistant against air venting and very firm at pressure.
The settlement rate of the rock dams is significant, it ranges from 0.3 to 5 % of the height of
the dam.
The rock dam, if its function is to store the water, must always be equipped with a sealing
element.
Rock dams without this sealing element create retention reservoirs for catching flood streams.
The incline of the slopes (sides) of the rock dams are steeper then with earth dams.
Water face side is built in the slope of 1:0.7 up to 1:1.4 (mostly 1:1).
The ebb side is 1:1.3 to 1:1.6.
THE SEALING OF THE ROCK DAMS
The sealing is made of clay, concrete, ferroconcrete, steel, and on the basis of asphalt
materials.
It is placed either in the middle or by the water face (this is better, as the whole cross section
of the dam resists the water pressure).
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Concrete and ferroconcrete sealing this type has caused many serious problems in many
water dams. The middle concrete sealing is very sensitive to the deformations of the body of
the dam and it is not possible to repair this type of sealing.
The thickness of the water face sealing is assessed to be 0.3 m in the crown of the dam. The
thickness of the sealing gets bigger in correspondence with the depth (2 mm of the sealings
thickness per 1 m of the depth, here by us it is 0,5 mm per 1m). The plate is separated by
dilatation joints which are apart in the distance of 8 to 15 m.
Metal sealing the metal used must have good mechanic properties (must be flexible, and
easy to weld). Metal sheet plates are welded and every other one is anchored to the basement
concrete. With a steep water face, the plate is scaffolded with ribs.
The sealing on the basis of asphalt materials water face asphalt-concrete sealings of the
dams reach the thickness from tens of centimeters to half of a meter (inclusive of the base and
theconnecting layers).
The thickness of the water face asphalt-concrete sealing doesnt change per the height of the
dam.

Pic. 6 The composition of the asphalt sealing used nowadays

Obr. 7 The composition of the asphalt-concrete water face sealing (older type)

Pic. 8 Connection of the asphalt-concrete sealing to the object

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Foil sealing it started to develop about 40 years ago. Foils are applied in the form of water
face or inner sealing. The performance technology is simple and fast, but it is necessary to
ensure the protection of the foil against mechanic damage. Using this type of sealing is
suitable for the dams with the height lower than 40 m.

PROTECTION LAYERS OF THE EARTH SOIL AND ROCK DAMS

Protection layers of the earth soil and rock dams are composed of these elements:
1) protection layers of the earth sealings and drains filters
2) protection and base elements of non-earth sealing elements
3) layers ensuring protection of the water face against the impact of water in the reservoir and
of the water face against surface erosion
Filters
are used in all the locations where there is a possibility of sediments being washed out in the
place where the body of the dam connects to the subsoil (impact of soak-in water, wave
shocks, level oscillation). They are made in the spot where the sealing core meets the
connecting part of the dam, around the drainage elements.
Material we use aggregates, natural or sorted sands, geo-textile (artificial material, reducing
the labor consumption).
Protective and base elements of non-earth sealing elements
Non-earth sealing elements are in many cases liable to mechanical damage. The foil sealing
must be protected from both the water face and ebb side (using sands, gravel-sand, geotextile), or we can place the foil between concrete pre-fabricates.
Asphalt and concrete sealing is liable to mechanical damage, but it requires to be placed on
basement layers with high enough bearing capacity (porous asphalt-concrete, concrete).
Layers ensuring the protection of the water face against the impact of the water in the
reservoir and of the water face against surface erosion
For the protection lining of the water face and ebb we can use stone packing.
For the protection lining of the water face, it is possible to use concrete, concrete plates and
tossed rocks reinforced with asphalt materials.
For the protection lining of the water face we use grassy vegetation chains, or we plant bush
vegetation (dwarf pine trees).

DRAINAGE LAYERS IN THE EARTH AND ROCK DAMS

They help safe soak-in through the body of the dam. They ensure safety with regards to
internal erosion. The most commonly used material for the construction of drainages is hard
gravel, macadam (fraction 32-63, 63-125 mm), geo-textile.
Classification of drains:
internal,
areal,
toe.
When designing a dam, it is necessary to ensure the filtration stability of the drain vicinity !!!

19

5.1.2 Solid (gravitation) dams

Description of the gravitation dam
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

They are built of rubble stone or concrete.

Cross section of gravity damming walls is triangular.
The crown of the dams width is 3 m at the minimum.
In the damming wall there is one or more revision shafts, into which vertical drain is
mounted which is dewatering the water face side of the dam.
Revision shafts are usually 1 m wide and 2 m high.
Bottom outlet runs across the dam, which serves to complete emptying of the reservoir
and to the regulation of the outflow.
To convert large amounts of water, mainly crown spillways are used.
Under the outflow spillways and the bottom outlet there is a stilling basin for reducing
the water energy.

Pic. 9 Scheme of the cross section of the gravitation dam 1 bottom outlet; 2 sheet stop
gate; 3 tainter gate; 4 aeration piping; 5 rack; 6 trench for box dam; 7 dump well
(revision shaft); 8 inspection drift; 9 spilling basin; 10 baffles; 11 tainter gate machine
room; 12 sheet stop gate machine room

Conditions of stability of the gravitation dam

Cross section of the gravitation dam must resist to the impact of all the external and internal
forces.
For its design and assessment so called base, or ideal static triangle is used. The top is at the
level of the highest water level, the walls on the water face incline 3 to 5 % of the height, on
the ebb side 70 to 80 % of the height.

