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Overview:
*Scalar Quantities - can be completely specified by magnitude only such as temperature, speed, mass and electric current.
*Vector Quantities - specify both magnitude and direction such as velocity and weight.
*Vector Analysis - provides the mathematical tools necessary for expressing and manipulating vector quantities in an efficient
and convenient manner.
*Vector Algebra governs the laws of addition, subtraction and multiplication of vectors in any given coordinate system.
*Vector Calculus - encompasses the laws of differentiation and integration of vectors
2 - 1 Basic Laws of Algebra
*Unit vector - magnitude of unity (1)
*Base vectors (ax, ay, az) - three mutually perpendicular unit vectors
2-1.1 Equality of Two Vectors
*Two vectors A and B are said to be equal if they have equal magnitudes and identical unit vectors .
*Equality of vectors does not necessarily imply that they are identical. In Cartesian coordinates, two displaced parallel vectors of
equal magnitude and pointing in the same direction are equal, but they are identical only if they lie on top of one another.
Equal if they are parallel, equal in magnitude and in the same direction, but identical if they are equal and lie on top of the other.
2-1.2 Vector Addition and Subtraction
*Vector Addition - either obtained by parallelogram rule or the head-to-tail rule.
*Any of this pattern holds as long as the vectors follow cyclic patterns.
Vector Triple Product - results to a vector
*does not follow associative law!
*Orthogonal coordinate systems (rectangular, cylindrical and spherical) - all coordinates are mutually perpendicular
*Non orthogonal coordinate systems - not all coordinates are mutually perpendicular
2-2.1 Cartesian Coordinates
*also called the rectangular coordinate
Dot Product
ax
cos
-sin
ay
sin
cos
Dot Product
aR
ax
sincos
-sin
coscos
ay
sinsin
cos
cossin
az
cos
-sin
*Gradient of a scalar function is a vector whose magnitude is equal to the maximum rate of increasing
change of the scalar function per unit distance, and its direction is along the direction of maximum
increase. (Scalar turned vector!)
3.2 Divergence
*positive point charge - outward flux / negative point charge - inward flux
*Flux Density - amount of outward flux crossing a unit surface ds
*Flux lines - field lines that comes out of the surface
*divergence of a vector field - measure of the net outward flux per unit volume through a closed surface
surrounding the unit volume (Vector turned Scalar!)
Positive divergence
Source of flux
Zero divergence
Divergenceless or Solenoidal
3.3 Curl
*Curl = describes the rotational property or circulation
*It is the circulation per unit area.
*If curl is zero, the field B is said to be conservative or irrotational.
*
*
*
Static Case: All charges are permanently fixed in space, or, if they move, they do so at a steady rate so
that pv and J are constant in time.
*It is no longer a function of time.
*The electric fields are no longer interconnected in this case.
ECE 121 Page 8
Electrostatics:
Magnetostatics
lp
*Faraday - "if a current can produce a magnetic field, then the converse should also be true!"
*In 1831, Michael Faraday (in London) and Joseph Henry (in Albany, New York) - "magnetic fields can
produce an electric current in a closed loop, but only if the magnetic flux linking the surface area of the loop
changes with time."
*Galvanometer - sensitive instrument used in the 1800s to detect the flow of current in a circuit / predecessor
of voltmeter and ammeter
Magnetic Field
Loop
1. Transformer EMF
Time-varying
Stationary
2. Motional EMF
Static
3. Combined
Time-varying
Moving loop
2. Unbounded Media - light waves emitted by the sun and radio transmissions by antennas
Process:
1. When energy is emitted by a source, it expands outwardly from the source spherically in all directions with the
same speed. This spherical emission is the wavefront.
2. To an observer very far away, this wavefront appears planar as if it were a part of a uniform plane wave. This is
because the observer's aperture (a hole or an opening through which light travels.) appears approximately planar.
7-1.1 Sinusoidal Wave in a Lossless Medium
*Lossless medium - a medium which does not attenuate the amplitude of the wave travelling within it or on its surface.
Frictional forces are also ignored.
Allows a wave generated to travel indefinitely with no loss in energy.
Phase Velocity (or propagation velocity) - apparent velocity of the fixed height
- the velocity of the wave pattern as it moves across the water surface
- direction? Negative x-direction -> x and t have the same signs
ECE 121 Page 20
+x direction
-x direction
Positive 0
Negative 0
Phase Lead
Phase Lag
Phasors
Phasor Analysis - useful mathematical tool for solving problems involving linear systems in which the excitation is a
periodic time function.
- Use of phasor notation to represent time-dependent variables allows us to convert the integro-differential
equation into a linear equation with no sinusoidal functions.
Excitation (also known as forcing function)
Phasor Analysis:
1. Adopt a cosine reference.- express the forcing function as a cosine.
a. Sin(x) = cos(x - /2)
b. Cos(x) = cos(-x)
2. Express time-dependent variables as phasors.
a. ~ (tilde)
3. Recast the differential / integral equation in phasor form.
4. Solve the phasor-domain equation.
5. Find the instantaneous values.
Notes:
Sound:
Speed of light: C0
No negative polar form.
*Transformer - consists of coils wounded around a common magnetic core with infinite permeability ( = ) and magnetic flux
within the core
*gets its name from the fact that it is used to transform currents, voltages and impedances between its primary and
secondary circuits
*Primary Coil - connected to an AC Voltage source
*Secondary Coil - connected to a load resistor R L
*The directions of I1 and I2 are such that the flux generated by one of them is opposite that generated by the other.
*Ideal lossless transformer - all the instantaneous power supplied by the source connected to the primary coil is delivered to
the load on the secondary side. No power is lost in the core.
*P1 = P2
Formula:
Variables
Where Fm = magnetic force
q = charged particle
u = velocity
B = magnetic field in Tesla ( 1 T
= 10, 000 Gauss)
Motional emf
qaaqa
Magnetic Field:
Velocity:
Comment
=2pi*radius*angular velocity
Steps:
1. Get u x B. This would result to a direction, which would generate the Vemf.
2. Substitute to the Vemf equation.
a. If it is a square or rectangular loop moving away, -Vemf.
b. If it is a spinning loop, it is a -Vemf sinusoidal equation.
3. To get the voltage difference, it is always V43 - V21.
4. Divide voltage difference with the value of R.
If you see these figures, -Vemf.
Schaums Outline: 31
*The electric and magnetic field are perpendicular to each other and both are perpendicular to the
direction of wave travel. These directional properties characterize a transverse electromagnetic (TEM
wave).
*In phase - exhibit the same functional dependence on z and t
*Phase Velocity of lossless medium:
*Ex0 s phase would be the reference, thereby, its phase is zero degrees and = phasetv difference
7-4.1 Linear Polarization
*A wave is said to be linearly polarized if Ex(z,t) and Ey(z,t) are in phase or out of phase (=).
*If ay=0 and angle is 0 degrees, wave is x-polarized. (positive axcoswt)
*If ax=0 and angle is 90 or -90 degrees, wave is y-polarized. (positive aycoswt)
Example: