SYRIA

HISTORY
Ancient Syria was conquered by Egypt about 1500 B.C., and after that by Hebrews, Assyrians,
Chaldeans, Persians, and Alexander the Great of Macedonia. From 64 B.C. until the Arab conquest
in A.D. 636, it was part of the Roman Empire except during brief periods. The Arabs made it a trade
center for their extensive empire, but it suffered severely from the Mongol invasion in 1260 and fell to the
Ottoman Turks in 1516. Syria remained a Turkish province until World War I.
A secret Anglo-French pact of 1916 put Syria in the French zone of influence. The League of Nations
gave France a mandate over Syria after World War I, but the French were forced to put down several
nationalist uprisings. In 1930, France recognized Syria as an independent republic but still subject to the
mandate. After nationalist demonstrations in 1939, the French high commissioner suspended the Syrian
constitution. In 1941, British and Free French forces invaded Syria to eliminate Vichy control. During the
rest of World War II, Syria was an Allied base. Again in 1945, nationalist demonstrations broke into actual

fighting, and British troops had to restore order. Syrian forces met a series of reverses while participating
in the Arab invasion of Palestine in 1948.
History of Syria covers the developments in the region of Syria and modern Syrian Arab Republic.
Syria most likely derives from the name of the Neo-Assyrian Empire established in the 10th century BC.
Modern Syria became independent in 1946 following a period of French occupation (191720) and
Mandate (1920-1946). In 1958, the Republic of Syria became briefly part of the United Arab Republic but
in 1961 withdrew from the federation. From 1963, the Syrian Arab Republic has been ruled by
the Ba'ath with the Assad family exclusively from 1970. Currently Syria is fractured between rival forces
on the course of the Syrian Civil War.
In 1920, a short-lived independent Kingdom of Syria was established under Emir Faisal I of the
Hashemite dynasty, who later became the king of Iraq. In March 1920, the Syrian National Congress
proclaimed Faisal as king of Syria "in its natural boundaries" from the Taurus Mountains in Turkey to the
Sinai desert in Egypt. However, his rule in Syria ended after only a few months following a clash between
his Syrian Arab forces and French forces at the Battle of Maysalun. French troops took control of Syria
and forced Faisal to flee. Later that year the San Remo conference split up Faisal's kingdom by placing
Syria-Lebanon under a French mandate, and Palestine under British control. Syria was divided into three
autonomous regions by the French, with separate areas for the Alawis on the coast and the Druze in the
south.
Syria became independent on 17 April 1946. Syrian politics from independence through the late
1960s were marked by upheaval. Between 1946 and 1956, Syria had 20 different cabinets and drafted
four separate constitutions.
Upon assuming power, Hafez al-Assad moved quickly to create an organizational infrastructure
for his government and to consolidate control. The Provisional Regional Command of Assad's Arab
Socialist Ba'ath Party nominated a 173-member legislature, the People's Council, in which the Ba'ath
Party took 87 seats. The remaining seats were divided among "popular organizations" and other minor
parties. In March 1971, the party held its regional congress and elected a new 21-member Regional
Command headed by Assad.
Hafez al-Assad died on 10 June 2000, after 30 years in power. Immediately following al-Assad's death,
the Syrian Parliament amended the constitution, reducing the mandatory minimum age of the President
from 40 to 34. This allowed Bashar Assad to become eligible for nomination by the ruling Ba'ath party.
On 10 July 2000, Bashar al-Assad was elected President by referendum in which he ran unopposed,
garnering 97.29% of the vote, according to Syrian Government statistics.

CAPITAL (FLAG AND MAP)

Damascus is the capital and the second-largest city of Syria after Aleppo. It is commonly known
in Syria as ash-Sham and nicknamed as the City of Jasmine. In addition to being one of the oldest
continuously inhabited cities in the world, Damascus is a major cultural and religious center of
the Levant. The city has an estimated population of 1,711,000 (2009 estimate).