20

Pic. 10 Static triangle

The static triangles ratio of the width to the height is called the slenderness ratio of the
damming wall:

B
H

The safety of the dam requires that these conditions are met:
safe against tipping over,
resistance against shifting,
excluding traction stress.

21

DAMS MADE OF STONES BY QUARRY-STONE WORK TECHNIQUE

They belong among the oldest types of dams. Sporadically they are built even today. During
construction of stone wall (mason) dams the mechanization is not greatly used, as the work is
done manually.
Mason dams are made of stone of the size of 0.3 0.5 m3, smaller stones are used for
wedging.
Stoned are placed to the mortar layer bed of great thickness.
Stones must be healthy, firm, moisture-proof, without cracks, and cold resistant.
Mortar must be waterproof and firm enough, as its properties determine the water proofness
and safety of the dam.
Dewatering the damming wall the water which soaked in through the water face is caught in
the drainage placed from 3 to 3.5 m from the water face. The distance between the individual
draining pipes is about 3 m.

CONCRETE DAMS
Concrete gravity dams demand great quality of the foundations. It is vital to found the base on
the strong enough rock subsoil with regards to even settlement.
The cross section of the dam is designed as triangular.
Water face side is built as vertical in the incline 12:1.
The ebb side is built in the incline 1: 1.35.
Longitudinally the body of the dam is separated (for technical reasons) with dilatation joints
15 m thick.
The largest classic gravity dam is the GRANDE DIXENCE DAM in Switzerland, built in
1961, with its height of 285 m.

Pic. 11 Concrete gravity dam

Nowadays during the construction of dams, the roller-compacted concrete technology is
greatly used. The first dam made of roller-compacted concrete is Ohkawa, Japan 1976.

22

Pic. 12 The Concepcin Dam Honduras 1990 roller-compacted concrete

DILATATION JOINTS
They are lead from the water face side all the way to the ebb side. They must enable the
mutual movement of the concrete blocks while the concrete is shrinking and expanding.
In the past, copper sheets were used to seal the dilatation joints, these sheets were put under
concrete into neighboring blocks. The width of the sheet 70 150 cm, the thickness of the
sheet is 1.5 3 mm.
Rubber sealing is made of rubber profiled bands, put under the concrete into the neighboring
blocks.
Besides the above mentioned types of sealing we can use also other types: asphalt sealing
ropes, asphalt fillers and rubber wedges.

Pic. 13 The sealing of a dilatation joint; 1 copper sheet; 2 ferroconcrete wedge; 3 dump
well; 4 inspection drift

23

Pic. 14 The sealing of dilatation joints by rubber; 1 rubber band; 2 long frame timber

ARCH DAMS
They withstand the water pressure by arch effect and they lead the major part of load into the
sides of the valley.
They are characterized with thin cross section. The savings on concrete in comparison with
gravity dams is 50 70 %.
For the construction of an arch dam, canyon valleys are suitable.
Static solution
From the static point of view, the dam is a curved board panel support beam. Static-wise it is
solved by means of for instance the Ritters method.
The shape of the dam
simple shape of cylindrical arch with constant thickness (the curvature only in the
horizontal direction),
thin arches with double bend (curvature in both horizontal and vertical direction).

Pic. 15 The shapes of cross profiles of arch dams

24

Pic. 16 Arch dam

BUTTRESS DAMS
They are a young construction type, since their design and construction requires top quality
up-to-date technologies.
The damming body is made of plates or arches leaning against pillars.
They can be founded also on less strong rock subsoil.
According to the shape of the damming wall we distinguish two types of buttress dams:
plate-shape,
arch-shape.
Plate-shape buttress dams
Ferroconcrete plate leans against pillars which are extended cantilevers.
The distance between the pillars is 5 to 6 m, with the latest constructions it is 15 to 20 m.
Damming plate reinforced from both sides, the coverage of the reinforcement is 3 to 5 cm.
The thickness of the plate is 30 cm minimum.
The water face side of the dam is usually open.
Pillars have got a triangular cross section. They are secured against shifting by support ribs.
Arch-shape buttress dams
The damming body is made of several arches which lean against triangular pillars. The axe
distance of the pillars is 15 20 m.
The arches are made of concrete either monolithically with pillars, or more often individually.
For greater distance between pillars, dome arches are used (curvature in longitudinal and
transversal direction).

25

Pic. 17 Segmentation of the damming wall

a) plate; b) arch; p pillar; z support rib

Pic. 18 Scheme of buttress dam

ANCHORED DAMS

Pic. 19 The scheme of the anchored dam

26

5.2 Weirs
A weir is a backwatering device placed in a bed of a river stream, in which it permanently or
temporarily serves to store water for various water management purposes.
Function of weirs:
reaching sufficient depth for the water intake,
making use of water energy,
ensuring nautical depth,
improving the mode of underground waters,
reducing the speed of the flow during modification of streams,
improving environment (recreation, aesthetic effects of elevated water level in towns).
Classification of weirs:
A) According to the ground scheme set-up:
perpendicular in the ground scheme their axis is perpendicular to the
axis of the water stream,
oblique in the ground scheme their axis is oblique to the axis of the
water stream,
polygonal in the ground scheme their axis is polygonal,
curved weirs with curved axis in the ground scheme.

