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Animals

40: Basic Principles of Animal Form and Function


(or, the parts I didnt know already)
Homeostasis
1. Circulatory adaptations
a. Circulatory systems = major heat transfer
b. Significant in thermoregulation
c. Many animals alter blood flow to control heat/in response to heat
i. Between body core & skin
d. Vasodilation
i. Widening of superficial blood cells (near body surface)
ii. Increase in vessel diameter = increased blood flow
iii. Thus more heat
iv. Warms skin
v. Increases transfer of heat from the body
e. Vasoconstriction
i. Opposite
ii. Reduces blood flow by reducing superficial vessel size
f. Some ectotherms utilize this as well
i. Ex. Marine iguanas (Galapagos) swims in cold ocean
vasoconstriction
1. Routes blood to core
2. Preserves body heat
g. Countercurrent exchange is significant
i. Birds and mammals (not all)
ii. Heat or solute flow in opposite direction of blood flow
iii. Arteries and veins are located adjacent to each other
iv. Some insects sharks and fish
v. Large powerful swimmers
1. Most sharks and fish are conformers
2. Keeps main swimming muscles hotter than near-surface
tissue
vi. Many insects (endotherms) use a countercurrent exchanger
1. Higher temp in thorax (flight muscles)
2. Evaporative heat loss (Cooling)
a. Sweating
i. Water absorbs heat when evaporating
ii. Carries heat away
1.
iii. Sweat glands controlled by nervous system
b. Panting
i. Birds have blood vessel rich pouches in mouth
ii. Fluttering pouch increases evaporation
iii. Pigeons
1. Keep body at 40C in 60C environment
3. Behavioral Responses
a. Many ectotherms simplify behavior when in hot environments
b. Seek warm places when cold
i. Think snakes basking

c. Turn in other directions


i. Dragonflies take an obelisk posture reducing surface area
affected by sun
d. Social behaviors
i. Bees huddle to retain heat
ii. Move in convection-like motions to circulate heat
iii. Transport water to hive or flutter wings to cool
iv. Honeybee colonies exhibit the same activities an individual
animal might
4. Adjusting metabolic heat production
a. Endotherms can vary thermogenesis Heat production
b. Match rate of heat loss
c. Moving or shivering
i. Many endothermic insects shiver before flight
ii. Chemical reactions and cellular respiration accelerate in flight
muscles
iii. Enables flying in cold weather
d. Mammals
i. Hormones increase metabolic activity by mitochondria
1. Produces heat instead of ATP
ii. Some have brown fat tissue
1. Located in neck and between shoulders
2. Specialized for heat production
3. Higher numbers of mitochondria than in white adipose
tissue
4. Found in infants
5. Found in hibernators
6. Human brown fat is 5% of body weight
e. Combination of shivering and nonshivering thermogenesis
i. Increases heat production five to tenfold
f. Some large reptile become endotherms in particular situations
i. Burmese python maintains high heat (^6C) when incubating
ii. Studies reveal ability to shiver
iii. Contribute to idea of Mesozoic dinosaurs being endotherms
5. Acclimation in thermoregulation
a. Ex. Growing a thicker fur coat in winter
b. Shedding in summer
c. Keep constant year-round body temperature
d. Cellular adjustments
i. Variant enzyme production
1. Enzymes have same function but different optimal
temperature
ii. Proportions of saturated and unsaturated lipids in membranes
may change
1. Unsaturated lipids keep membrane fluid at lower
temperatures
iii. Ectotherms experiencing subzero produce antifreeze
1. Proteins that prevent ice formation in cells
2. Enable fish to live in -2C (arctic waters)
6. Psychological thermostats and Fever

a. Body temp regulation controlled by complex feedback system


b. Hypothalamus bitches
i. Controls circadian clock
ii. Nerve cells in hypothalamus respond to temperatures outside
normal range
iii. Activates mechanisms to promote heat loss/gain
iv. Same blood vessels supply hypothalamus and ear
1. Ear thermometer
c. Certain bacterial/viral infections cause fever in mammals and birds
d. Elevates body temperature
e. Ectotherm version:
i. Some seek out warm environments to raise temperature 2-4C
above environment

