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Vector Algebra (Chapter 2 - Ulaby)

Overview:
*Scalar Quantities - can be completely specified by magnitude only such as temperature, speed, mass and electric current.
*Vector Quantities - specify both magnitude and direction such as velocity and weight.
*Vector Analysis - provides the mathematical tools necessary for expressing and manipulating vector quantities in an efficient
and convenient manner.
*Vector Algebra governs the laws of addition, subtraction and multiplication of vectors in any given coordinate system.
*Vector Calculus - encompasses the laws of differentiation and integration of vectors
2 - 1 Basic Laws of Algebra
*Unit vector - magnitude of unity (1)
*Base vectors (ax, ay, az) - three mutually perpendicular unit vectors
2-1.1 Equality of Two Vectors
*Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if they have equal magnitudes and identical unit vectors .
*Equality of vectors does not necessarily imply that they are identical. In Cartesian coordinates, two displaced parallel vectors of
equal magnitude and pointing in the same direction are equal, but they are identical only if they lie on top of one another.
Equal if they are parallel, equal in magnitude and in the same direction, but identical if they are equal and lie on top of the other.
2-1.2 Vector Addition and Subtraction
*Vector Addition - either obtained by parallelogram rule or the head-to-tail rule.

2-1.3 Position and Distance Vectors


*Position Vector (OP)- is the vector from the origin to point P.
*Distance Vector (P1P2) - distance between two vectors
2-1.4 Vector Multiplication
*Three Types of Multiplication: (1) Simple Product, (2) Dot Product and (3) Cross Product.
SIMPLE PRODUCT:
*Simple product = scalar to vector multiplication

SCALAR OR DOT PRODUCT:


*Scalar or Dot Product = defined geometrically as the product of the magnitude of one of the vectors and the projection of the
other vector onto to the first one.
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other vector onto to the first one.


*The scalar product of two vectors yields a scalar whose magnitude is less than or equal to the products of the magnitudes of the
two vectors
*Dot product of unit vectors = if same unit vector, dot product is equal to 1. Otherwise, equal to zero.
*Dot product follows both commutative and distributive properties
*Angle is measured from
tail of A to tail of B and is less than or equal to 180 degrees.

VECTOR OR CROSS PRODUCT:


*vector n is the unit vector perpendicular to both A and B.
*magnitude of the cross product is equal to the area of the parallelogram
*cross product of unit vectors follow the right hand rule (xyzxyz)
*cross product is anticommutative (A x B = - B x A), but still distributive.

2-1.5 Scalar Vector Triple Products


Scalar Triple Product - results to a scalar value.

*Any of this pattern holds as long as the vectors follow cyclic patterns.
Vector Triple Product - results to a vector
*does not follow associative law!

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2-2 Orthogonal Coordinate Systems

*Orthogonal coordinate systems (rectangular, cylindrical and spherical) - all coordinates are mutually perpendicular
*Non orthogonal coordinate systems - not all coordinates are mutually perpendicular
2-2.1 Cartesian Coordinates
*also called the rectangular coordinate

2-2.2 Cylindrical Coordinates


* = radial coordinate
* (azimuthal angle) - measured from the positive x-axis (up to 360 degrees or 2 radians)
*When talking about position vectors, a is not used!
2-2.3 Spherical Coordinates
*R is called the range or spherical radius
* is called zenith or polar angle - measured from the positive z-axis and it describes a conical surface with its apex at the
origin

2.3 Transformations between Coordinate Systems


2.3.1 Cartesian to Cylindrical Transformations

Dot Product

ax

cos

-sin

ay

sin

cos

Vertical - if rectangular to cylindrical


Horizontal - if cylindrical to rectangular
2.3.2 Cartesian to Spherical Transformation

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Dot Product

aR

ax

sincos

-sin

coscos

ay

sinsin

cos

cossin

az

cos

-sin

*Notes: Parallel = same slope, Perpendicular = negative reciprocal

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Vector Calculus (Chapter 3 - Ulaby)


3.1 Gradient

*Gradient of a scalar function is a vector whose magnitude is equal to the maximum rate of increasing
change of the scalar function per unit distance, and its direction is along the direction of maximum
increase. (Scalar turned vector!)