POPULATION
In 2011, Syrian population was estimated at roughly 23 million permanent inhabitants, including
people with refugee status from Palestine and Iraq and are an overall indigenous Levantine people. While
most modern-day Syrians are commonly described as Arabs by virtue of their modern-day language and
bonds to Arab culture and history, they are, in fact, largely a blend of the various Semitic-speaking groups
indigenous to the region. In 2011, Syria's population was 72-74% Sunni Muslim (59-60% Arabs, 9-11%
Kurds and 2-3% Turkmen), other Muslims (including Alawites, Shia and Ismaili) made up 16% of the
population, various Christian denominations made up 10-12% and finally, there were a
few Jewish communities in Aleppo and Damascus.1,500 people of Greek descent lived in Syria at the
time. The majority of them were Syrian citizens. The actual population has reduced by about 5 million
since the Syrian Civil War started in 2011, with more than 4 million becoming refugees and at least
210,000 being killed.
Syria, a Middle Eastern country, has a population that's difficult to determine due to said
instability. Approximately 5,000 flee Syria every day. In 2012, the country had a population estimated at
22,530,746, although this number had dropped to an estimated population of 22,457,336 as of September
2013. Today, it is estimated to have 22,087,048.

CULTURE
The literature of Syria has contributed to Arabic literature and has
a proud tradition of oral and written poetry. Syrian writers, many of whom
migrated to Egypt, played a crucial role in the nahda or Arab literary and
cultural revival of the 19th century. Prominent contemporary Syrian
writers include, among others, Adonis, Muhammad Maghout, Haidar
Haidar, Ghada al-Samman, Nizar Qabbani and Zakariyya Tamer. There is
a long literary tradition that dates back to poets such as al-Mutanabbi in
the 900s and al-Maarri in the 1000s.
Writers must contend with government censorship, but fiction writing is
not as tightly monitored as is nonfiction. Whereas the punishment for
breaking laws concerning nonfiction is usually imprisonment, fiction
writers generally are reprimanded. Perhaps for this reason, poetry and the
short story are widely read and appreciated, represented by writers such as
Nizar Qabbani, Shawqi Baghdadi, and 'Ali Ahmad Sa'id. There are few
women in the ranks of well-known Arab writers, but one of them is Ghada
al-Samman, who was born in 1942. She writes on many of the same
issues as her male contemporaries, including cultural identity and the
clash between tradition and progress as well as issues specific to being a woman and writer in a male
dominated
society.
The Syrian music scene, in particular that of Damascus,
has long been among the Arab world's most important, especially
in the field of classical Arab music. Syria has produced several
pan-Arab stars, including Asmahan, Farid al-Atrash and
singer Lena Chamamyan. The city of Aleppo is known for
its muwashshah, a form of Andalous sung poetry popularized
by Sabri Moudallal, as well as for popular stars like Sabah
Fakhri. Memorizing and reciting from the Qur'an and from
secular poetry is a popular form of entertainment. There is a rich
tradition of storytelling that dates back thousands of years. Even
today there are coffee shops where men go to drink tea and hear nightly installments of an ongoing saga
recited by a professional storyteller.
Arabic music is tied to the storytelling tradition and often recounts tales of love, honor, and family.
Technically, it is repetitive and subtle. It uses quarter notes with small jumps in the scale. Classical Arabic
music makes use of the oud, an ancient stringed instrument similar to the lute; small drums held in the
lap; and flutes. Contemporary music is played by an orchestra that mainly uses European instruments
with a lead singer and chorus.
The most popular sports in Syria are football, basketball, swimming, and tennis. Damascus was
home to the fifth and seventh Pan Arab Games. Many popular football teams are based in Damascus,
Aleppo, Homs, Latakia, etc. The Abbasiyyin Stadium in Damascus is home to the Syrian national football
team. The team enjoyed some success, having qualified for four Asian Cupcompetitions. The team had its
first international on 20 November 1949, losing to Turkey 70. The team was ranked 138th in the world
by FIFA as of May 2013.