Pic. 20 Classification of weirs according to the ground scheme shape 1 straight weirs; 2
polygonal weirs; 3 curved weirs; 4 partial weirs
B) According to the spillway:
free spillway,
submerged spillway.
C) According to their construction and function:
fixed weirs created as unmovable objects without lifting stop gates.
The water level of stored water changes in correspondence with flow
rate.
movable they are composed of bottom structure, pillars and regulation
stop gates of weir fields.
D) According to the type of building materials:
wood,
stone,
concrete,
ferroconcrete,
other materials.
27

5.2.1 Fixed weirs

WOODEN WEIRS
These constructions are permanent or temporary. They are used for only low storage height.
Interim wooden weirs
Their lifetime period is short. They are cheap, but leaky. They are usually built as temporary
constructions. They are performed as a pilot or a shee-pile wall (sheetings), tightened to the
shores, on both sides protected by stone packing.

Pic. 21 Interim wooden weirs 1 stone packing; 2 wooden spiles; 3 wooden round
timbers; 4 hurdle cylinder
Permanent wooden weirs
The damming wall is made of horizontal timbers or boards collected into perpendicular
columns, embedded into shee-pile walls drove in under the damming wall. The structure is on
both ends of the bottom part protected with shee-wall piles and stone packing.

Pic. 22 Permanent wooden weir 1 shee-pile walls; 2 wooden spiles; 3 concrete; 4

planks; 5 damming body; 6 raker; 7 stone packing
28

Wooden weirs with filling

The body of the weir is made of drove-in shee-pile walls on both sides of the weir. In between
the shee-pile walls there are lines of spiles. The space between the shee-pile walls and the
spiles is filled with clay, soil or stones and covered by stones or concrete.

Pic. 23 Wooden weir with filling 1 shee-pile walls; 2 spiles; 3 clay sealing; 4 granite
blocks; 5 stone packing; 6 soldier beams

Cobwork timber weirs

They are built on a rocky basement where spiles cannot be driven in. They are composed of
cobwork cases which are filled with stone. The most commonly used wood is pine (well
resistant to dampness), oak. Life time of a weir is between 10 to 15 years.

Pic. 24 Cobwork timber weir 1 timbers; 2 plank centering

29

STONE WEIRS
They are made of stone packing material. The core of the weir is built of fine material,
towards the surface of the weir coarser material is used.
The surface of the weir is hardened with large stones, cobbles put on cement mortar.
The incline of the water face is 1:1, ebb side 1:2 to 1:5.
The weir hasnt got a stilling basin, which is replaced with a more moderate incline of the ebb
side.
The height of the weir is around up to 5 m.

Pic. 25 Stone weir 1 fine material; 2 coarser material

CONCRETE WEIRS
According to the set-up of the spillway wall we distinguish fixed weirs with a sheer spillway
wall (already out-of-date), and fixed weirs with an oblique spillway wall which meet all new
hydraulic requirements.

Pic. 26 Concrete weir a) with a sheer spillway wall; b) with an oblique spillway wall

30

FERRO-CONCRETE WEIRS
They are good for fairly quick construction and material saving. The simplest type is the
Ambursens weir, which has got an oblique thin damming wall leaning against spiles. They
are built on waterproof subsoil.
The height of the weir is up to 15 m.

Pic. 27 Open type of the Ambursens weir

5.2.2 Movable weirs

They are built in the stream of water where it is necessary to:

control the level of water and flow rates,

enable the bed load and debris and ice to pass through,

modify the mode of underground waters.

Movable weirs are composed of:

fixed components (the bottom structure, sealing and stabilizing elements and spiles),

gates of the weir fields (boards, segments, roller gate).

According to the construction of the damming bodies we distinguish the following types
of movable weirs:

stop long weir,

needle weir,

roller gate weir,

paneled weirs,

flap weirs,

tainter weirs,

cylindric weirs,

hydrostatic weirs.

31

STOP LONG WEIRS

The damming body is made of stop longs (wooden timbers, or perhaps ferro-concrete support
beams) piled horizontally one over another one into perpendicular notches or they lean against
benches on the sides of the spiles.
The height of the heave is regulated by adding or taking away the stop longs. Mostly they are
used as interim stop gates.

Pic. 28 Stop long weir (the scheme)

Pic. 29 Stop long fitting 1 tilted lug; 2 fixed hook

Pic. 30 Steel stop long

NEEDLE WEIRS
The damming wall is made of wooden vertical timbers needles. Needles are slightly inclined
down the water. The bottom part of the needles leans against a jag, which is placed in the
bottom sill. The upper end is hung onto the needle stem placed on the bearing construction.
Needles are made of spruce and fir wood, and they have got a square or rectangle cross
section (app. 150x100 mm).
Needle stem is made of steel pipes with the diameter of 80 mm.
Bearing construction steel panel framework, welded or riveted. It leads the hydrostatic
pressure of the water to the bottom structure of the weir.

