PREPARATION and ANALYSIS of

NATURAL ADHESIVES

Submitted by:

RAJAT SACHDEVA
VINEET KUMAR

Department of Chemical Engineering

Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology
Murthal, Sonepat 131039 (Haryana)
June 20 July 31, 2014

PREPARATION and ANALYSIS of

NATURAL ADHESIVES
A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction
of the requirements for the degree
of

Bachelor of Technology
in

Chemical Engineering

Submitted by:

RAJAT SACHDEVA
VINEET KUMAR
Under the Supervision of:

Ms. SHITAL YADAV

Department of Chemical Engineering

Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram University of Science & Technology
Murthal, Sonepat 131039 (Haryana)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible without the kind
support and help of many individual and organizations. I would like to extend my sincere thanks
to all of them.
I am highly indebted to Ms. SHITAL YADAV for their guidance and constant supervision as
well as for providing necessary information regarding the project & also for their support in
completing the project.
I would like to express my gratitude towards my parents and members of DCRUST, MURTHAL
for their kind co-operation and encouragement which help me in completion of this project.
I would like to express my special gratitude and thanks to my seniors for giving me such
attention and time.
My thanks and appreciation also go to my colleague in developing the project who have
willingly helped me out with their abilities.

(Rajat Sachdeva)
Roll No.- 12001005039
(Vineet Kumar)
Roll No 12001005059

CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report Preparation and analysis of natural adhesives is the bonafide
work of RAJAT SACHDEVA & VINEET KUMAR who carried out the project work in
partial fulfillment of the degree of Bachelor of Technology in Chemical Engineering, under my
supervision.

(Ms. SHITAL YADAV)

Associate professor
DCRUST,Murthal

DECLARATION
I declare that this written submission represents my ideas in my own words, and where others
ideas or words have been included, I have adequately cited and referenced the original sources. I
also declare that I have adhered to all principles of academic honesty and integrity and have not
misrepresented or fabricated or falsified any idea/data/fact/source in my submission. I understand
that any violation of the above will be a cause for disciplinary action by the Institute and can also
evoke penal action from the sources that have thus not been properly cited, or from whom proper
permission has not been taken when needed.

RAJAT SACHDEVA
12001005039
VINEET KUMAR
12001005059

ABSTRACT
This project deals with the analysis of prepared adhesive from trees resin, that is, adhesive.
Basically, as a chemical engineer, we prepared it from resins and then through different
equipments we will analyse its properties and atomic bonding. In this, we are studying different
equipments such as TGA, FTIR & UV/VIS. These are based on material properties and bonding
of prepared material. We are collecting resin from different from different trees like neem, pine ,
kikar etc.. Then we are preparing it with heating and then adding crushed charcoal to it. So as our
product will be form. Then we can use it as our required purposes where we want to use a sticky
material to tie two things together. Then with analysis our process will be completed

CONTENTS
Acknowledgement
Certificate

i
ii

Declaration

iii

Abstract

iv

1. Introduction
1.1 Natural Adhesive
1.1.1 Adhesives
1.1.2 Type by origin
1.1.3 Method of adhesion

9
10
10

2. Trees Detail
2.1 NEEM
2.1.1 Traditional medicine use
2.1.2 Pest and disease control
2.1.3 Neem oil for polymetric resin

11
11
11

2.2 Pine
2.2.1 Uses
2.2.2 Food
2.2.3 Biomedical

13
13
14

2.2.4 Resins

15

2.3 Kikar
2.3.1 Kikar
2.3.2 Uses

16
17

3. Equipment details
3.1 TGA
3.1.1 Thermogravitic analysis
3.1.2 Methods

19

3.2 FTIR
3.3 GC-MS analysis
3.4 UV-VIS spectroscopy

20
21
23

4. Method of preparation of adhesive from pine oil

29

5. Applications

33

References

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1.1Adhesives
An adhesive is any substance applied to the surfaces of materials that binds them together and
resists separation. The term "adhesive" may be used interchangeably with
glue, cement, mucilage, or paste. Adjectives may be used in conjunction with the word
adhesive to describe properties based on the substance's physical or chemical form, the type of
materials joined, or conditions under which it is applied.
The use of adhesives offers many advantages over binding techniques such
as sewing, mechanical fastening, thermal bonding, etc. These include the ability to bind different
materials together, to distribute stress more efficiently across the joint, the cost effectiveness of
an easily mechanized process, an improvement in aesthetic design, and increased design
flexibility. Disadvantages of adhesive use include decreased stability at high temperatures,
relative weakness in bonding large objects with a small bonding surface area, and greater
difficulty in separating objects during testing. Adhesives are typically organized by the method
of adhesion. These are then organized into reactive and non-reactive adhesives, which refers to
whether the adhesive chemically reacts in order to harden. Alternatively they can be organized by
whether the raw stock is of natural or synthetic origin, or by their starting physical phase.
Adhesives may be found naturally or produced synthetically. The earliest human use of adhesivelike substances was approximately 200,000 years ago. The first references to adhesives in
literature first appeared in approximately 2,000 BCE. The Greeks and Romans made great
contributions to the development of adhesives. In Europe, glue was not widely used until the
period 1500-1700 CE. From then until the 1900s increases in adhesive use and discovery were
relatively gradual. Only since the last century has the development of synthetic adhesives
accelerated rapidly, and innovation in the field continues to the present.