Energy requirements:
1. Life requires energy transfer and transformation
a. Bioenergetics determine nutritional needs
b. Related to size, activity and environment
2. Energy allocation and use
a. Classification by how organisms gain chemical energy
i. Autotrophs harness light to build energy rich organic molecules
ii. Use these as food
iii. Heterotrophs eat food
iv. Contains pre-synthesized organic molecules
1. Fuels metabolism and activity
2. Digested by enzymatic hydrolysis
3. Used to produce ATP
a. ATP powers cellular work
b. Used in biosynthesis
i. Body growth and repair
c. Production and use of ATP generates heat, usually
given off to surroundings
3. Quantifying energy use
a. Measure the rate energy is used
b. How this rate changes to circumstances
c. Sum of all energy used in a given time interval is metabolic rate or
MR
i. Measured in Joules calories or kilocalories
ii. Measured by many means
1. Almost all chemical energy (in cellular respiration)
eventually appears as heat
a. Monitoring heat loss
b. Or by monitoring oxygen consumption/carbon
dioxide produced (respiration)
c. Long periods of time marked by food consumption,
energy in food, energy lost (feces)
4. Minimum metabolic rate and thermoregulation
a. Animals maintain a minimum metabolic rate
b. Minimum MR of a nongrowing endotherm at rest with empty stomach
no stress is called Basal Metabolic Rate/BMR

5.

6.

7.

8.

c. Minimum MR in ectotherms is determined at a specific temperature


d. MR of a fasting nonstressed ectotherm at rest is Standard Metabolic
Rate/SMR
i. Comparisons of MMR (minimum metabolic rate) reveal that
ecto/endotherms have different energy costs
ii. Ectotherms require less energy
Influences on metabolic rate
a. Affected by:
i. Sex
ii. Size
iii. Activity
iv. Temperature
v. Nutrition
Size and Metabolic rate
a. Large animals have more body mass/require less energy
b. Metabolic rate is roughly proportional to body mass to the power
c. Applies to endo/ectotherms
d. Energy required to maintain each gram of body mass is inversely
related to body size
i. A mouse requires 20 times as much energy-per-gram as an
elephant
ii. The smaller the MR per gram, a higher oxygen delivery rate is
demanded
iii. Smaller animals must breathe faster
Activity and Metabolic Rate
a. For both ecto/endotherms, activity greatly affects MR
b. Maximum MR is highest ATP use rate
i. Occur during peak activity
1. Lifting
2. Sports
3. Maximum MR an animal can sustain is inversely related to
duration of activity
ii. Endotherms average energy use is 2-4 times BMR
iii. Ectotherms is ~ 1.5 times SMR
1. Evidence of sedentary (lax) lifestyle
Torpor and Energy Conservation
a. Animals encounter challenging conditions
b. Torpor state of decreases activity/metabolism
i. Ex. Hibernation
1. Some animals briefly become active
2. Circadian clock may cease during Hibernation
a. Molecules stop oscillating
b. (in European hamster at least)
c. Physiological state changes
i. Chickadees temp while in torpor is 10C lower (thats a lot)
d. Endotherms that show daily torpor are small
i. When active they have high MRs/consume lots of energy

41: Animal Nutrition


Need to Feed (the movie!)

42: Circulation and Gas exchange


Circulatory systems link exchange surfaces with cells
throughout the body
1. Gain of Oxygen and shed of CO2 must happen in every cell
a. Can move between immediate surfaces by diffusion
b. Adaptions place many cells in contact with environment
i. Only in certain invertebrates
1. Cnidarians and flatworms
c. Other adaption is circulatory system
2. Open and Closed circulatory system
a. 3 major parts
i. Fluid
ii. Pump (heart)
iii. Vessels
b. Open system hemolymph is also interstitial fluid (fluid which bathes
cells
c. Closed system blood confined to vessels
i. One or more hearts pump blood into vessels that infiltrate
organs
ii. Requires more energy
iii. Higher pressure
1. Faster O2 delivery
3. Organization of vertebrate circulatory systems
a. 3 types of blood vessels
i. Arteries
1. From heart to organs
2. Branch into arterioles
ii. Capillaries
1. Microscopic porous veins
2. Networks called capillary beds infiltrate tissues
iii. Veins
1. Downstream of capillaries
2. Carry blood back to heart
iv. Arteries and veins distinguished by direction
1. Portal veins are exceptions
a. Carry blood between capillary beds
b. Single circulation
i. Bony fishes sharks and rays, hearts have two chambers
1. Atrium
2. Ventricle
ii. Blood travels once through each to complete a circuit
iii. Blood entering heart collects in atrium
iv. Then pumped into ventricle
1. Ventricle contraction pumps blood to capillary bed in gills
2. Blood leaves gills and converges into vessel that
distributes to capillary beds
c. Double circulation
i. Amphibians, reptiles and mammals