Pic. 31 The scheme of the needle weir 1 needle, 2 stopper, 3 needle stem,
4 bearing construction, 5 control bridge, 6 woofer apron, 7 shee-pile wall
32

Pic. 32 Needle fitting 1 the lug of the fitting,

2 hook, 3 needle stem,
4 iron board, 5 needle

Pic. 33 Slide-out 1 needle,

2 fitting, 3 slide-out,
4 needle stem, 5 control bridge

ROLLER GATE WEIRS

The damming wall is made of roller gates. These are vertical or slightly inclined boards which
move (slide) in the notches of the spiles or in the beams of the bearing construction.
The roller gates are usually made of wood (planks, connected with a spring and joint), the
gates are fixed on both sides with a flat iron band (thin iron sheet).
The roller gates are used for the range of 1 to 6 m, for the storage height 0.5 2.5 m. For
wider range steel roller gates are better.
The fitting sill of the roller gate weir is commonly placed under the concrete to the bottom
structure of the weir.
The moving device of the roller gate weirs is:

steel rod,

screw spindle,

cog rod.

Pic. 34 Roller gate weir

33

Pic. 35 Roller gate weir in Hronov

SHEET STOP (PANELED) WEIRS

The damming construction of sheet stop gates are sheet stops (panels).
One sheet weirs
The sheet is made of a line of horizontal support beams. These support beams are made of
either cylindrical profiles or they are truncated. The damming sheet is made of steel sheet,
minimum thickness is 10 mm.
The sheets move on carry rollers which move in a horizontal rail anchored in a pillar joint.
The sheets hang on the Galls chains.
The pillars of sheet stop weirs are usually made of concrete, tiled around with stone. The
width of a pillar is 3,0 to 5,0 m, the length is 20 to 30 m.
For sealing the vertical joints, oak timber or rubber is commonly used. For sealing the
horizontal joint, oak timber is used.

Pic. 36 Pillar of sheet stop weirs 1 joint for the sheet, 2 damming sheet, 3 joint for box
dam
34

Sheet stop weirs with hinged-leaf gate

They are suitable for easy manipulation of the stored water. Regulation of water in a weir
reservoir is enabled by outflow and overflow.
The hinged-leaf gate is a low-height damming wall connected to the upper edge of the sheet
and it revolves around the horizontal axis. The storing level of water is regulated by the
revolving movement of the hinged-leaf gate.

Pic. 37 Sheet stop weir with a fish-belly flap gate

Two sheet weirs
They are used with greater heights of backwatering.
According to the construction set-up we distinguish two-sheet weirs into:
1)
Both sheets move independently, each one in its own track. The upper sheet can be
moved behind the lower sheet.
2)
The upper sheet is moved behind the raised shield of the lower sheet, and both move in
one track by means of their common moving mechanism.
3) The upper sheet has got only an upper horizontal support beam, the bottom end leans
against the water face of the lower sheet.

Pic. 38 Two-sheet weirs 1 first type, 2 second type, 3 third type

35

FLAP WEIRS
These are the most common type of movable weirs.
The damming body of a flap weir is a board which revolves around the horizontal axis. The
revolving axis is:

either on the bottom structure of the weir (so called flap, or flap gate),

or in heaved water,

or above heaved water.

Flap weirs with the axis on the bottom structure of the weir

Pic. 39 The Thenards flap weir

Flap weirs with the axis in heaved water
They are suitable for water streams with low amount of sediments and debris and in the places
where the loss of water between weirs isnt important.
The flap gates are slightly inclined in the direction down the water stream.
The revolving axis is fixed with a bolt-up trestle and a support which on the bottom hill leans
against a shoe anchored into the bottom structure of the weir.

Pic. 46 Flap weir with the axis in the stored water

36

SEGMENT WEIRS
The weir field is protected with a segment which is a part of the cylinder area.
The damming body revolves around the horizontal axis of the plugs placed on the ends of the
segment shoulders.
The segment is made of two, three or more full wall or panel horizontal support beams. The
damming wall of the segment is made of steel sheet which leads the pressure of the water onto
the main bearing construction. The shoulders of the segment are usually paneled, they are
connected to revolve in the plugs to the pillars of the weir. The plugs of the segment are
placed above the level of water so that they dont suffer any damage from hitting and dont
disturb the flow of water.
For movement of the damming body we use:

steel cables,

steel rod,

Galls chains.
Sealing of the segment weirs is similar to the ones of sheet gate weirs. The vertical joints are
sealed with a sheet connected to segments, on the end of which there is an oak timber or
rubber. Horizontal joints are sealed when the damming body settles down to the weir sill with
an oak timber, also possible to combine with rubber.
According to the manipulation with the stop gate and construction set-up we distinguish
segments to:

lifting regulation of water level by outflow,

lowering lowered behind the sill or the platform of the bottom construction of the weir
regulation of water level by overflow,

with a flap gate lifting segment, slight regulation of water level in the reservoir by a
flap gate,

with two-part segments two segments possibility to regulate the water level by
overflow, outflow or by the combination of the two.
Segment stop gate are used for greater heights (from 4m).
The disadvantage of segment weirs is concentration of the pressure in the plugs which are
unfavorably overloaded.
The advantage of segment stop gates they are easy to manipulate with in the flowing stream
of water.
Segment stop gates are used for damming the spillways of the dams and also for damming the
basement outlets.