1.1.2 Types by origin

1. Natural adhesives
Natural adhesives are made from organic sources such as vegetable starch (dextrin), natural
resins, or animals (e.g. the milk protein casein and hide-based animal glues). These are often
referred to as bioadhesives.
One example is a simple paste made by cooking flour in water. Starch based adhesives are used
in corrugated board and paper sack production, paper tube winding, andwallpaper adhesives.
Casein glue is mainly used to adhere glass bottle labels. Animal glues have traditionally been
used in bookbinding, wood joining, and many other areas but now are largely replaced by
synthetic glues except in specialist applications like the production and repair of stringed
instruments. Albumen made from the protein component of blood has been used in
the plywood industry. Masonite, a wood hardboard, was originally bonded using natural
wood lignin, an organic polymer, though most modern particle boards such as MDF use
synthetic thermosetting resins.

2. Synthetic adhesives
Synthetic adhesives are based on elastomers, thermoplastics, emulsions, and thermosets.
Examples of thermosetting adhesives
are: epoxy, polyurethane, cyanoacrylate andacrylic polymers. Pressure-sensitive adhesive is used
in Post-it notes. The first commercially produced synthetic adhesive was Karlsons Klister in the
1920s.

1.1.3 Mechanism of adhesion

For an adhesive to be effective it must have three main properties. It must be able to wet the
substrate. It must harden and finally it must be able to transmit load between the two
surfaces/substrates being adhered.
Adhesion, the attachment between adhesive and substrate may occur either by mechanical
means, in which the adhesive works its way into small pores of the substrate, or by one of several
chemical mechanisms. The strength of adhesion depends on many factors, including the means
by which it occurs.

In some cases, an actual chemical bond occurs between adhesive and substrate. In others,
electrostatic forces, as in static electricity, hold the substances together. A third mechanism
involves the van der Waals forces that develop between molecules. A fourth means involves the
moisture-aided diffusion of the glue into the substrate, followed by hardening.

But as We are stick to only Natural adhesives in my project. This is based on different trees with
their resin in it. That will be tested in different equipment to know about them more. These are
as:-

2.Trees detail for different resins

2.1 NEEM
Azadirachta indica, also known as Neem, Nimtree, and Indian Lilac is a tree in
the mahogany family Meliaceae. It is one of two species in the genus Azadirachta, and is native
to India and the Indian subcontinent including Nepal, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka. It is
typically grown in tropical and semi-tropical regions. Neem trees now also grow in islands
located in the southern part of Iran. Its fruits and seeds are the source of neem oil.

2.1.1 Traditional medicinal use

Products made from neem trees have been used in India for over two millennia for their
medicinal properties. Neem products are believed by Siddha and Ayurvedic practitioners to
be anthelmintic,antifungal, antidiabetic, antibacterial, antiviral, contraceptive and sedative. It is
considered a major component in siddha medicine and Ayurvedic and Unani medicine and is
particularly prescribed for skin diseases. Neem oil is also used for healthy hair, to improve liver
function, detoxify the blood, and balance blood sugar levels. Neem leaves have also been used to
treat skin diseases like eczema, psoriasis, etc.

2.1.2 Pest and disease control

Neem is a key ingredient in non-pesticidal management (NPM), providing a natural alternative to
synthetic pesticides. Neem seeds are ground into a powder that is soaked overnight in water and
sprayed onto the crop. To be effective, it is necessary to apply repeatedly, at least every ten days.
Neem does not directly kill insects on the crop. It acts as an anti-feedant, repellent, and egglaying deterrent, protecting the crop from damage. The insects starve and die within a few days.
Neem also suppresses the hatching of pest insects from their eggs. Neem cake is often sold as a
fertilizer.
Neem oil has been shown to avert termite attack as an ecofriendly and economical agent.
In the UK, plant protection products that contain azadirachtin, the active ingredient of neem oil,
are illegal.

2.1.3 Neem oil for polymeric resins

Applications of neem oil in the preparation of polymeric resins have been documented in the
recent reports. The synthesis of various alkyd resins from neem oil is reported using a
monoglyceride (MG) route and their utilization for the preparation of PU coatings. The alkyds
are prepared from reaction of conventional divalent acid materials like phthalic and maleic
anhydrides with MG of neem oil. In other reports, different routes for preparation of polymeric
resins from neem oil are also reported.

