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Independent Variable
Time
Image Signal
Spatial Coordinates
*Speech signal, ECG and EEG are normally expressed as a sum of sinusoids of different amplitudes,
frequencies and phases.
*System - responds to a stimulus or force associated with signal generation
*may also be defined as a physical device or software that performs an operation on a signal
*Signal source - stimulus in combination with the system
*Signal processing - linear or nonlinear operation on the signal
*Algorithm - method or set of rules for implementing the system by a program that performs the
corresponding mathematical operations.
*Digital Signal processing - alternate method for processing the analog signal.
*Analog-to-Digital (A/D) converter - interface between the analog signal and the digital processor.
*Digital-to-Analog (A/D) converter - interface needed if the signal has to be provided in analog form.
Digital
Analog
1. Flexibility
2. Accuracy
difficult.
3. Storage
Not possible.
4. Signal processing
through Algorithm
implementation
5. Cheaper
Limitations of Digital: (1) speed of operation of A/D converters and digital signal processors. (2) signals
with extremely wide bandwidths
1.2 Classification of Signals
1.2.1 Multichannel and Multidimensional Signals
a. Scalar signals:
b. Vector signals - (also called as multichannel signals) generated by multiple sensors or sources
(e.g. ground acceleration due to earthquake)
X (t)
X (n)
X (nT)
3. Continuous Valued signal - if a signal takes on all possible values on a finite or an infinite range
4. Discrete Valued signal - if a signal takes on values from a finite set of possible values
a. Usually equidistance and can be expressed in integer multiple
Digital signal - a discrete time signal having a set of discrete values
Quantization - the approximation process of converting a continuous valued signal into a discrete-valued
signal
2. Continuous-time sinusoidal signals with distinct (different frequencies) are themselves distinct.
3. Increasing the frequency F results in an increase
4. the rate of oscillation of the signal, in the sense the more periods are included in a given time
interval.
*Due to the continuity of the time variable t, we can increase the frequency F, without limit, with a
corresponding increase in the rate of oscillation.
*Frequency is an inherently positive physical quantity (there no negative number of cycles per unit time),
but for mathematical convenience, negative frequencies are introduced.
*Phasors = two equal amplitude complex-conjugate exponential signals
Positive Frequency Counterclockwise uniform angular motion
Negative Frequency Clockwise angular motion
*Frequency range for analog sinusoids -->
2. Tabular representation
3. Sequence representation
4. Graphical representation
4. Exponential signal
ECE 401 Page 7
4. Exponential signal
*Power Signal
Periodic
Aperiodic
Time Advancing
Time Folding
y (n) = Ax(n)
*Not commutative.
Example:
x(n)
y (n) = x(2n)
*We say that the input x(n) is transformed by the system into a signal y(n), where T is the transformation or the operator
*memoryless operation
Constant Multiplier
*memoryless operation
Signal Multiplier
*memoryless operation
*requires memory
*denoted by Z-1
Unit Advanced
*requires memory
*denoted by Z
Classification of Systems
1. Static versus dynamic systems
a. static (memoryless) - if its output at any instant n depends at most on the input sample at the same time, but not on past or
future samples of the input.
b. dynamic (memory)
Static
Static
Dynamic
Dynamic
Dynamic
Sample Problems:
a.
Static
b.
Dynamic
c.
Static
d.
Dynamic
e.
Static
f.
Static
g.
Static
h.
Static
i.
Dynamic
j.
Dynamic
k.
Static
l.
Dynamic
m.
Static
Static
sum of the responses (outputs) of the system to each of the individual input signals.
*Transformation of two signals should be equal to the individually transformed signals!
*Multiplicative or scaling property and additivity property
b. Non-linear - superposition test failed and zero input zero output failed!
Linear
Linear
Non-Linear
Linear
Non Linear (Failed the zero input-zero output test)
4. Causal versus Noncausal Systems:
a. Causal - output of the system at any time n depends only on present and past inputs
*x(n), x(n-1), x(n-2)
b. NonCausal - depends on future inputs
*x(n+1), x(n+2), x(n+3)
*physically unrealizable!
x(n) - x(n-1)
Causal
Causal
Causal
Noncausal
*Advanced
Non Causal
*If negative, it depends on its positive value.
Non Causal
*If positive, it depends on the value of its double.
Non Causal
*If negative, it depends on the value of its positive.
Sample Problems:
a.
Causal
b.
Non Causal
c.
Causal
d.
Non Causal
e.
Causal
f.
Causal
g.
Causal
h.
Causal
i.
Non Causal
j.
Non Causal
k.
Causal
l.
Non Causal
m.
Causal
Causal
Sample Problems:
a.
Stable
*Less than 1, kapag n = infinity
b.
Unstable
*Summation
c.
Stable
*Less than 1, kapag n = infinity
d.
Stable
e.
Stable
f.
Stable
g.
Stable
h.
Stable
i.
Unstable
j.
Stable
k.
Stable
l.
Stable
m.
Stable
Stable
a.
Stable
*Less than 1, kapag n = infinity
b.
Unstable
*Summation
c.
Stable
*Less than 1, kapag n = infinity
d.