Pic. 47 Segment weir lifting type

37

Pic. 48 Segment weir lowering type, on the Labe river in Hradec Krlov

CYLINDRICAL WEIRS
Cylindrical weirs have got their individual fields fitted with cylindrical weir stop gates.
Cylindrical stop gate horizontal round cylinder which regulates the flow rate either by the
outflow or the overflow or by the combination of these two.
Round cylinder is on both ends fitted with cogged rims, through which the cylinder is
moving during lifting and lowering on the gate track racks in the inclined joints (70 - 80) in
the sides of the pillars.
Lifting cylinder during manipulation it can only be lifted and it regulates the level of upper
water by outflow.
Lowering cylinder it is lowered completely or partly behind the fixed weir platform, the
regulation of the level of upper water is done by overflow.
Cylinder with a flap gate it has got a flap gate connected on the back part which serves for
slight regulation of the level of upper water.
Cylinder with bottom shield it is either lifting or lowering weir cylinder which on the
bottom part is connected to the fixed or movable shield with a sealing timber.
Cylindrical weirs are used for lower heights (up to 5 m). The clearance of the weir fields can
be up to 30 m.

38

Pic. 49 Cylindrical weir lifting type

Pic. 50 Cylindrical weir with a bottom shield and a damming wall; 1 cylindrical weir with a
bottom shield, 2 cylindrical weir with a damming wall.

Pic. 51 Cylindrical weir with a movable bottom shield

39

Pic. 52 Cylindrical weir with a bottom shield and a flap gate

HYDROSTATIC WEIRS
The movement of these weirs is ensured by the hydrostatic powers in the compressive
chamber of the weir.
The damming body is raised by the overpressure of water in the compressive chamber created
by the upper water, which is connected to the compressive chamber with a closable canal.
The body of the weir is reclined by closing the canal connecting the compressive chamber
with upper water, and by lowering the pressure in the compressive chamber by connecting the
compressive chamber with lower water.
All the moves of the weir are controlled by manipulation with stop gates of the connecting
canals, this means without using any other mechanisms.
According to the construction set-up we distinguish four groups of hydrostatic weirs:

flap,

segment,

sector,

panel.
Advantages of hydrostatic weirs:

great operational reliability,

savings in move mechanisms,

possibility to minimize the volume of the actual construction area of the weir.

Pic. 53 Sector hydrostatic weir

40

Pic. 54 Hydrostatic weirs; 1 three-flap weirs, 2 segment weir, 3 sector

WATER BAG WEIRS

For the construction of water bag weir, suitable waterproof textile material is used (nylon
fiber coated with neoprene, rubber-coated nylon textile), which is anchored to the simple
bottom structure of the weir.
On the banks, the water bag is anchored to the vertical or steep wall and at the same time it is
connected with the device which ensures filling the water bag with water.
The damming function of the weir is ensured when the overpressure in the water bag is about
1.5 multiple of the dammed height. Water bag is filled by a pump.
Advantage the least costly movable weirs.
Disadvantage the water bag is prone to mechanical damage.

Pic. 55 Water bag weir after the reconstruction of a fixed weir

41

Pic. 56 Technological scheme of the water bag weir

5.3 Supplement fittings of the backwater constructions

Backwater constructions must be fitted with suitable manipulation device so that it is possible
to ensure the required functions of the water management structure during daily operation and
without any special conditions.
The supplementary objects of backwater constructions can be divided into several groups:

safety spillways,

bottom outlets,

gravel passes,

crossings for fish.

SAFETY SPILLWAYS
The main function of the safety spillway is harmless direction of flood streams through the
profile of the water management structure.
With weirs, the whole construction of a weir bears the safety function!!!
Designed flow stream of the spillways used to be calculated Q100 to Q1000. Nowadays
requirements are higher, specifically Q1000 and more!!!
With water dams, we distinguish several types of safety spillways, those are:

crown,

side-way,

shaft,

siphon.
Crown spillway
They are placed in the middle of the crown of the dam.
The spillway area is made of cut stone, the concrete dams are made of concrete.
The advantage of free spillways is that they work automatically.
Dammed spillways enable to raise the level of maximum holding up to the maximum quote,
which is reached during floods. Thus, when we dam the spillway, the uncontrollable retention
space becomes controllable.
42

Pic. 57 Crown spillway with a dam (Kamk) 1 segment stop gate, 2 provisional dam, 3
machine room, 4 crane for provisional dam, 5 stilling basin, 6 dump well, 7 inspection
drift.
Side-way spillways
They are situated on the side of the valley.
They are common with older types of earth dams (WM structure ance, Czech Republic).
There is a possibility to extend the length of the spillway rim, the direction of falling water
towards the water stream is transversal.
The water is most commonly drained by a diversion channel, cascades or chute.

Pic. 58 Side-way spill setup

Shaft spillways
They are situated into the side of the valley close to the dam, or inside the reservoir (water
management structure Karolinka na Stanovnici, Czech Republic).
They can be free or dammed, mostly by the cylinder roller gate.

43

Pic. 59 Shaft spillway setup

A great role while designing spillway devices is played by absorbing the water energy in the
riverbed under this device.
With weirs, this absorption is made by hydraulic jump.
With water dams, the absorption of the water energy coming from the water stream is done by
its airing and spreading over larger area.
Absorption of water requires in all cases special shapes of the ending parts of the spillways
and scour protection under the water dam or under the riverbed.
It is now possible to realize the absorption in the chute under the safety spillway by an
adjustment which ensures great aeration (cascade chutes).

Pic. 60 Cascade chutes

Pic. 61 Absorption of water energy by hydraulic jump.

44

BOTTOM OUTLETS
The main role of the bottom outlet is to regulate the flow rate in the bed under the water dam,
and in case of necessity to enable the water let out of the reservoir.
They are also used during the construction of water dams, for re-directing the water during the
construction of the dam.
Dimensioning of the bottom outlets:

while dimensioning the capacity of bottom outlets, it is necessary to take into account
the whole range of flow rates, which shall be regulated by the bottom outlets;

the capacity of the bottom outlets is determined by dewatering the reservoir in

reasonable time;

the capacity of bottom outlets should not get below Q1.