Neem gum is used as a bulking agent and for the preparation of special purpose foods.
Neem blossoms are used in Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka to
prepare Ugadi pachhadi. A mixture of neem flowers and jaggery (or unrefined brown sugar)
is prepared and offered to friends and relatives, symbolic of sweet and bitter events in the
upcoming new year, Ugadi. "Bevina hoovina gojju" (a type of curry prepared with neem
blossoms) is common in Karnataka throughout the year. Dried blossoms are used when fresh
blossoms are not available. In Tamil Nadu, a rasam (veppam poo rasam) made with neem
blossoms is a culinary specialty.
Cosmetics : Neem is perceived in India as a beauty aid. Powdered leaves are a major
component of at least one widely used facial cream. Purified neem OIL is also used in nail
polish and other cosmetics.
Lubricant : Neem oil is non-drying and it resists degradation better than most vegetable
oils. In rural India, it is commonly used to grease cart wheels.
Fertilizers: Neem has demonstrated considerable potential as a fertilizer. Neem cake is
widely used to fertilize cash crops, particularly sugarcane and vegetables. Ploughed into the
soil, it protects plant roots from nematodes and white ants, probably as it contains the
residual limonoids. In Karnataka, people grow the tree mainly for its green leaves and twigs,
which they puddle into flooded rice fields before the rice seedlings are transplanted.

Resins: An exudate can be tapped from the trunk by wounding the bark. This high protein
material is not a substitute for polysaccharide gum, such as gum arabic. It may however,
have a potential as a food additive, and it is widely used in South Asia as "Neem glue".
Bark: Neem bark contains 14% tannin, an amount similar to that in conventional tannin
yielding trees (such as Acacia decurrens). Moreover, it yields a strong, coarse fibre
commonly woven into ropes in the villages of India.
Honey: In parts of Asia neem honey commands premium prices, and people
promote apiculture by planting neem trees.
Soap: 80% of India's supply of neem oil is now used by neem oil soap
manufacturers. Although much of it goes to small scale speciality soaps, often using coldpressed oil, large scale producers also use it, mainly because it is cheap. Additionally it is
antibacterial and antifungal, soothing and moisturising. It can be made with up to 40% neem
oil. Well known brands include Margo. Generally, the CRUDE OIL is used to produce
coarselaundry soaps.
Against pox viruses : In Tamil Nadu, people who are affected with pox viruses are
generally made to lie in bed made of neem leaves and branches. This prevents the spreading
of pox virus to others and has been in practice since early centuries.

2.2 PINE
Pines are conifer trees in the genus Pinus in the family Pinaceae. They are the only genus in
the subfamily Pinoideae. Counting varieties and subspecies, the plant list of the Royal Botanic
Gardens, Kew and Missouri Botanical Garden accepts 175 names of pines as current, together
with some thirty or forty unresolved and many more synonyms or misapplied hide.

2.2.1 USES
Pines are among the most commercially important tree species valued for their timber and wood
pulp throughout the world. In temperate and tropical regions, they are fastgrowing softwoods that will grow in relatively dense stands, their acidic decaying needles
inhibiting the sprouting of competing hardwoods. Commercial pines are grown in plantations for
timber that is denser, more resinous, and therefore more durable thanspruce (Picea). Pine wood

is widely used in high-value carpentry items such as furniture, window frames, panelling, floors
and roofing, and theresin of some species is an important source of turpentine.
Many pine species make attractive ornamental plantings for parks and larger gardens with a
variety of dwarf cultivars being suitable for smaller spaces. Pines are also commercially grown
and harvested for Christmas trees. Pine cones, the largest and most durable of all conifer cones,
are craft favorites. Pine boughs, appreciated especially in wintertime for their pleasant smell and
greenery, are popularly cut for decorations. A number of species are attacked by nematodes,
causing pine wilt disease, which can kill some quickly. Pine needles are also used for making
decorative articles like baskets, trays, pots, etc. This Native American skill is now being
replicated across the world. Pine needle handicrafts are made in the US, Canada, Mexico,
Nicaragua and India. Pine needles serve as food for various Lepidoptera. See List of Lepidoptera
that feed on pines.
Because pines have no insect or decay resistant qualities after logging, they are generally
recommended for construction purposes as indoor use only (ex. indoor drywall framing). This
wood left outside can be expected to last no more than 1218 months depending on the local
climate. It is commonly referred to by several different names which include North American
timber, SPF (spruce, pine, fir) and whitewood.