Linked to the region of Syria where a specific dish has

originated, Syrian cuisine is rich and varied in its ingredients.
Syrian food mostly consists of Southern Mediterranean,
Greek, and Southwest Asian dishes. Some Syrian dishes also
evolved from Turkish and French cooking: dishes like shish
kebab, stuffed zucchini, yabra' (stuffed grape leaves, the word
yapra' derves from the Turkish word 'yaprak' meaning leaf).
The main dishes that form Syrian cuisine are kibbeh,
hummus, tabbouleh, fattoushm labneh, shawarma, mujaddra,
shanklish, pastirma, sujuk and ba klava Baklava is made
of filo pastry filled with chopped nuts and soaked in honey.
Syrians often serve selections of appetizers, known as meze, before the main course. Za'atar, minced beef,
and cheese manakishare popular hors d'uvres. The Arabic flatbread khubz is always eaten together
with meze.
Men and women socialize separately except on occasions when the whole family is involved.
Talking is a favorite pastime, and the art of conversation is a prized skill. Men often engage in a sort of
banter in which they try to one up each other with witty and eloquent insults.
In social interactions, people stand close together, speak loudly, and gesture widely with their hands and
heads. Greetings hold great social significance. They are often lengthy, including questions about health.
They usually are accompanied by a handshake and sometimes by a hug and a kiss on each cheek. Placing
the right hand on the heart when meeting someone is a signal of affection.
Syrians are very affectionate people. Men walk linking arms or holding hands and hug and kiss a great
deal, as do women. Close physical contact in public is more common between people of the same gender
than it is between girlfriend and boyfriend or husband and wife.
By Muslim tradition, marriage is arranged by the couple's families. While more leniency is now
allowed, particularly in cities and among the upper classes, it is still extremely rare for a couple to marry
against their family's wishes. According to the constitution, the state has assumed the duty of protecting
and encouraging the institution of marriage. Nonetheless, the marriage rate has declined because of
housing shortages, inflation, rising levels of education, bride money, and the prohibitive cost of weddings.
Although the state and the Muslim religion both oppose the current dowry system, it is deeply entrenched
in the family structure. It places immense pressure on the husband and his family, who have to raise large
sums of money, and on the bride, who often is forced to marry the suitor who can provide the biggest
dowry. Syria was the first Arab country to pass laws concerning polygamy. In 1953, it passed the Law of
Personal Status, under which a man was bound to demonstrate that he could financially support two wives
before marrying the second one. Whereas divorce laws used to follow the Arabic tradition that a man had
only to repeat three times "I divorce you" (in his wife's presence or not), court proceedings are now
required.

Within Syria, modernism has altered the fundamental traditions of the

past, especially in a folklore dance called Dabka. While the dance is still used in
todays performances, the specific movements and characteristics of the dance
have changed with time. However, the emotions that derive from the dance,
including joy, excitement and anguish have lasted through the years.
Dabka is a dance of several light coordinated steps with movements of
the body that express vivacity of the males and tenderness of the females,
accompanied by frequent organized movements of feet, beating the ground in
harmony with a drum, a flute or any other country musical instrument.

LANGUAGE
Arabic is the official language of Syria. Several modern Arabic dialects are used in everyday life,
most notably Levantine in the west and Mesopotamian in the northeast. Kurdish (in its Kurmanji form) is
widely spoken in the Kurdish regions of Syria. Armenian and Syrian Turkmen (Azeri) are spoken among
the Armenianand Turkmen minorities.
Aramaic was the lingua franca of the region before the advent of Arabic, and is still spoken
among Assyrians, and Classical Syriac is still used as the liturgical language of various Syriac Christian
denominations. Most remarkably, Western Neo-Aramaic is still spoken in the village of Maloula as well
as two neighboring villages, 35 miles (56 km) northeast of Damascus.
Syrian Sign Language is the principal language of the deaf community. Many educated Syrians also speak
English, French, Russian, German and Spanish, especially in Damascus and Aleppo and in the schools
Lyce Franais Charles de Gaulle and lcole Franaise dAlep.
There are many variations of the language depending on which area it is spoken. In Syria, the
Syrian Arabic is the most widely spoken language. It is spoken by almost 90% of the population in the
country. It spread in Syria during the 17th century when the Muslims inhabited the country. Arabic words
are written from right to left which is different from the western writing style. However, the Hindi
Numerals or Arabic numbers are written from left to right and the units are written on the far right. The
Arabic language is also related to the Hebrew and Aramean languages.
Aside from Arabic, there are many other languages spoken in the country. In the Kurdish regions of the
country, majority of the people speak Kurdish. Kurdish is spoken by 6% of the countrys population.
Other languages include Armenian and Turkish with about 5% of the population speaking the languages.
There are 17 listed individual languages in Syria, one is already a dead language. These languages
are: Mesopotamian Arabic, Najdi Arabic, Standard Arabic, North Mesopotamian Arabic, North Levantine
Arabic, Azerbaijani, Armenian, Assyrian, Kabardian, Turoyo, Domari, Lomavren, and Western NeoAramaic. Of all these languages, the Modern Standard Arabic is the language spoken and understood by
all Arab nations who make use of the language.
English and French languages are also spoken by some Syrians, especially those who are involved
in the business sector. Some elite and educated people who can afford education speak and learn these
languages.