Closing gates of bottom outlets:

hinged-leaf gate,

wedge-shaped gate (sliding door),

spatter gate,

segment gate,

panel gate.

Pic. 62 Hinged-leaf gate of the bottom outlet

Pic. 63 Segment gate

45

GRAVEL PASSES
The main role of gravel passes is to remove the sediments from the weir or water dam.
When the gate is opened, the sediments are transported hydraulically into the scour under the
backwater structure.
Gravel passes are used especially on the weirs close to the objects for water intake.
Mostly they are fitted with a lifting gate.

Pic. 64 Rinsing outlet in the water dam

46

6. Monitoring measurement at existing dams

Monitoring measurement taken at dams ensures safe operation of the dams. The measurement
results help to assess the conditions of the structure.
Measurement taken:

Deformation,

Upward hydraulic pressure,

Seepage,

Temperature changes.
Some of the measurement is taken directly by dam attendants e.g. seepage, upward hydraulic
pressure etc.
Special benchmarks are embedded in the dam for other kinds of measurement.

6.1 Deformation measurement

Deformation means dam subsidence (shape changes in the vertical direction), dam deflection
(changes in the cross direction), contraction (extension resp.) of a dam in the linear direction.
Measuring devices used are either located off the dam or directly in the dam.
Measuring devices located off the dam
1)

Deflection measurement from the sight axis

Two stable reference points are located on both banks off the main dam body. The reference
points determine the sight axis, a vertical plane, from which deformation is measured. In one
of the points, a levelling instrument, or a theodolite, is positioned, the way it aims at the other
point located on the opposite bank, signalised by a target. Then we aim at the points,
embedded in the dam body in the direction of its axis.
2)

Trigonometric measurement

Two abutments are built in the distance of 80 - 120 m off the dam body, where we can locate
a protractor device. From the either abutments we aim at the marks located on the ebb side of
the dam.
3)

Measurement of dam subsidence by means of precise levelling

Stable reference points are embedded in the dam in the process of building, enabling to
measure the time course and amount of the dam subsidence. By use of precise levelling, the
points and the stable height reference points located off the dam are connected. The points are
embedded on the outer part of the dam as well as in the inspection drifts.
4)

Subsoil subsidence measurement

Measurement is carried out by means of monitoring two tubes. One of them (the inner one) is
embedded (concreted) deep in the rock; the other (pulled over the first one) is fastened just
below the footing bottom. The tube edges heights are measured by levelling.

47

Pic. 65 Deformation measurement of a dam (from the sight axis and trigonometrically)
1 base, 2 sight axis, 3 portable target, 4 stable support of the aiming target, 5
benchmark

Pic. 66 Deformation measurement of a dam (from the sight axis and trigonometrically) 1
tube embedded in concrete in the rock, 2 outer tube, 3 steel plate
48

Measurement with devices located in the dam

1)

Measurement by a plumb bob in dump wells

A plumb bob is suspended from a string in a dump well, touching the footing bottom. The
plumb bob weighs several kilograms and it is dipped in an oil tank to prevent vibration of the
string.
Deformation is measured at certain points at the height level of the dam and thus possible
tilting and deflections are discovered.
Deflection is measured by projecting the shade of the plumb bobs string on a drift wall.
2)

Deformation measurement with inclinometer

Two stable reference points are embedded in the walls of inspection drifts, on which an
extremely sensitive bubble level is placed (mounted on a ruler).
The tilting is measured by aligning the ruler with a micrometer screw and the displacement of
the levels bubble.
3)

Measurement of the linear deformation

Extension or contraction of a concrete dam is measured by means of discovering displacement

in dilatation joints (opening and closing).
Special clamps (slit where meeting joint) are embedded for this reason in the inspection drifts
at the ebb and water face of the dam.
Displacement of joints is measured with a wedge micrometer of 0.1- 0.01mm accuracy.

Pic. 67 Clamps used for deformation measurement

4)

Distance measurement

Strain gauge is used, functioning on a principle of resistance change at shortening (pushing)

and extending a wire, made of appropriate metal.
String strain gauge works on a principle that the string frequency depends on its length
change.

6.2 Upward hydraulic pressure measurement

Upward hydraulic pressure on the footing bottom is measured by use of pressure gauges,
which are mounted on pressure tubes at the bottom the inspection drift leading up to the
footing bottom.
49

6.3 Seepage measurement

With concrete and walled dams, the water face of a dam is drained by a vertical drainage
leading to inspection drifts.
The seeping water is retained in a gutter, where the amount of water is measured by use of
metering overflow.
Apart from the overall seepage, other measurement can be taken:

overall seepage of each inspection drift;

seepage of each drainage and vertical inspection drift;

seepage of each dilatation joint.

With earth-fill dams, a shape of the seepage curve is watched, either by use of a float gauge,
weight or by so-called Frankfurt Pipe.

6.4 Hydrologic measurement

The following meteorological observations taken:

temperature,

air humidity,

direction and wind force,

temperature of water in the reservoir,

hydraulic pressure in the outlet and intake pipelines.