2.2.2 FOOD

Edible seeds of the Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis)

Some species have large seeds, called pine nuts, that are harvested and sold for cooking and
baking. They are an essential ingredient of Pesto alla genovese.
The soft, moist, white inner bark (cambium) found clinging to the woody outer bark is edible and
very high in vitamins A and C. It can be eaten raw in slices as a snack or dried and ground up
into a powder for use as an ersatz flour or thickener in stews, soups, and other foods, such
as bark bread. Adirondack Indians got their name from the Mohawk Indian word atir:taks,
meaning "tree eaters".

2.2.3 Biomedical
A tea made by steeping young, green pine needles in boiling water (known as "tallstrunt" in
Sweden) is high in vitamins A and C.

Pine Resin is naturally produced from wounds on the tree.

2.2.4 Resins
Resin is a fluid (specifically, a hydrocarbon) that is secreted from certain plants (a.k.a. resinous
plants), most commonly trees, and most commonly coniferous trees such as pine trees.
Resins perform a number of functions in the plants that produce them. Resins seal over wounds,
and this protects the plant from pests and infections. Resins contain antimicrobial properties that
help prevent decay and fungal infections, and resins also seem to decrease water loss during
droughts or plant injury.
Humans have gathered and used resins from plants for thousands of years. Resins have been used
for waterproofing, varnishes, adhesives, art, incense, medicines, and many other purposes. It is
only recently in human history that we have started using synthetic, as opposed to natural /plantderived, resins.
Notable examples of plant resins include amber, Balm of Gilead, balsam, Canada
balsam, Boswellia, copal from trees of Protium copal andHymenaea courbaril, dammar
gum from trees of the family Dipterocarpaceae, Dragon's blood from the dragon trees
(Dracaena species),elemi, frankincense from Boswellia
sacra, galbanum from Ferula gummosa, gum guaiacum from the lignum vitae trees of the
genusGuaiacum, kauri gum from trees of Agathis australis, labdanum from mediterranean

species of Cistus, mastic (plant resin) from the mastic tree Pistacia lentiscus, myrrh from shrubs
of Commiphora, sandarac resin from Tetraclinis articulata, the national tree of
Malta, styrax (aBenzoin resin from various Styrax species), Spinifex resin from
Australian Spinifex grasses, and turpentine, distilled from pine resin. Amber is fossil resin (also
called resinite) from coniferous and other tree species. Copal, kauri gum, dammar and other
resins may also be found as subfossil deposits. Subfossil copal can be distinguished from
genuine fossil amber because it becomes tacky when a drop of a solvent such
as acetone or chloroform is placed on it. Rosin is a solid resin obtained from pines and some
other plants, mostly conifers, produced by heating fresh liquid resin to vaporize
the volatile liquid (terpene) components. Plant resins are generally produced as stem secretions,
but in some South American species such as Euphorbia dalechampia and Clusia species they are
produced as pollination rewards, and used by some stingless bee species to construct their nests.
Propolis, consisting largely of resins collected from plants such as poplars andconifers, is used
by honey bees to seal gaps in their hives.
Shellac and lacquer are insect-derived resins.
Asphaltite and Utah resin are petroleum bitumens, not a product secreted by plants, although it
was ultimately derived from plants.

2.3 KIKAR
Vachellia nilotica (widely known by the taxonomic synonym Acacia nilotica, or the common
names gum arabic tree, Babul/Kikar Egyptian thorn, Sant tree, Al-sant or prickly
acacia; called thorn mimosa or prickly acacia in Australia; lekkerruikpeul or scented thorn in
South Africa; karuvela maram in South India) is a species of Vachellia native to Africa,
theMiddle East and the Indian subcontinent. It is also currently an invasive species of significant
concern in Australia.

2.3.2 Uses

Forage and fodder

In part of its range smallstock consume the pods and leaves, but elsewhere it is also very popular
with cattle. Pods are used as a supplement to poultry rations in India. Dried pods are particularly
sought out by animals on rangelands. In India branches are commonly lopped for fodder. Pods
are best fed dry as a supplement, not as a green fodder.

Teeth Brushing
The tender twig of this plant is used as a toothbrush in south-east Africa and India.

Hedges
V. nilotica makes a good protective hedge because of its thorns.

Lumber

Trunk at Hodal in Faridabad District of Haryana, India

The tree's wood is "very durable if water-seasoned" and its uses include tool handles and lumber
for boats. The wood has a density of about 1170 kg/m3.

3. Equipment details

3.1 Thermogravimetric analysis

Thermogravimetric analysis(TGA) is a method of thermal analysis in which changes in physical
and chemical properties of materials are measured as a function of increasing temperature (with
constant heating rate), or as a function of time (with constant temperature and/or constant mass
loss).TGA can provide information about physical phenomena, such as second-order phase
transitions,

including vaporization, sublimation, absorption, adsorption,

and desorption.