CROPS AND PRODUCTS

Because only about 16 percent of the cropped area was irrigated, the output of agriculture (both
plant and animal) was heavily dependent on rainfall. The great variation in the amounts and timing of
rainfall can immediately cause very substantial shifts in areas planted, yields, and production, but the
effect on livestock is less predictable. When drought is unusually severe or prolonged, loss of animals
may depress livestock production for several years
During the 1970s and 1980s, the government encouraged greater grain production by providing improved
high-yield seeds, raising prices paid to farmers, and urging shifts toward wheat growing on some irrigated
land formerly planted in cotton. Its intent was to raise grain output at least to self-sufficiency to ease the
pressure on the balance of payments. Beginning in the late 1970s, the government showed increased
interest in improving rain-fed agriculture and acquired funding from the World Bank, International Fund
for Agricultural Development, and the UN Development Program for a US$76.3 million project to
expand food production and raise the standard of living in Daraa and As Suwayda provinces. In the
1980s, vegetables and fruits exhibited the fastest growth rates of the various crops, although they started
from a low base. Urbanization and rising incomes spurred cultivation of these products, which were also
generally exempt from official price control. Fruits and vegetables were grown primarily in the northwest
and coastal plain in irrigated fields and where rainfall and groundwater were greatest. However, Syria
lagged considerably behind Lebanon in cultivation of fruits and vegetables in similar terrain, and seasonal
fruits were consistently smuggled in from Lebanon in the 1980s.
Syria has produced cotton since ancient times, and
its cultivation increased in importance in the 1950s and
1960s. Until superseded by petroleum in 1974, cotton was
Syria's most important industrial and cash crop, and the
country's
most
important foreign
exchange earner,
accounting for about one-third of Syria's export earnings.
In 1976 the country was the tenth largest cotton producer in
the world and the fourth largest exporter. Almost all the
cotton was grown on irrigated land, largely in the area
northeast of Aleppo. Syrian cotton was medium staple, similar to cotton produced in other developing
countries but of lower quality than the extra-long staple variety produced in Egypt. The cotton was
handpicked, although mechanical pickers were tried in the 1970s in an attempt to hold down rising labor
costs.
Cotton production (cotton lint) rose from 13,000 tons in 1949 to 180,000 tons in 1965. However,
land reform and nationalization of the cotton gins precipitated a sharp decline in output in the next few
years. Beginning in 1968 and during the 1970s annual lint production hovered around 150,000 tons.
However, in 1983 and 1984, Syria enjoyed a record cotton crop of 523,418 tons, and the third highest
yield in the world, estimated at 3 tons per hectare. To a large measure, this increase was attributable to the

government's raising cotton procurement prices by 44 percent in 1981-82, and by another 20 percent in
1982-83.
The average farmer's reliance on outdated and inefficient irrigation methods is a major obstacle to
improving agricultural outputs. The introduction of drip, sprinkler, and subsurface irrigation methods is
handicapped because of the limited amount of money available to the common farmer. Because of these
shortcomings, Syria is susceptible to food shortages during long droughts.
Because of geographic and topographic conditions, Syria has no forestry sector. Fishing is also quite
limited, with a few small and medium-sized boats fishing off the Mediterranean coast.