Stable
e.
Stable
f.
Stable
g.
Stable
g.
Stable
h.
Stable
i.
Unstable
j.
Stable
k.
Stable
l.
Stable
m.
Stable
Stable
*Since LTI systems are linear, the scaling property can also be applied, where the magnitudes can be treated as
"coefficients".
Substituting the response of the unit sample, we can derive the response of an LTI system, which is the linear
ECE 401 Page 15
Substituting the response of the unit sample, we can derive the response of an LTI system, which is the linear
convolution::
Sample Problem 1:
*Find the convolution of:
x(n) = [1,1,1,1]
h(n) = [2,2]
Tabular Method:
1
-1
x(k)
h(k)
h(-k)
h(-k+1)
h(-k+2)
h(-k+3)
h(-k+4)
1. Folding: h(-k)
2. Shifting h(-k+1), h(-k+2), h(-k+3) and h(-k+4)
3. Multiplication and Summation:
Note that m is only a dummy index and it can be replaced by any character. Let m = k, hence
Right side:
*So if there are L numbers of LTI systems connected in cascade with unit sample responses of systems,
ECE 401 Page 17
*So if there are L numbers of LTI systems connected in cascade with unit sample responses of systems,
h(n) = h1(n) * h2(n) *h3(n) ** hL(n)
3. Distributive Property of Convolution:
*It is possible to decompose a complex system into parallel connection of small and simplified systems.
h(n) = h1(n) + h2(n) + h3(n) ++ hL(n)
2.7.4 Causality of LTI Systems:
Samples
Implementation
Memory
Others:
Convolution
Difference Equations
Equations:
1. Finite Impulse Response (FIR)
Classifications
Depends on:
Feedback
Applicability
Others
1. Nonrecursive Systems
None
Yes
2. Recursive Systems
2. Recursive System
Initial Condition
1.
y(-1) is 0
2. y(-1) is not 0
System
Output
Initially Relaxed / Zero State of the System Zero State Response or Forced Response
Not Initially Relaxed
Example:
Notation
YZS
YZI
Example 2:
Direct Form II: M or N delays, depending on which is bigger and M+N+1 multiplications
Example 3:
*FIR and IIR - general characteristics that distinguish a type of linear time-invariant system
*Recursive and non-recursive - descriptions of the structures for realizing or implementing the system
ECE 401 Page 25
*Recursive and non-recursive - descriptions of the structures for realizing or implementing the system
Direct Method:
Where:
Expanding it:
Where the polynomials within the parenthesis is the characteristic polynomial of the system.
*N is also the number of roots.
*Complex-valued roots occur in complex-conjugate pairs.
After getting the roots:
Homogenous Solution or the Zero-Input Response:
Steps
1. Let x(n) = 0, since it is a zero-input response we're getting and substitute.
2. Let y(n) = n and substitute.
3. Get the values of Lambda and substitute on the homogenous equation:
4. To get the values of C variables, get y(0) and y(1) or more on both the above equation and the original equation y(n). Use systems
of linear equations to get the C variables.
5. Substitute the C variables and make sure to put the range of N.
6. Substitute any initial conditions.
ECE 401 Page 27
Particular Solution
Steps:
1. Check the form of the input signal. Let y(n) be equal to that assumed form multiplied by a constant.
2. Substitute the said y(n) equivalency to the original equation.
3. Assume a value of N that would not cancel any terms in the equation.
4. Get the value of K.
5. Substitute it to the assumed form.
*Z is a complex variable
*Z-n value of the signal at time n.
*Since the z-transform is an infinite power series, it exists only for those values of z for which this series
converges.
*Region of Convergence - set of all values of z for which X(z) attains a finite value.
*ROC of a finite-duration signal is the entire z plane except 0 and / or infinity
*ROC of an infinite-duration, two sided signal, it is a ring (annular region) in the z-plane.
*Laging absolute value yung z!
Causal Signal
|z|>|a|
*Exterior of a circle of a certain radius.
Anticausal Signal
|z|<|a|
*Interior of a circle of a certain radius a.
*This implies that a closed-form expression for the z-transform does not uniquely specify the signal in
the time domain.
*The ambiguity can be resolved only if in addition to the closed-form expression, the ROC is specified.
*A discrete-time signal x(n) is uniquely determined by its z-transform X(z) and the region of
convergence X(z).
2.10.1 Sampling
Sampling - Conversion of a raw continuous time signal xa(t) to discrete time signal x(n) by taking
samples at regular sampling time intervals (T).
*Sampler is normally a switch and it chops off the incoming analog signal at a sampling rate of Fs.
*Fs is also called sampling frequency (or samples per second).
*If the signal frequency lies in the range -Fs/2 to Fs/2, it can be represented by discrete time signal!
Hence, by linearity property, to get the z-transform, we can obtained a sequence x(n) such as:
The denominator can then be written as this and can be factored like this:
Hence, by linearity property, to get the z-transform, we can obtained a sequence x(n) such as:
The denominator can then be written as this and can be factored like this:
Partial Fraction
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Z-Transform Tables
Wednesday, October 07, 2015
10:50 AM