Likewise, TGA can provide information about chemical phenomena including chemisorptions,
desolvation (especially dehydration),

decomposition,

and

solid-gas

reactions

(e.g., oxidation or reduction).

TGA is commonly used to determine selected characteristics of materials that exhibit either mass
loss or gain due to decomposition, oxidation, or loss of volatiles (such as moisture). Common
applications of TGA are
(1) Materials characterization through analysis of characteristic decomposition patterns,

(2) Studies of degradation mechanisms and reaction kinetics,

(3) Determination of organic content in a sample
(4) determination of inorganic (e.g. ash) content in a sample, which may be useful for
corroborating predicted material structures or simply used as a chemical analysis.
5)

useful

technique

for

the

study

of polymeric

materials,

including thermoplastics, thermosets, elastomers, composites, plasticfilms, fibers, coatings and p

aints.
Instrumental apparatus
Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) relies on a high degree of precision in three measurements:
mass change, temperature, and temperature change. Therefore, the basic instrumental
requirements for TGA are a precision balance with a pan loaded with the sample, and a
programmable furnace. The furnace can be programmed either for a constant heating rate, or for
heating to acquire a constant mass loss with time.
Though a constant heating rate is more common, a constant mass loss rate can illuminate specific
reaction kinetics. For example, the kinetic parameters of the carbonization of polyvinyl butyral
were found using a constant mass loss rate of 0.2 wt %/min. Regardless of the furnace
programming, the sample is placed in a small, electrically heated furnace equipped with
a thermocouple to monitor accurate measurements of the temperature by comparing its voltage
output with that of the voltage-versus-temperature table stored in the computers memory. A
reference sample may be placed on another balance in a separate chamber. The atmosphere in the
sample chamber may be purged with an inert gas to prevent oxidation or other undesired
reactions. A different process using a quartz crystal microbalance has been devised for measuring
smaller samples on the order of a microgram (versus milligram with conventional TGA).
3.1.2 Methods
The TGA instrument continuously weighs a sample as it is heated to temperatures of up to
2000 C for coupling with FTIR and Mass spectrometry gas analysis. As the temperature

increases, various components of the sample are decomposed and the weight percentage of each
resulting mass change can be measured. Results are plotted with temperature on the X-axis and
mass loss on the Y-axis. The data can be adjusted using curve smoothing and first derivatives are
often also plotted to determine points of inflection for more in-depth interpretations (see
discussion on Trace Analysis). TGA instruments can be temperature calibrated with melting point
standards or Curie point of ferromagnetic materials such as Fe or Ni. A ferromagnetic material is
placed in the sample pan which is placed in a magnetic field. The standard is heated and at the
Curie point the material becomes paramagnetic which nullifies the apparent weight change effect
of the magnetic field.
Proximate and ultimate analysis

3.2 FOURIER TRANSFORM INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY ( FTIR )

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is a technique which is used to obtain
an infrared spectrum of absorption, emission, photoconductivity or Raman scattering of a solid,
liquid or gas. An FTIR spectrometer simultaneously collects high spectral resolution data over a
wide spectral range. This confers a significant advantage over a dispersive spectrometer which
measures intensity over a narrow range of wavelengths at a time.
The range of Infrared region is 12800 ~ 10 cm-1and can be divided into near-infrared region
(12800 ~ 4000 cm-1), mid-infrared region (4000 ~ 200 cm -1) and far-infrared region (50 ~ 1000
cm-1). The discovery of infrared light can be dated back to the 19th century. Since then, scientists
have established various ways to utilize infrared light. Infrared absorption spectroscopy is the
method which scientists use to determine the structures of molecules with the molecules

characteristic absorption of infrared radiation. Infrared spectrum is molecular vibrational

spectrum. When exposed to infrared radiation, sample molecules selectively absorb radiation of
specific wavelengths which causes the change of dipole moment of sample molecules.
Consequently, the vibrational energy levels of sample molecules transfer from ground state to
excited state. The frequency of the absorption peak is determined by the vibrational energy gap.
The number of absorption peaks is related to the number of vibrational freedom of the molecule.
The intensity of absorption peaks is related to the change of dipole moment and the possibility of
the transition of energy levels. Therefore, by analyzing the infrared spectrum, one can readily
obtain abundant structure information of a molecule. Most molecules are infrared active except
for several homonuclear diatomic molecules such as O2, N2 and Cl2 due to the zero dipole change
in the vibration and rotation of these molecules. What makes infrared absorption spectroscopy
even more useful is the fact that it is capable to analyze all gas, liquid and solid samples. The
common used region
for infrared absorption
spectroscopy is 4000 ~
400 cm-1 because the
absorption radiation of
most
compounds

organic
and

inorganic ions is within

this region.