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7. Water supply structures

Water supply structures enable intake of the required amount of water from a weir basin or a
reservoir of the highest responsibility.
Several principles must be obeyed when designing water supply structures:

water supply structures should be designed in appropriate hydraulic way (losses in

pressure as low as possible),
should be located in a place protected from bed load deposition,

must be designed the way preventing suspended loads from entering the inlet,

flow regulation through the water supply structure must be enabled.

We can classify the structures according to their location in two groups:

1)

pressurized water supply structures level of water surface changes very little;

2)

pressureless water supply structures the intake part is submerged under the water
surface within the whole range of water level changes;

We can classify the structures according to the purpose water is used for as follows

irrigation water,

drinking and industrial water,

water for electricity production,

relieving trunk streams during floods

Protection against bed load deposition

1)

water supply structure should be situated in places less fraught with bed load deposition.

2)

water structure should be supplied with equipment enabling possible inlet cleaning (a
sill is built on the bottom of the water structures inlet).

Protection against suspended bed loads:

Protection is guaranteed by racks and floating baffles.
Regulation of flow through the water supply structure:
Regulation is provided by valves (segmented, sprinkle, needle valves etc.) and a provisional
barrier.

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Pic. 68 Pressureless water supply structure ( Mrel,the Rhine river) of a flow rate 20 m3.s-1

Pic. 69 Geometrical shape of the inlet at PVE Lipovec

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8. Water transport structures

Penstocks and tailrace tunnels are used to transport water from a water supply structure to the
place of use.
Penstocks
Penstocks are mostly round shaped, built mainly as pipelines, channels and tunnels.
Penstocks are mainly used as waterways for transportation of crude water from reservoirs to
water treatment plants or to hydropower plants.
Materials used with penstocks:

steel tubes - diameter 200 2600 mm.

cast-iron tubes (exceptionally),

pre-stressed steel-concrete tubes

Pic. 70 Penstock of the water supply structure Minghu (Taiwan)

Tailrace waterways
Built mainly in a form of tailrace piping, tunnels and channels.
Used for:

bypassing the water structures,

leading water away from the safety overflow,

water transport between particular catchments areas,

water supply etc.

Pic. 71 Typical cross sections shapes of tailrace channels and tunnels.

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Canals
The oldest method of water transportation used in agriculture (irrigation system), navigation
and transportation.
We classify canals into two groups according to geologic conditions:

tight canals,

untight canals,

Pic. 72 Path and bank versions and cross section canal solutions

Penstock and tailrace operation

Some arrangements must be designed, for safe operation of the penstocks and tailrace tunnels,
to eliminate harmful impacts of transient waves, arising from opening and closing of the water
intake.
With penstocks dumping chambers are built (connected with the penstock either directly or by
means of hydraulic resistance).
Culverts are built with tailrace tunnels.
Inverted Siphons
Structures used for under-passing rivers and civil-engineering infrastructure.
Aqueducts
Aqueducts are used when necessary to bridge over valleys and other uneven terrains, where
other solutions are impossible, due to technical and economic aspects.

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Pic. 73 Siphons and aqueducts

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9. Water routes
Water routes are used for carriage of freight and people on water surface, i.e. on the surface of
seas, lakes and rivers as well as artificial waterways and influent streams.
Water transport can be divided into:

sea transport

inland navigation

Inland navigation transport brings a number of advantages:

the most energy-saving means of transport;

large load capacity and large load space;

low ratio of ships weight compared to the weight of the load;

high effectiveness (low number of attendants needed, compared to amount of the

transported load);

insignificant noise pollution (noise, emission etc.)

Disadvantages:

low density of inland water routes;

further construction limited by local conditions (hydrologic, topographic etc.);

insufficient interconnection of water routes;

combination with other means of transport;

dependence on adverse hydrologic conditions;

low transport speed.

In the Czech Republic, only the Vltava/Elbe water route (302 km long) is connected to the
European water routes, and the Danube water route in Slovakia (172 km long).

9.1 Inland navigation

Basic glossary
Displacement (t) is the weight of water pushed out by submerged part of a ship, which
equals to the overall weight of the ship and the load together.
Dead-weight capacity (t) is the difference between the overall displacement and the
displacement of an empty ship.
Draft the depth of the lowest submerged point of a ship,
During navigation may occur heeling (around the linear axis) or trimming of (around the
horizontal axis) a ship.
Ship resistance it is necessary to overcome the resistance caused by viscosity of water,
shape irregularity and submersion of the ship.
The following vessels are used for the freight transport:
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motor boats,

freighters of no self-propel (propelled by push-boats).

The inland navigation is possible on:

naturally navigable waterways and lakes

waterways made navigable by means of building a number of cascading weir basins;

waterways made navigable by regulation improvements (the waterway management

principles)

canals, i.e. artificially made waterways.

9.2 Navigation of waterways

Naturally navigable are mainly low respectively middle reaches of large rivers, where the
navigation depth is granted (at various flow rates), as well as the width beam and curve
parameters meet requirements.
Navigation made by regulation improvements
The following principles must be respected:

balanced conditions in the linear profile, i.e. balanced amount of the carried bed loads;

draft meeting requirements (selected from 0.5 up to 1.0 m);

width beam requirements;

minimum curve radius in the flow path (Rmin=800 m for the Czech Republic)

Pic. 74 Scheme of regulated navigation

Navigation made by building sequential cascades of weir basins
Provides the required draft depth all over the navigable segment, regardless of the flow rates.