3.2 Divergence
*positive point charge - outward flux / negative point charge - inward flux
*Flux Density - amount of outward flux crossing a unit surface ds
*Flux lines - field lines that comes out of the surface
*divergence of a vector field - measure of the net outward flux per unit volume through a closed surface
surrounding the unit volume (Vector turned Scalar!)
Positive divergence

Source of flux

Negative divergence Sink of flux

Zero divergence

Divergenceless or Solenoidal

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3.3 Curl
*Curl = describes the rotational property or circulation
*It is the circulation per unit area.
*If curl is zero, the field B is said to be conservative or irrotational.

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3.4 Laplacian Operator


*Divergence of a gradient.

*Kapag horizontal, walang change in

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Maxwell's Equations (Chapter 4.1 - Ulaby)


*Maxwell's Equations - fundamental relations where modern electromagnetism is based.
*Not only encapsulates the connection between the electric field and electric charge and between the
magnetic field and electric current, but they also define the bilateral coupling between the electric and
magnetic field quantities.
*These equations hold in any material, including free space (vacuum) and at any spatial location (x,y,z).
*Formulated by James Clerk Maxwell in 1873, he established the first unified theory of electricity and
magnetism.
*Deduced from experimental observations reported by Gauss, Ampere, Faraday, etc.

*
*
*

Static Case: All charges are permanently fixed in space, or, if they move, they do so at a steady rate so
that pv and J are constant in time.
*It is no longer a function of time.
*The electric fields are no longer interconnected in this case.
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*The electric fields are no longer interconnected in this case.


*Allows us to study electricity and magnetism as two distinct and separate phenomena, as long as
the spatial distributions of charge and current flow remain constant in time.

Electrostatics:

Magnetostatics

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Capacitance (Chapter 4.10 - Ulaby)


*Capacitor - any two conducting bodies separated by an insulating (dielectric)
medium.

1. The conductor connected to the positive side will accumulate positive


charges, while the conductor connected to the negative side will
accumulate negative charges.
2. When a conductor has excess charge, it distributes the charge on its surface
in such a manner as to maintain zero electric field everywhere within the
conductor. This ensures that it is an equipotential body (electric potential is
the same at every point.)

Capacitance of Parallel-Plate Capacitor

Breakdown Voltage of a Parallel-Plate Capacitor

Capacitance of a Coaxial Line:

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lp

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Parallel Plate Capacitor (Chapter 6.2 - Hayt)


6.2 Parallel Plate Capacitor
Parallel Plate Capacitor - two conductor system in which the conductors are identical, infinite parallel planes with
separation d.
Main Formulas:

Diagram of a parallel plate conductor:

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Capacitance of a Two Wire Line (Chapter 6.4 - Hayt)


6.4 Capacitance of a Two-Wire Line
Two-wire line - a configuration consisting of two parallel conducting cylinders, each of circular cross section, which is
the arrangement of an important type of transmission line, the coaxial cable.

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Complex Numbers (Chapter 7-1.3 - Ulaby)

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Poisson's and Laplace's Equation (Chapter 6.6 - Hayt)

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Maxwell's Equations in Time-Varying Fields (Chapter 6)


Introduction:
*Charges induce electric fields and currents induce magnetic fields.
*Electromagnetic waves are produced when magnetic and electric fields couple, which is normally caused when
charge and current sources were to vary with time.
*Faraday's Law - time-varying magnetic field gives rise to an electric field
*Ampere's Law - time-varying electric field gives rise to a magnetic field
6.1 Faraday's Law:
*Oersted - established that electricity and magnetism are closely connected.
*He showed that a wire carrying an electric current exerts a force on a compass needle and that needle always
turns so as to point the direction when the current is along the z-direction

*Faraday - "if a current can produce a magnetic field, then the converse should also be true!"
*In 1831, Michael Faraday (in London) and Joseph Henry (in Albany, New York) - "magnetic fields can
produce an electric current in a closed loop, but only if the magnetic flux linking the surface area of the loop
changes with time."
*Galvanometer - sensitive instrument used in the 1800s to detect the flow of current in a circuit / predecessor
of voltmeter and ammeter

Electromotive Inducgtion can be done in three ways:


Type

Magnetic Field

Loop

1. Transformer EMF

Time-varying

Stationary

2. Motional EMF

Static

Moving loop with time-varying area

3. Combined

Time-varying

Moving loop

6.2 Stationary Loop in a Time Varying Magnetic Field


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6.2 Stationary Loop in a Time Varying Magnetic Field

*R1 is usually very small and it may be ignored.