ECONOMY AND CURRENCY

At independence Syria had a relatively well developed economic base. Rapid economic growth
began in the 1930s, accelerated in the 1940s, and lasted until the late 1950s. Growth was based primarily
on the opening of new land to cultivation and financed largely by wealthy urban merchants, particularly
from Aleppo. The new farms, which grew wheat, barley, and cotton as main crops, were large, using
mechanization and irrigation as much as possible. Industry also expanded rapidly, stimulated by the needs
of Allied Forces in the area during World War II and domestic shortages of goods. Most industries were
small, consisting of powered flour mills, bakeries, laundries, and repair shops, but also including larger
facilities, in particular textile mills.
In the mid-1950s, a group of economists from the World Bank concluded that the period of rapid growth
based on private sector investment was ending. The slowdown occurred partly because the supply of new
land that could easily be cultivated was nearly exhausted. Further expansion of arable land would require
large public sector investments in irrigation, drainage, and reclamation. Large public sector investments
were also needed in electric power, ports, and the transportation system. Thus, economic conditions
required an expanded role for government at about the same time that socialist-oriented political leaders
became more influential.
The economy of Syria is based on agriculture, oil, industry and services. Its GDP per capita
expanded 80% in the 1960s reaching a peak of 336% of total growth during the 1970s. This proved
unsustainable for Syria and the economy shrank by 33% during the 1980s. However the GDP per capita
registered a very modest total growth of 12% (1.1% per year on average) during the 1990s due to
successful diversification.
During the 1960s, citing its socialist ideology, the government nationalized most major enterprises
and adopted economic policies designed to address regional and class disparities. This legacy of state
intervention and price, trade, and foreign exchange controls may have hampered economic growth. Syria
also has low investment levels, and relatively low industrial and agricultural productivity. Economic
reform has been incremental and gradual. In 2001, Syria legalized private banking. In 2004, four private
banks began operations.
Syria's petroleum industry has been subject to sharp
decline. In September 2014, ISIS was producing more oil
than the regime at 80,000 bbl/d (13,000 m3/d) compared to
the regimes 17,000 bbl/d (2,700 m3/d) with the Syrian Oil
Ministry stating that by the end of 2014, oil production had
plunged further to 9,329 bbl/d (1,483.2 m3/d).

The Syrian government under Assad started its reform efforts by changing the regulatory
environment in the financial sector, including the introduction
of private banks and the opening of the Damascus Securities
Exchange in March 2009.In 2001, Syria legalized private
banking and the sector, while still nascent, has been growing.
Foreign banks were given licenses in December 2002, in
compliance with Law 28 March 2001, which allows the
establishment of private and joint-venture banks. Foreigners
are allowed up to 49 percent ownership of a bank, but may not
hold a controlling stakes As of January 2010, 13 private banks
had opened, including two Islamic banks.
Syria has four international airports (Damascus, Aleppo,
Lattakia and Kamishly), which serve as hubs for Syrian Air and are
also served by a variety of foreign carriers. The majority of Syrian
cargo is carried by Chemins de Fer Syriens (the Syrian railway
company), which links up with Turkish State Railways (the
Turkish counterpart). For a relatively underdeveloped country,
Syria's railway infrastructure is well maintained with many express
services and modern trains.

The Syrian pound is the official currency used in Syria. Pound is

translated in Arabic as lira. One pound can be divided into 100 piastres.
Originally part of the Ottoman Empire, Syria's official currency was the Turkish
lira. After the fall of the Ottoman Empire, Syria was placed under a mandate,
and all the states under the French and British mandates, including Lebanon,
Jordan, and Palestine began using the Egyptian pound. The French placed Syria
under its mandate and they decided to give Syria their own currency by
establishing a commercial bank, Banque de Syrie.

RELIGION
Syria is a primarily Muslim nation. Approximately 87% of the population is Muslim with about
74% being Sunni. The remaining percentage of Muslims are made of various denominations.
A notable feature of the religious population of Syria is how the different faiths tend to congregate
in particular areas. For instance; the majority of Muslim
Alawis live in the rural landscape of Jabal an Nusayriyah,
comprising almost 80% of rural dwellers in the province.
Religion is an all important part of life for the average
Syrian. It is quite common to hear the Muslim population
calling to Allah for their spiritual and physical well-being
through the course of a day. Religion in Syria is made of
range of faiths and sects. Syria is a secular state. However,
membership of a religious community in Syria is ordinarily
determined by birth. Based on statistical analyses from
2006, Muslims were estimated as constituting 90% of the total population, although their proportion was
possibly greater and was certainly growing.