ii. Right side of heart delivers oxygen poor blood to capillary beds
of gas exchange tissue
1. Pulmonary circuit if all capillary beds are in lungs
2. Pulmocutaneous if it includes those in lungs and skin
(amphibians)
3. Oxygen enriched blood enters left side
a. Sent to organs
iii. Amphibians adapt to breathe intermittently
iv. Endotherms have higher delivery demands
4. Maintaining the Hearts Rhythmic Beat
a. Cardiac muscles are autorhythmic
b. Sinoatrial node sets pace
i. Produces electric signals
ii. Signals atria first
iii. Delayed for 0.1 second at atrioventricular node
iv. Allows atria to empty completely before ventricles contract
5. Atrium receives Ventricle sends ARVS

Gas exchange occurs across specialized respiratory surfaces


Respiratory surfaces
1. Respiration occurs by diffusion
2. Gills
a. Outfoldings suspended in water
b. Total surface area larger than exterior of body
c. Efficiency of gas exchange maximized by countercurrent exchange
d. Partial pressure of O2 in water higher than in fish blood
Insect Tracheal System
1. Network of air tubes
a. Tracheae open to outside (also largest)
b. Finest branches extend close to surface of almost every cell
c. Higher energy demands met by manual ventilation
Lungs in Mammals
2. When feeding, larynx moves upward
a. Tips epiglottis over glottis (opening of trachea)

44: Osmoregulation and Excretion


Maintaining fluid Balance
1. Relative concentrations of water/other solutes kept in narrow ranges
2. Ions (Ca/Na) maintained at specific concentrations
2.1.Called Osmoregulation
2.2.Mechanisms reflect various adaptations to surroundings
2.3.Fish survive by getting salts from surroundins
2.4.Birds must excrete excess salt
2.5.Animals must deal with Ammonia
2.5.1. Toxic byproduct of dismantling Nitrogenous things

Osmoregulation balances uptake of water and solutes


1. Driving force is concentration gradient of one or more solute across plasma
membrane
2. Unit of measure is Osmolarity
3. Two solutions of same osmolarity are isoosmotic
4. Two solutions of different concentration
4.1.Higher concentration = hyperosmotic
Omoregulatory Challenges and Mechanisms
1. Two types of balancing
1.1.Osmoconformers
1.1.1. Attempt to become isoosmotic
1.1.2. All marine mammals
1.2.Osmoregulator
1.2.1. Controls osmolarity independent of environment
2. Most animals cannot tolerate huge changes in external omolarity
3. Marine animals
3.1.Most marine invertibrates are conformers
3.2.Must actively transport solutes to maintain homeostasis
3.3.Seawater is dehydrating, counteracted by drinking seawater and discharging
salt
4. Animals living in temporary water can survive in dehydrated state
4.1.Anhydrobiosis
5. Land animals
5.1.Use exterior coatings to protect from water loss
5.2.Desert dwellers are nocturnal
5.2.1. Low temperature and high humidity of night
5.3.Counteract loss by drinking, eating moist food and metabolizing through
cellular respiration
Energetics of regulation
1. Active transport to osmoregulate uses energy
1.1.Accounts for 5% of metabolic rate in in many fish (resting rate)
1.2.Energy cost of maintaining balance minimized by body fluids adapting to
salinity of surroundings
Transport Epithelia in Osmoregulation

1. Objective is to regulate cell solute concentration


1.1.Accomplished by regulating body fluid
1.2.Osmoregulation and metabolic waste rely on transport epithelia
1.2.1. Specialized epithelial cells
1.2.2. Complex tube networks

The kidney
1. Descending limb of the loop of Henle
1.1.Reabsorption of water continues
1.2.Freely permeable to water
1.3.Interstitial fluid