*Lenz Law - the current in the loop is always in such a direction as to oppose the change of magnetic flux (t)
that produced it
*Faraday's Law - a voltage is induced across the terminals of a loop if the magnetic flux linking its surface
changes with time.
Units:
1. B (Magnetic Flux Density) = T
2. (Magnetic Flux) = Wb

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Waves and Phasors (Chapter7.1 - Ulaby)


Introduction:
*Electric field produces magnetic field and vice versa = this cyclic pattern produces Electromagnetic Waves.
*Plane wave propagation - easier to accommodate in rectangular than spherical coordinates
1. Guided Medium - a material structure that guides EM wave propagation such as transmission line, Earth's surface
and ionosphere

2. Unbounded Media - light waves emitted by the sun and radio transmissions by antennas
Process:
1. When energy is emitted by a source, it expands outwardly from the source spherically in all directions with the
same speed. This spherical emission is the wavefront.
2. To an observer very far away, this wavefront appears planar as if it were a part of a uniform plane wave. This is
because the observer's aperture (a hole or an opening through which light travels.) appears approximately planar.
7-1.1 Sinusoidal Wave in a Lossless Medium
*Lossless medium - a medium which does not attenuate the amplitude of the wave travelling within it or on its surface.
Frictional forces are also ignored.
Allows a wave generated to travel indefinitely with no loss in energy.

Where y = height of the water (in m)


x = distance of wave travel (in m)
A = wave amplitude (in m)
T = time or temporal period = repeating period
t = time
= spatial period or wavelength
0 = reference phase (in rads)= constant with respect to both time and space
Peak - can be achieved when the wave phase is 0 or multiples of 2pi

Phase Velocity (or propagation velocity) - apparent velocity of the fixed height
- the velocity of the wave pattern as it moves across the water surface
- direction? Negative x-direction -> x and t have the same signs
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- direction? Negative x-direction -> x and t have the same signs


- Positive x-direction -> x and t have opposite signs.
*Constant phase reference 0 has no influence on either the speed or the direction of the wave propagation.
*Frequency (Hz or cycles per second)- reciprocal of the time period / Heinrich Hertz

+x direction

-x direction

Positive 0

Negative 0

Phase Lead

Phase Lag

Shift to the left Shift to the right


7-1.2 Sinusoidal Signal in a Lossy Medium
*attenuation constant: (in Nepers per meter -> Np/m)
*the real unit of the attenuation constant is 1/m
*Neper = dimensionless, artificial adjective traditionally used as a reminder that the unit Np/m refers to the
attenuation constant.
*Similar to constant where the unit is assigned as rad/m instead of just 1/m.

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Phasors
Phasor Analysis - useful mathematical tool for solving problems involving linear systems in which the excitation is a
periodic time function.
- Use of phasor notation to represent time-dependent variables allows us to convert the integro-differential
equation into a linear equation with no sinusoidal functions.
Excitation (also known as forcing function)

Phasor Analysis:
1. Adopt a cosine reference.- express the forcing function as a cosine.
a. Sin(x) = cos(x - /2)
b. Cos(x) = cos(-x)
2. Express time-dependent variables as phasors.
a. ~ (tilde)
3. Recast the differential / integral equation in phasor form.
4. Solve the phasor-domain equation.
5. Find the instantaneous values.

Notes:

*Before turning it into a phasor. Convert it first to cosinusoidal form.

Sound:
Speed of light: C0
No negative polar form.

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Problem 1.6 (Chapter 7)


Problem 1.7 (Chapter 7)
Problem 1.8 (Chapter 7)
Problem 1.12 (Chapter 7)
Problem 1.13 (Chapter 7)

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Ideal Transformer (Chapter 6.3 - Ulaby)

*Transformer - consists of coils wounded around a common magnetic core with infinite permeability ( = ) and magnetic flux
within the core
*gets its name from the fact that it is used to transform currents, voltages and impedances between its primary and
secondary circuits
*Primary Coil - connected to an AC Voltage source
*Secondary Coil - connected to a load resistor R L
*The directions of I1 and I2 are such that the flux generated by one of them is opposite that generated by the other.
*Ideal lossless transformer - all the instantaneous power supplied by the source connected to the primary coil is delivered to
the load on the secondary side. No power is lost in the core.
*P1 = P2
Formula:

*It only differs in the number of turns.