FTIR can be used in all applications where a dispersive spectrometer was used in the past
addition, the multiplex and throughput advantages have opened up new areas of application.
These include:

GC-IR (gas chromatography-infrared spectrometry). A gas chromatograph can be used to

separate the components of a mixture. The fractions containing single components are
directed into an FTIR spectrometer, to provide the infrared spectrum of the sample. This

technique is complementary to GC-MS (gas chromatography-mass spectrometry). The GCIR method is particularly useful for identifying isomers, which by their nature have identical
masses. The key to the successful use of GC-IR is that the interfero-gram can be captured in
a very short time, typically less than 1 second. FTIR has also been applied to the analysis
of liquid chromatography fractions.

TG-IR (thermogravimetry-infrared spectrometry) IR spectra of the gases evolved during

thermal decomposition are obtained as a function of temperature.

Micro-samples. Tiny samples, such as in forensic analysis, can be examined with the aid
of an infrared microscope in the sample chamber. An image of the surface can be obtained by
scanning.]Another example is the use of FTIR to characterize artistic materials in old-master
paintings

Emission spectra. Instead of recording the spectrum of light transmitted through the
sample, FTIR spectrometer can be used to acquire spectrum of light emitted by the sample.
Such emission could be induced by various processes, and the most common ones
are luminescence and Raman scattering. Little modification is required to an absorption
FTIR spectrometer to record emission spectra and therefore many commercial FTIR
spectrometers combine both absorption and emission/Raman modes.

Photocurrent spectra. This mode uses a standard, absorption FTIR spectrometer. The
studied sample is placed instead of the FTIR detector, and its photocurrent, induced by the
spectrometer's broadband source, is used to record the interferrogram, which is then
converted into the photoconductivity spectrum of the sample

3.3 GAS CHROMATOGRAPHY MASS SPECTROMETRY, GC-MS ANALYSIS

Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) is a technique for the analysis and
quantitation of organic volatile and semi-volatile compounds. Gas chromatography (GC) is used
to separates mixtures into individual components using a temperature-controlled capillary
column. Smaller molecules with lower boiling points are travel down the column more quickly
than larger molecules with higher boiling point. Mass spectrometry (MS) is used to identify the

various components from their mass spectra. Each compound has a unique or near unique mass
spectrum that can be compared with mass spectral databases and thus identified. Through use of
standards, quantitation is also possible.

GCMS analysis can work on liquids, gases and solids. For liquids, the sample is directly injected
into the GC. For gases, gas tight syringes are used to transfer the gaseous components directly
into the GC. For solids, the analysis is carried out either by solvent extraction, outgassing or
pyrolysis.
Out gassing a sample via application of heat (thermal desorption) is a special sampling technique
also known as Dynamic Headspace Analysis (HSA). Volatile organic components in the solid
matrix are removed by heated gas flow. In dynamic HSA, the sample is placed in a chamber and
heated to a specified temperature for a specified time. The out gassed components are continually
removed and collected in a cold trap. They are then analyzed by GC-MS. The maximum
allowable temperature for this method is 300C, and the maximum sample size is 1"4".
Pyrolysis is another sampling technique for the analysis of materials that cannot be directly
injected into the GC-MS. By applying heat directly to a sample, the molecule can be broken
down in a reproducible way. The smaller molecules are then introduced into the GC and
analyzed by GC-MS. By this method, probe temperatures of up to 1400C can be used.
USES

Identifying and quantifying volatile organic compounds in mixtures

Outgassing studies

Testing for residual solvents

Liquid or gas injections

Evaluating extracts from plastics

Evaluating contaminants on semiconductor wafers (thermal desorption)

3.4 UV-VIS SPECTROSCOPY

Ultravioletvisible spectroscopy refers to absorption spectroscopy or reflectance spectroscopy in
the ultraviolet-visible spectral region. This means it uses light in the visible and adjacent (nearUV and near-infrared [NIR]) ranges. The absorption or reflectance in the visible range directly
affects the perceived color of the chemicals involved. In this region of the electromagnetic
spectrum, molecules undergo electronic

transitions.

This

technique

is

complementary

to fluorescence spectroscopy, in that fluorescence deals with transitions from the excited state to
the ground state, while absorption measures transitions from the ground state to the excited state.
Principle of ultraviolet-visible absorption
Molecules containing -electrons or non-bonding electrons (n-electrons) can absorb the energy
in the form of ultraviolet or visible light to excite these electrons to higher anti-bonding
molecular orbitals. The more easily excited the electrons (i.e. lower energy gap between the
HOMO and the LUMO), the longer the wavelength of light it can absorb.

UV/Vis spectroscopy is routinely used in analytical chemistry for the quantitative determination
of different analytes , such as transition metal ions, highly conjugated organic compounds, and
biological macromolecules. Spectroscopic analysis is commonly carried out in solutions but
solids and gases may also be studied.