45:Endocrine System and Hormones


1. Hormones and other signaling molecules bind to receptors, triggering specific
response pathways
1.1.Forms of signaling between animal cells differ in the ty of secreting cell and
the route taken to its target
1.2.Hormones secreted into extracellular fluid
1.3.Secreted from endocrine cells or ductless glands
1.4.Travel through circulatory fluid
1.5.Paracine signals act on neighborin cells
1.6.Autocrine acts on the cell that secretes it
1.7.Neurotransmitters act locally
1.7.1. Neurohormones act throughout the body
1.7.2. Pheromones released into environment for communication between
species
1.8.Local regulators
1.8.1. Carry out paracrine and autocrine signaling
1.8.2. Include cytokines and polypeptides, prostaglandins (modified fatty
acids) and nitric oxide
1.9.Polypeptides, steroids and amins comprise major classes of animal
hormonses
1.10.
Water/lipid soluble hormones activate different pathways
2. Feedback regulation and coordination with the nervous system are common in
endocrine signaling
2.1.Controlled by negative/positive feedback
2.2.Insects
2.2.1. Molting and development depend on three hormones
2.2.1.1. PTTH
2.2.1.2. Ecdysteroid (release triggered by PTTH
2.2.1.3. Juvenile hormone
2.3.Vertebrates
2.3.1. Neurosecretory cells in hypothalamus produce 2 hormones
2.3.2. Secreted by posterior pituitary gland
2.3.3. Act directly on nonendocrine tissues
2.3.3.1. Oxytocin induces pregnancy stuff
2.3.3.2. ADH increases water reabsorption in kidneys
2.3.4. Other hypothalamus cells send hormones to anterior pituitary
2.3.5. Stimulate or inhibit release of particular hormones
2.3.6. Often act in cascade
2.3.6.1. TSH is regulated by TRH, TSH in turn induces thyroid gland to
produce thyroid hormone
2.3.6.1.1.
Stimulates metabolism and development
2.3.6.2. Most anterior hormones are tropic
2.3.6.2.1.
Acting on endocrine tissues or glands
2.3.6.2.2.
Regulate secretion of other hormones
2.3.6.2.3.
Include TSH, FSH, LH, ACTH, growth hormone
3. Endocrine glands respond to diverse stimuli in regulating homeostasis,
development and behavior
3.1.Parathyroid hormone
3.1.1. Stimulates bones to release, and kidney to reabsorb Ca2+

3.2.Calcitonin secreted by thyroid


3.2.1. Flip effect
3.2.2. Important to some vertebrates, not humans
3.3.Adrenal medulla releases epinephrine and norepinephrine
3.3.1. Fight or flight
3.4.Adrenal cortex releases glucocorticoids
3.4.1. Influence glucose metabolism and and immune system
3.5.Gonads produce sex hormones
3.5.1. Androgen, progestin, and estrogen
3.6.Pineal gland releases melatonin
A nonsteroid hormone binds to a receptor protein in the plasma membrane. The
receptor activates a signal-transduction pathway in the cell. A series of relay
molecules transmits the signal to a protein that carries out the cell's response. In
this case, an enzyme is activated. A different nonsteroid hormone might trigger a
different response, perhaps turning on specific genes that result in the synthesis of
a particular protein.