*Magkabaliktad ang current and voltage.

*Simple ohm's law.

*Resistance is also applicable in impedance.

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Moving Conductor in Static Magnetic Field (Chapter 6.4 Ulaby)


Formula Needed:
Formula
Magnetic Force:

Variables
Where Fm = magnetic force
q = charged particle
u = velocity
B = magnetic field in Tesla ( 1 T
= 10, 000 Gauss)

Motional Electric Field

Motional emf

Motional Electric Field - electric field generated


by the motion of the charged particle

qaaqa

Magnetic Field:

Velocity:

Comment

=2pi*radius*angular velocity

Steps:
1. Get u x B. This would result to a direction, which would generate the Vemf.
2. Substitute to the Vemf equation.
a. If it is a square or rectangular loop moving away, -Vemf.
b. If it is a spinning loop, it is a -Vemf sinusoidal equation.
3. To get the voltage difference, it is always V43 - V21.
4. Divide voltage difference with the value of R.
If you see these figures, -Vemf.

````````````````If you see this one, the answer is in sinusoidal form.

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Motional emf - voltage induced by moving loop


- only those segments of the circuits that cross
magnetic field lines contribute to motional emf

````````````````If you see this one, the answer is in sinusoidal form.

Schaums Outline: 31

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Time Harmonic Fields (Chapter 7.2 - Ulaby)


*In the time-varying case, magnetic and electric field variables are all a function of the spatial coordinates
(x,y,z) and the time variable t.
*By converting them to phasor form, they will only depend on (x,y,z) only.

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7-3 Plane Wave Propagation


*three constitutive parameters of the medium: , and
*Lossless: (1) nonconducting
7-3.1 Uniform Plane Waves
*Uniform Plane Wave - characterized by electric and magnetic fields that have uniform properties at all
points across an infinite plane.
*E and H do not vary with x and y only, but varies with z.
*No electric and magnetic field components along its direction of propagation.
*For a wave travelling from the source toward the load on a transmission line, the amplitudes of its
voltage and current phasors are related by the intrinsic impedance.
*Intrinsic Impedance (n)

*The electric and magnetic field are perpendicular to each other and both are perpendicular to the
direction of wave travel. These directional properties characterize a transverse electromagnetic (TEM
wave).
*In phase - exhibit the same functional dependence on z and t
*Phase Velocity of lossless medium:

7.3.2 General Relation between E and H

*Valid for both lossless and lossy media.


*Right hand rule: When we rotate the four fingers of the right hand from the direction of E toward the
direction of H, the thumb will point in the direction of wave travel k.

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Wave Polarization (7.4 - Ulaby)


*Polarization of a uniform plane wave - describes the shape and locus of the tip of the E vector at a
given point in space as a function of time.
*Polarization states = ellipse, circular or linear. Can be determined by tracing the tip of E as a
function of time in a plane orthogonal to the direction of the wave travel.
*Note that Ex0 and Eyo are complex quantities comprised with a magnitude and a phase angle.
*Negative exponent of e indicates that that the wave is travelling in the positive direction.

*Ex0 s phase would be the reference, thereby, its phase is zero degrees and = phasetv difference
7-4.1 Linear Polarization
*A wave is said to be linearly polarized if Ex(z,t) and Ey(z,t) are in phase or out of phase (=).
*If ay=0 and angle is 0 degrees, wave is x-polarized. (positive axcoswt)
*If ax=0 and angle is 90 or -90 degrees, wave is y-polarized. (positive aycoswt)
Example:

7-4.1 Circular Polarization


*ax=ay, = 90 degrees
*left-handed circular when =90 degrees
*right-handed circular when =-90 degrees
*To get the sign of y-component, find the rotation (clockwise or counter clockwise) and measured 90
degrees from there. If it falls on negative -y, make the y component, negative too.
7.4.2 Elliptical Polarization
1. Rotation Angle (Between-90 and 90 degrees) - angle between the major axis of the ellipse
and a reference direction.
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and a reference direction.


2. Ellipticity Angle (Between -45 and 45 degrees) - characterizes the shape of the ellipse
andits handedness

*Axial Ratio - between 1 (circular polarization) and infinity (linear polarization)


3. Auxiliary Angle 0 (Between 0 and 90 degrees)

Relationship between rotation and ellipticity angles

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