Solutions of transition metal ions can be colored (i.e., absorb visible light) because d
electrons within the metal atoms can be excited from one electronic state to another. The
color of metal ion solutions is strongly affected by the presence of other species, such as
certain anions or ligands. For instance, the color of a dilute solution of copper sulfate is a
very light blue; adding ammonia intensifies the color and changes the wavelength of
maximum absorption (max).

Organic compounds, especially those with a high degree of conjugation, also absorb light
in the UV or visible regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. The solvents for these
determinations are often water for water-soluble compounds, or ethanol for organic-soluble
compounds. (Organic solvents may have significant UV absorption; not all solvents are
suitable for use in UV spectroscopy. Ethanol absorbs very weakly at most wavelengths.)
Solvent polarity and pH can affect the absorption spectrum of an organic compound.
Tyrosine, for example, increases in absorption maxima and molar extinction coefficient when
pH increases from 6 to 13 or when solvent polarity decreases.

While charge transfer complexes also give rise to colors, the colors are often too intense
to be used for quantitative measurement.

The Beer-Lambert law states that the absorbance of a solution is directly proportional to the
concentration of the absorbing species in the solution and the path length. Thus, for a fixed path
length, UV/Vis spectroscopy can be used to determine the concentration of the absorber in a
solution. It is necessary to know how quickly the absorbance changes with concentration. This
can be taken from references (tables of molar extinction coefficients), or more accurately,
determined from a calibration curve.
A UV/Vis spectrophotometer may be used as a detector for HPLC. The presence of an analyte
gives a response assumed to be proportional to the concentration. For accurate results, the
instrument's response to the analyte in the unknown should be compared with the response to a
standard; this is very similar to the use of calibration curves. The response (e.g., peak height) for
a particular concentration is known as the response factor.
The wavelengths of absorption peaks can be correlated with the types of bonds in a given
molecule and are valuable in determining the functional groups within a molecule. The

Woodward-Fieser rules, for instance, are a set of empirical observations used to predict max, the
wavelength of the most intense UV/Vis absorption, for conjugated organic compounds such
as dienes and ketones. The spectrum alone is not, however, a specific test for any given sample.
The nature of the solvent, the pH of the solution, temperature, high electrolyte concentrations,
and the presence of interfering substances can influence the absorption spectrum. Experimental
variations such as the slit width (effective bandwidth) of the spectrophotometer will also alter the
spectrum. To apply UV/Vis spectroscopy to analysis, these variables must be controlled or
accounted for in order to identify the substances present.[4]
UV-Vis spectroscopy is also used in the semiconductor industry to measure the thickness and
optical properties of thin films on a wafer. UV-Vis spectrometers are used to measure the
reflectance of light, and can be analyzed via the Forouhi-Bloomer dispersion equations to
determine the Index of Refraction (n) and the Extinction Coefficient (k) of a given film across
the measured spectral range.[citation needed]

The method is most often used in a quantitative way to determine concentrations of an absorbing
species in solution, using the Beer-Lambert law:
,
where A is the measured absorbance, in Absorbance Units (AU),
incident light at a given wavelength,

is the intensity of the

is the transmitted intensity, L the path length through

the sample, and c the concentration of the absorbing species. For each species and
wavelength, is a constant known as the molar absorptivity or extinction coefficient. This
constant is a fundamental molecular property in a given solvent, at a particular temperature
and pressure, and has units of

or often

The absorbance and extinction are sometimes defined in terms of the natural
logarithm instead of the base-10 logarithm.
The Beer-Lambert Law is useful for characterizing many compounds but does not hold as a
universal relationship for the concentration and absorption of all substances. A 2nd order
polynomial relationship between absorption and concentration is sometimes encountered for

very large, complex molecules such as organic dyes (Xylenol Orange or Neutral Red, for
example).

UV/Vis can be applied to determine the kinetics or rate constant of a chemical reaction. The
reaction, occurring in solution, must present color or brightness shifts from reactants to products
in order to use UV/Vis for this application. For example, the molecule mercury dithizonate is a
yellow-orange color in diluted solution (1*10^-5 M), and turns blue when subjected with
particular wavelengths of visible light (and UV) via a conformational change, but this reaction is
reversible back into the yellow "ground state"
The rate constant of a particular reaction can be determined by measuring the UV/Vis absorbance
spectrum at specific time intervals. Using mercury dithizonate again as an example, one can
shine light on the sample to turn the solution blue, then run a UV/Vis test every 10 seconds
(variable) to see the levels of absorbed and reflected wavelengths change over time in
accordance with the solution turning back to yellow from the excited blue energy state. From
these measurements, the concentration of the two species can be calculated. [12] The mercury
dithizonate reaction from one conformation to another is first order and would have the integral
first order rate law: ln[A](time t)=kt+ln[A](initial). Therefore graphing the natural log (ln) of
the concentration [A] versus time will graph a line with slope -k, or negative the rate constant.
Different rate orders have different integrated rate laws depending on the mechanism of the
reaction.
Equilibrium constant can also be calculated with UV/Vis spectroscopy. After determining
optimal wavelengths for all species involved in equilibria, a reaction can be run to equilibrium,
and the concentration of species determined from spectroscopy at various known wavelengths.
The equilibrium constant can be calculated as K (eq) = [Products] / [Reactants].

