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Energy requirements:
1. Life requires energy transfer and transformation
a. Bioenergetics determine nutritional needs
b. Related to size, activity and environment
2. Energy allocation and use
a. Classification by how organisms gain chemical energy
i. Autotrophs harness light to build energy rich organic molecules
ii. Use these as food
iii. Heterotrophs eat food
iv. Contains pre-synthesized organic molecules
1. Fuels metabolism and activity
2. Digested by enzymatic hydrolysis
3. Used to produce ATP
a. ATP powers cellular work
b. Used in biosynthesis
i. Body growth and repair
c. Production and use of ATP generates heat, usually
given off to surroundings
3. Quantifying energy use
a. Measure the rate energy is used
b. How this rate changes to circumstances
c. Sum of all energy used in a given time interval is metabolic rate or
MR
i. Measured in Joules calories or kilocalories
ii. Measured by many means
1. Almost all chemical energy (in cellular respiration)
eventually appears as heat
a. Monitoring heat loss
b. Or by monitoring oxygen consumption/carbon
dioxide produced (respiration)
c. Long periods of time marked by food consumption,
energy in food, energy lost (feces)
4. Minimum metabolic rate and thermoregulation
a. Animals maintain a minimum metabolic rate
b. Minimum MR of a nongrowing endotherm at rest with empty stomach
no stress is called Basal Metabolic Rate/BMR
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ii. Right side of heart delivers oxygen poor blood to capillary beds
of gas exchange tissue
1. Pulmonary circuit if all capillary beds are in lungs
2. Pulmocutaneous if it includes those in lungs and skin
(amphibians)
3. Oxygen enriched blood enters left side
a. Sent to organs
iii. Amphibians adapt to breathe intermittently
iv. Endotherms have higher delivery demands
4. Maintaining the Hearts Rhythmic Beat
a. Cardiac muscles are autorhythmic
b. Sinoatrial node sets pace
i. Produces electric signals
ii. Signals atria first
iii. Delayed for 0.1 second at atrioventricular node
iv. Allows atria to empty completely before ventricles contract
5. Atrium receives Ventricle sends ARVS
The kidney
1. Descending limb of the loop of Henle
1.1.Reabsorption of water continues
1.2.Freely permeable to water
1.3.Interstitial fluid
46: Reproduction
1. Sexual reproduction
1.1.Haploid gamete forms diploid cell
1.1.1. Zygote
2. Asexual reproduction
2.1.New individuals are formed without fusing of egg and sperm
2.2.Entirely reliant on miotic cell division
3. mechanisms of asexual reproduction
3.1.invertebrates
3.1.1. budding
3.1.1.1. individuals arise from outgrowths
3.1.2. fission
3.1.2.1. one organism separates into 2
3.1.3. fragmentation and regeneration
3.2.Parthenogenisis
3.2.1. Egg develops without being fertilized
3.2.2. Progeny can be either haploid or diploid
3.2.3. Rare in vertebrates
3.2.3.1. Komodo dragon and hammerheads have done it
4. Sexual reproduction
4.1.Not as efficient as asexual
4.2.Must enhance reproductive success
4.3.Most likely evolved to make offspring more diverse
4.4.Gene shuffling also rids of bad genes
5. Reproductive Cycles
5.1.Most animals exhibit cycles
5.2.Controlled by hormones (mostly)
5.2.1. In turn controlled by environmental cues
5.2.2. Animals conserve resources and give birth only during most favorable
conditions
5.3.GW can diminish reproductive success (season disruption)
6. Variations in patterns
6.1.Finding partners can be challenging
6.2.Hermaphroditism
6.3.Allows any two species to mate, or any one to self-fertilize
6.4.Alternatively, sex reversal
6.4.1. EWW Finding Nemo
7. Fertilization depends on mechanisms the bring egg and sperm of same species
together
7.1.External vs internal
7.2.External must happen in a moist environment (mostly)
7.2.1. Partners may exhibit courtship behavior
7.2.1.1. Encourages release of gametes
7.3.Mating animals may make use of pheromones
7.3.1. come have sex with me chemicals
7.3.1.1. Human pheromones not yet discovered
7.4.Ensuring offspring survival
7.4.1. Higher fractions of internally fertilized zygotes survive
Plants muthafucka
6.4.1.1.2.
One fuses with two polar nuclei in center and forms
triploid (3N)
6.4.1.1.2.1.
Forms endosperm
6.4.1.2. Zygote grows into sporophyte
6.4.2. Each ovule forms seed
6.4.3. Each ovary becomes fruit
6.4.4. When the seed germinates, the embryo develops into the new
sporophyte generation
6.4.5. Endosperm development precedes embryo development
6.4.5.1. In most monocots and many eudicots, endosperm stores
nutrients that can be used by seedling
6.4.5.2. In other eudicots, the food reserves of the endosperm goes to
cotyledons
6.4.6. Zygote divdes into terminal and basal cell
6.4.7. Terminal
6.4.7.1. Begin to form developing embryo
6.4.8. Basal
6.4.8.1. Functions like a placenta
6.4.8.2. Funnels energy from parent to embryo
6.4.8.3. Desiccation
6.4.8.3.1.
Metabolism slows immensely
6.4.8.3.2.
Dormancy induced by dehydration
6.4.8.3.3.
Remain inert for a very long time
6.4.8.4. Germination depends on imbibition, the uptake of water due to
low water potential
6.4.8.5. Radicle emerges first; the developing root system anchors plant
6.4.8.6. Next, shoot tips break through soil
6.4.8.7.
7. Coevolution
7.1.Joint evolution of interacting species
7.2.Plants and pollinators have heavily intertwined life cycles
7.3.Plants
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