46: Reproduction
1. Sexual reproduction
1.1.Haploid gamete forms diploid cell
1.1.1. Zygote
2. Asexual reproduction
2.1.New individuals are formed without fusing of egg and sperm
2.2.Entirely reliant on miotic cell division
3. mechanisms of asexual reproduction
3.1.invertebrates
3.1.1. budding
3.1.1.1. individuals arise from outgrowths
3.1.2. fission
3.1.2.1. one organism separates into 2
3.1.3. fragmentation and regeneration
3.2.Parthenogenisis
3.2.1. Egg develops without being fertilized
3.2.2. Progeny can be either haploid or diploid
3.2.3. Rare in vertebrates
3.2.3.1. Komodo dragon and hammerheads have done it
4. Sexual reproduction
4.1.Not as efficient as asexual
4.2.Must enhance reproductive success
4.3.Most likely evolved to make offspring more diverse
4.4.Gene shuffling also rids of bad genes
5. Reproductive Cycles
5.1.Most animals exhibit cycles
5.2.Controlled by hormones (mostly)
5.2.1. In turn controlled by environmental cues
5.2.2. Animals conserve resources and give birth only during most favorable
conditions
5.3.GW can diminish reproductive success (season disruption)
6. Variations in patterns
6.1.Finding partners can be challenging
6.2.Hermaphroditism
6.3.Allows any two species to mate, or any one to self-fertilize
6.4.Alternatively, sex reversal
6.4.1. EWW Finding Nemo
7. Fertilization depends on mechanisms the bring egg and sperm of same species
together
7.1.External vs internal
7.2.External must happen in a moist environment (mostly)
7.2.1. Partners may exhibit courtship behavior
7.2.1.1. Encourages release of gametes
7.3.Mating animals may make use of pheromones
7.3.1. come have sex with me chemicals
7.3.1.1. Human pheromones not yet discovered
7.4.Ensuring offspring survival
7.4.1. Higher fractions of internally fertilized zygotes survive

7.4.1.1. Newborn offspring are not always capable of independent


survival

48: Nervous System


1. Neurons
1.1.Dendrite
1.2.Axon
1.3.Sheath
1.4.Axon hillock
1.5.Nucleus
1.6.Synaptic terminals
2. Sodium potassium
2.1.Non-gated channels
2.1.1. Potassium potassium out
2.1.2. Sodium sodium out
3. Hyperpolarization
3.1.When the inside of the membrane is charged more with potassium
4. Depolarization
4.1.Membrane charged with sodium

Plants muthafucka

36: resource acquisition and transport in vascular


plants
1. Adaptations for acquiring resources
1.1.Evolution of xylem and phloem in land plants
1.2.Enable long distance transport of water minerals and products of
photosynthesis
1.2.1. Xylem water and minerals
1.2.1.1. Root to shoot
1.2.2. Phloem photosynthetic products, sources to sinks
2. Shoot architecture and light capture
2.1.Finite amount of energy devoted to shoot growth
2.2.Stems
2.2.1. Water/nutrient conduits
2.2.2. Supporting structures for leaves
2.2.3. Thick stem = greater flow
2.3.Leaves
2.3.1. Positive correlation between water availability and leaf size
2.4.Harsh sun environments may make shading favorable
2.5.Nonproductive cells commit suicide (kind of) self pruning
3. Root architecture
3.1.Soil conatins resources mined by root system
3.2.Root growth adjusts to local conditions
3.2.1. Ex. Roots branch more in pockets of high nitrate
3.3.?Roots are less competitive with other roots from the same plant, than with
the roots of another plant?
3.4.Rapid adjustments
3.5.Reduced competition enhances nutrient uptake
3.6.Evolution of mutualistic fungi on roots
3.7.Resources transported to places they are needed
4. Short-Distance Transport of Water Across Plasma Membranes
4.1.To survive, plants must balance water uptake and loss
4.2.Water potential: waters capacity to perform work
4.2.1. Combines effects of solute concentration and pressure
4.2.2. Determines direction of movement of water
4.2.3. Water flows from high to low areas of potential
4.3.Turgor Pressure: the pressure exerted by the plasma membrane against the
cell wall, and the cell wall against the protoplast
4.4.If a flaccid cell is placed in a solution with a lower concentration the cell will
gain water and become turgid
4.5.Turgor loss wilting
4.6.Aquaporins transport proteins
4.6.1. Affect rate of water movement across membrane
5. Transpiration drives the transport of water and minerals via xylem
5.1. Plants can move large volumes of water
5.2.Long-distance flow requires bulk flow (under pressure)
6. Absorption by root cells
6.1.Endodermis controlled entry to the vascular cylinder (stele)
6.2.Transport in the xylem
6.3.Xylem sap