4. Method of preparation of adhesive from pine resin

The Pine Tree is an amazingly useful tree to any bush crafter or survivalist. First of all, the entire
tree is ediblethe bark, the needles, the pine cones, etc.. The roots can be used as cordage. We
can make pine needle tea which is rich in vitamins. We can also use the limbs as building
materials and the pine boughs as bedding. Pine sap also makes excellent fuel for camp lamps
and fire starting. This is how to use PINE SAP to make a fully natural and very durable glue.
Pine resin glue can be used for all kinds of applications at home or in the wild. This is the
method of Pine Resin Glue to make fish-hooks, frog gigs and all kinds of other useful tools. We
can also used pine Resin Glue at home for every day projects. We can use Pine Resin Glue to
secure Ferrocerium Rod Fire Steel Blanks inside of pre-drilled deer antler handles.
Pine resin can be found on almost every pine tree. We can typically find it where the pine tree
has been wounded by either insects or a broken limb. The sap will seep from the wound. We
can sometimes find it dried in clumps and nodules all around the tree.

Pine Sap Leaking From Wound On Pine Tree

The only other ingredient besides the Pine Sap that you need to make Pine Resin Glue is
charcoal. Just plain old charcoal right out of a campfire will work just fine. Below is a photo if
some pine resin nodules we can collect along with a small amount of charcoal from a camp fire.

Charcoal Chunks & Dried Pine Resin Pieces

STEPS under taken

The first step to making Pine Sap Glue is to melt down the pine sap. We can place the sap
clusters in a Tin.

While the pine resin is melting down, crush up your charcoal pieces into a fine powder. We can
simply use a stick. Also, can do this in the bush on a flat rock or on a piece of bark.

Crush Charcoal into Fine Powder

The formula we can always used for making this glue is 1 part charcoal to 3 parts pine resin. We
will have to experiment with what works best for us. Too much charcoal and our glue will be
brittle, too little charcoal and our glue will not be durable enough. After the pine sap has melted
down, mix in the crushed charcoal.

Mix Crushed Charcoal into Melted Pine Sap

As our sap cools, it will harden. Thoroughly stir in the charcoal before it cools too much.

Mix In Charcoal Really Well Before The Melted Sap Cools

Our glue is complete and ready to use. Once the glue has cooled, we will need to heat it back up
in order to use it again. At this point, we have a few options. We can leave the glue in the tin or
whatever container we mixed it in. Or, as the sap cools, we can form it on the stick which is
the way we like to keep Pine Resin Glue.

Pine Resin Glue Hardened on Stick

To use the glue simply heat it up over a flame and apply it to whatever we need. In this case, we
can put some on the end of the rods and can insert into the pre-drilled deer antlers.

Carving Away Excess Pine Sap Glue

After carving away the excess glue, these Ferro Rods are ready to use in the field and will
provide years of excellent service.

5. APPLICATIONS

Applicators of different adhesives are designed according to the adhesive being used and the size
of the area to which the adhesive will be applied. The adhesive is applied to either one or both of

the materials being bonded. The pieces are aligned and pressure is added to aid in adhesion and
rid the bond of air bubbles.
Common ways of applying an adhesive include brushes, rollers, using films or pellets, spray
guns and applicator guns (e.g., caulk gun). All of these can be used manually or automated as
part of a machine.

They are now often the norm in applications like car manufacture where their durability ensures
consistent performance long after mechanical fixings start to loosen or fail.
These type of adhesives are designed to join two surfaces forming part of a load-bearing
structure, with typically at least 1000psi overlap shear strength.

References
Doyle, Daryl J. (1990). "Criteria for Proper Adhesive Selection: From Application to Viscosity."
Society of Manufacturing Engineers Technical Paper AD90450, Adhesives '90, October 14,
1990, Schaumburg, Illinois.
Fry, Arthur L. (1989). "The Choir Singer's Bookmark." Guideposts.
Plummer, Christine (1993). "The Story of Post-it Notes." Chem Matters.
Literature, Wikipedia
Natural adhesives, Encyclopedia

Photo Reference:http://irwinvillega.files.wordpress.com/2012/04/trap-used-on-pine-tree-for-catching-sap-for-turpentine

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/Frankincense_2005-12-31.jpg