Pic. 75 Scheme of navigation by means of cascaded weir basins

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We can classify according to navigation:

river scheme the lock is situated at the backwater structure,

derivation scheme the lock is located on the canal

9.3 Inland canals

Inland canals are artificial waterways interconnecting navigable waterways, or waterways
made navigable or lakes.
Canals must be supplied with water artificially.
Canal path
Connects the initial points with respect to local conditions. It must respect junctions to
significant industrial and commercial centres and connection to railway, road and motorway
transportation systems.
Consists of direct segments (max. 2 km. long) and curves of a large radius ranging from Rmin=
800 up to 1000 m.
Linear profile of the canal
Can be of one-sided sloping, but more frequent are canals of two-sided sloping, over-passing
the highest point by means of top weir basin.
Gravity inflow of water is provided from collecting reservoirs located in the catchment area.

Pic. 76 The Rhein Main - Danube Canal scheme

9.4 Structures on water routes

Locks (lock chambers), boatlifts respectively are among the most important structures.
Locks
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Locks enable vertical lifting and lowering of boats, by means of filling and draining of the
given space.
The lock is a fixed chamber, mainly of a rectangular shape, equipped with gates at either end
of the upper and lower canals. The gates are embedded in the top and bottom balance beams.
The lock is connected with the channel by means of upper and lower roadsteads.
The lock is filled and drained by use of a paddle gear mechanism (including culverts, gate
inlets)
Major parts of a lock are:

a chamber, made of walls of various structure;

top and bottom balance beams, in which chamber gates are embedded with a paddle
gear mechanism and a provisional barrier.

paddle valve mechanism for filling and draining the chamber

equipment of the chamber.

Rise a rise of about 25 m is considered as a limit at present.

Passing time depends on filling and draining of the chamber, should be as short as possible.
Balance beams massive concrete blocks able to balance the (non-floating) weight imposed
both on them and the gates.

Pic. 77 Scheme of a lock

10. Waterways improvements

Purposes of waterway improvements

protection of residential areas against floods,

stream channel stability (protection against harmful effects of waterways erosion,

aggradation),

improvement of the flow path removal of harmful effects is recommended (e.g.

removal of ice-floes in winter),
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centralisation of medium and small streams into a single stream channel,

optimum conditions for water supply,

navigable waterways,

hydro-energy usage.

Objectives of the waterway improvements:

to slow down the catchment area runoff,

to ensure maintaining and increasing of the minimum flow rates,

to achieve the balanced flow rates possible in the catchment area.

10.1 System of waterways development

System of waterways a system of stream channels including tributaries and lakes it is a
resultant of both endogenous and exogenous forces.
Endogenous forces internal forces; forces continually shaping the earth. They cause both
vertical and horizontal surficial dynamics.
Exogenous forces concern forces such as solar energy, human activities.
River relief is shaped by the flowing water.
Catchment area drains particular river relief, the catchment area is defined by a water
divide.
Waterway system classification tree-shaped, asymmetric (tributaries on one side), fanshaped (tributaries discharge in one area), feathery.

10.2 Waterways classification

We can classify waterways into four groups, according to flow rates, size of the catchment
area, water flow character and the runoff regime.

Creeks shorter waterways, high steep gradient, abrupt changes of the flow,
considerable erosive effects.

Streams smaller waterways, more balanced steep gradient, lower carriage of bed loads.

Rivers higher flow rates, larger catchment area, and lower steep gradient.

Large rivers length of the rivers more than 500 km. Catchment area larger than 10,000
km2.

10.3 Stream channel relocation

1. Shaping a new stream channel

The new flow path should maximally use the natural stream channel,

crossing with road communications is possible at an angle of 90, 60,

the flow path should lead through the lowest points of the area,

the new path should not be constricted (higher drag force, higher velocity of water flow,
unwanted stream channel scour),

when shaping a new channel, it is necessary to regularly change curves and straight
segments of the path,
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the optimum length of the distance between two counter curves is calculated by
L 0,7 B r , r- diameter of the closest curve placed upstream, B stream channels
width at the level of the proposed flow rate,

rmin 6B ,

with smaller waterways rmin 10b , b stream channels width

2. Curve types
A)

Single rounded curve

B)

compound circular curve

C)

quadratic parabola,

D)

general sinusoid,

E)

clotoid,

F)

lemniscate curves using the lemniscate of Bernoulli

symmetric lemniscate curve composed by using two identical parts of a

lemniscate,

asymmetric lemniscate curve only a part of lemniscate is used in

composition.

3. Stream longitudinal section

Is an extended vertical profile of the area, projected by the centre line of the channel. The
height level of the streambed is defined here, to assess appropriate level of ground water.
Changes in the streambed longitudinal elevation should increase stability, i.e. bring a desired
stage, where sediment and scour brought by reconstruction, do not exceed expected levels.
4. Stream cross section
Defined as an intersection of the channel with the plane vertical to the centre line of the
channel.
When proposing the shape and size, it is essential to consider the following:

proportion of low and high flow rates and their variations,

balanced and unbalanced water flow,
local conditions of the channel,
biological, hygienic, fish-farming, recreational and visual requirements,
slope and bank stability and selection of embankment,
shape and size of stream channel upstream and downstream the area of improvement.

Cross section classification:

Open trapezoidal, rectangular, dish-shaped, combined, single, compound double, triple.
Closed circular, rectangular.

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