6.3.1. Transported by bulk flow


6.4.Transpiration evaporation of water from surface of plant
6.5.Water lost this way is replaced by water sent from roots
6.6.Bulk flow is a pressure system
6.6.1. Faster
6.6.2. Occurs in dead/hollow cells
6.6.3. Moves entire solution
7. Rate of transpiration regulated by stomata
7.1.Leaves generally have broad SA and high Surface:Volume
7.2.Guard cells help balance water conservation with gas exchange
7.3.Stomata = major pathway for water loss
7.3.1. 95% of water lost escapes through stomata
7.3.2. Flanked by a pair of guard cells
7.3.2.1. Change shape to control diameter of stomata
7.3.3. Density is under genetic and environmental control
7.4.Stimuli for opening and closing
7.4.1. Generally open during day and closed at night
7.4.2. Opening at dawn
7.4.2.1. Light
7.4.2.2. CO2 depletion
7.4.2.3. Internal clock in guards
7.5.Lost water must be replaced wilting
7.6.Transpiration also results in evaporative cooling
8. Sugars are transported from sources to sinks in Phloem
8.1.Phloem sap is an aqueous solution and high in sucrose
8.1.1. Travels from source to sink
8.2.Source is an organ that is a net producer of sugar such as mature leaves
8.3.Sink is an organ that is a net consumer or storer of sugar, like a tuber or bulb
8.4.A storage organ can be a sink in summer and a source in winter
8.4.1. Sugar must be loaded into sieve-tube elements before being exported
8.4.2. Requires energy
8.4.3. Protein pumping and contransport of sucrose and H+ enable cells to
accumulate sucrose
8.5.May move by symplastci or by both pathways (depends on species)
8.6.?Companion cells enhance solute movement?
8.7.Self-thinning occurs when sources can no longer support sinks

37: Soil and Plant Nutrition


1. Soil is alive and complicated
1.1.Plants obtain most of their minerals from upper layers of soil
1.2.Living organisms are important
1.3.Fragile ecosystem
1.4.Basic physical properties of soil
1.4.1. Texture
1.4.2. Composition
2. Soil texture
2.1.Classified by size; sand silt clay
2.2.Stratified into layers called soil horizons

38: Angiosperm reproduction and Biotechnology


1. Flowers/Double Fertilization/Fruits
1.1.Life cycles in plants characterized by alternation of generations
1.1.1. Alternation of sporophyte/gametophyte phase
1.2.Flowers have four organs
1.2.1. Carpels, stamens, petals, sepals
1.2.2. Carpels and stamens are reproductive
1.2.3. Sepals and petals are sterile
1.2.4. A carpel has an ovary at its base and a long neck
2. Sporophyte generation (2N, diploid) produces spores through meiosis Spore
divides into multicellular gametophyte produce gamete two gametes fuse
into embryo/zygote mature sporophyte
2.1.Spores and gametes are haploid
3. Flowers
3.1.Stamen male reproductive organ
3.2.
3.2.1. Filament
3.2.2. Anther
3.2.2.1. Spore in anther produces gametophyte gametes
3.3.Petal
3.4.Receptacle
3.5.Ovule
3.6.Sepal outside protective features
3.7.Carpel
3.7.1. Stigma
3.7.2. Style
3.7.3. Ovary
3.7.3.1. Contains ovules
3.8.Complete vs. incomplete
3.8.1. Not all structures in one place
3.8.1.1. May lack petals, and adapt to wind pollination
4. Male
4.1.Anther
4.1.1. Pollen sac (microsporangium)
4.1.2. Microspore half of genetic makeup of sporophyte
4.1.2.1. Microspore divides once generative cell & tube cell
5. Female
5.1.Megasporangium
5.1.1. Produces 4 megaspores, 3 die, one survives
5.1.1.1. Divides into 8 cells that comprise entire gametophyte stage
6. Transfer of pollen to receptive stigma
6.1.Wind
6.1.1. Wind-pollinators produce F*ckloads of pollen
6.2.Water
6.3.Animals
6.4.Pollen on stigma
6.4.1. Tube cell digests tissue and creates pathway to
6.4.1.1. Generative cell divides (mitosis) into 2 sperm cells
6.4.1.1.1.
One cell fuses with egg

6.4.1.1.2.
One fuses with two polar nuclei in center and forms
triploid (3N)
6.4.1.1.2.1.
Forms endosperm
6.4.1.2. Zygote grows into sporophyte
6.4.2. Each ovule forms seed
6.4.3. Each ovary becomes fruit
6.4.4. When the seed germinates, the embryo develops into the new
sporophyte generation
6.4.5. Endosperm development precedes embryo development
6.4.5.1. In most monocots and many eudicots, endosperm stores
nutrients that can be used by seedling
6.4.5.2. In other eudicots, the food reserves of the endosperm goes to
cotyledons
6.4.6. Zygote divdes into terminal and basal cell
6.4.7. Terminal
6.4.7.1. Begin to form developing embryo
6.4.8. Basal
6.4.8.1. Functions like a placenta
6.4.8.2. Funnels energy from parent to embryo
6.4.8.3. Desiccation
6.4.8.3.1.
Metabolism slows immensely
6.4.8.3.2.
Dormancy induced by dehydration
6.4.8.3.3.
Remain inert for a very long time
6.4.8.4. Germination depends on imbibition, the uptake of water due to
low water potential
6.4.8.5. Radicle emerges first; the developing root system anchors plant
6.4.8.6. Next, shoot tips break through soil
6.4.8.7.
7. Coevolution
7.1.Joint evolution of interacting species
7.2.Plants and pollinators have heavily intertwined life cycles
7.3.Plants

Ecosystem Lvl of Ecology


1) Includes living and abiotic factors
2) Larger focus on abiotic
a) Community more focused on species interactions
3) Range in size
a) Dynamics involve 2 main processes
i) Energy flows
ii) Matter cycles
4) Ecologists study transformations of these things
a) Focused on physics and chemistry of biotic factors
5) Entropy is inefficient as it is transferred up through levels
a) Must also be continually supplied
b) Mass must be conserved
c) Chemical elements are continuously supplied and expelled, but more so
recycled through ecosystems
d) Significant portions of matter simply recycled
6) Everything loses energy as heat
7) Detritivores eat dead, once-living material
8) Primary producers limit the energy supplied to an ecosystem (rarely
chemoautotrophs)
a) Budget-like supply
b) Global energyi) Solar radiation supplies enough energy to support the entire human race
for 20 years
ii) Only a fraction is collected
(1) Only some hits chloroplasts
(2) Chloroplasts can only synthesize certain wavelengths
9) Primary production
a) Amount of light chemical energy provided by autotrophs
b) Net PP, how much energy is available
c) GPP NPP = available anergy
d) Standing crop biomass of autotrophs at any given time
i) Biomass is a measure of carbon
ii) Expressed as dry weight
e) Forrest vs grasslandi) Forrest
(1) Grows and cycles slower, uses more energy for itself
ii) Grassland
(1) Faster turnover (eaten/regrows quicker per unit time)
iii) Oceans
(1) Lower rate but so large they supply as good or more NPP as terrestrial
standing crop
f) NEP (net ecosystem production) = GPP total respiration
g) Measure of biomass accumulation
h) Stuff that enters system without leaving
i) CO2 vs 02
i) Net release of 02 = net storage of carbon

j)

k)
l)

10)
a)

11)
a)
b)
12)
a)
b)
c)
13)
14)
a)
b)

ii) C02 measured in terrestrial areas


iii) Both in aquatic
Aquatic ecosystem
i) Photic zone where light reaches
ii) Most light energy absorbed by contact wiith water
iii) Nitrogen and Phosphorous limit production (Marine)
iv) Lakes P
v) Sometimes micronutrients
vi) Eutrophication
(1) Nutrient enrichment
(2) Extra cyanobacteria
(3) Detritus of bacteria uses dissolved oxygen in water
Limiting nutrients limit growth
i) Non-limiting nutrient additions dont change things
Production efficiency
i) Fraction of energy produced energy used for respiration and assimilation
of primary production
ii) Endothermic vs ectothermic
iii) Fish and bacteria have high production because no thermogenesis
iv) Some aquatic biomes have inverted biomass pyramids
v) Phytoplankton have quit turnover
Biogeochemical cycle
Nutrient cycle
i) 4 major factors
ii) Bio importance
iii) Major reservoirs
iv) Available forms
v) Key cycle processes
Nitrogen cycle
Abundant in atmosphere
i) Not biologically available
ii) Fixed by bacteria
Denitrification back to N2
Phosphorous
Most available as phosphate
Earth is a reservoir
Ocean is a reservoir
Experimenta forests and watersheds
Restoration ecology
Exactly what it sounds like

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