The Muslim birth rate reportedly was higher than that of the minorities, and proportionately fewer
Muslims were emigrating. Christians (2.5 million), a sizable number of whom are found among Syria's
population of Palestinian refugees, are divided into several groups. Chalcedonian Antiochian
Orthodox make up 35.7% of the Christian population; the Catholics (Melkite,Armenian Catholic, Syriac
Catholic, Maronite, Chaldean Catholic and Latin) make up 26.2%; the Armenian Apostolic Church10.9%,
the Syriac Orthodox make up 22.4%; Assyrian Church of the East and several smaller Christian
denominations account the remainder. Many Christianmonasteries also exist. Many Christian Syrians
belong to a high socio-economic class.
Seventy-four percent of the population is Sunni Muslim. Sixteen percent belongs to Alawite, Druze, and
other Muslim sects, and 10 percent is Christian. There are small Jewish communities in Damascus, Al
Qamishli, and Aleppo. As in many Arabic countries, religion is an integral part of the culture and daily
life. The word "Islam" means "submission to God." The religion shares certain prophets, traditions, and
beliefs with Judaism and Christianity. The foundation of Islamic belief is called the Five Pillars.
It is speculated, although not certain, that Alawite
Muslims do not observe the holy month of Ramadan or
make a pilgrimage to Mecca as other Muslims do and
celebrate some Christian holidays. The practices of the
Druze are also somewhat mysterious. A smaller group
known as the Ismailis recognizes a living person, the Aga
Khan, as their sacred leader.
The mystical branch of Islam called sufi, has a small
presence in Syria, although the government sees this sect as
subversive and disapproves of its practice. Sufi rituals
involve chanting and dancing while moving in a circular formation.
Despite the powerful influence of Islam in people's lives, some elements of folk religion persist.
Particularly in rural areas, there is a strong belief in the evil eye as well as in jinn (spirits). There is also a
tradition of local saints to whom people pray.
There are no priests or clergy in Islam. Instead, there are people with the job of leading prayers and
reading from the Qur'an, the Muslim holy book. The Qur'an, rather than a religious leader, is considered
the ultimate authority and holds the answer to any question or dilemma one might have. There are
also muezzins who give the call to prayer and are scholars of the Qur'an and spend their lives studying
and interpreting the text.
The most important observation in the Islamic calendar is Ramadan. This month of fasting is
followed by the joyous feast of Eid al Fitr, during which families visit and exchange gifts. Eid alAdha commemorates the end of Muhammod's Hajj. The mosque is the Muslim house of worship. Outside
the door, there are washing facilities, as cleanliness is a prerequisite to prayer, demonstrating humility
before God. One also must remove one's shoes before entering the mosque. According to Islamic
tradition, women are not allowed inside. The interior has no altar; it is simply an open carpeted space.
Because Muslims are supposed to pray facing Mecca, there is a small niche carved into the wall that
points to the direction in which that city lies. Syria is home of several strong religious communities,
reflecting a long history and centuries of development, but also conflicts.
Islam in the Sunni variant dominates in numbers, while Alawism is the religion of the political elite of
the country.
Coexistence between religious groups is largely peaceful, but the different religious groups are
often concentrated to certain regions, where sometimes the smaller minorities form regional majorities.
Around Latakia, Alawism dominates and around the Druze Mountain, Druze religion dominates.Religious
structures of Syria are largely secular in nature, political leaders of Syria have removed many traditional

institutions. Popular religion in Syria is strong, and to some extent shared between different religions and
sects. Amulets and charms are carried by many individuals, and there are local cults with shrines which
are explained as reverence of holy men and women. Although a specific cult and shrine may be
immediately linked to one religion, it is common that people of another religion visits and take part in the
rituals.

POLITICS
Politics in the Syrian Arab Republic takes place in the framework of what is officially a semipresidential republic, but others disagree with that assessment. The CIA claims that the power is in the
hands of the President of Syria and his family, all members of the ruling Arab Socialist Ba'ath
Party which is a cell of the Syrian-dominated Ba'ath Party (established in 1966 when the original Ba'ath
Party was dissolved and split into two). Decrees issued by the president must be approved by the People's
Council to become law, except during a state of emergency which was in force until 21 April 2011 when
it was lifted during the Syrian uprising, (the end of it being one of the key demands of the protesters).The
Ba'ath Party is Syria's ruling party and the previous Syrian constitution of 1973 stated that "the Arab
Socialist Ba'ath Party leads society and the state. "At least 167 seats of the 250-member parliament were
guaranteed for the National Progressive Front, which is a coalition of the Ba'ath Party and several other
much smaller allied parties. The new Syrian constitution of 2012 introduced multi-party system based on
the principle of political pluralism without guaranteed leadership of any political party. The Syrian army
and security services maintained a considerable presence in the neighbouring Lebanese Republic from
1975 until 24 April 2005
After independence in 1946, Syrian leaders established a parliamentary democracy, which failed because
politics remained centred on personalities and because factional, sectarian, and tribal rivalries persisted.
Such a situation was not conducive to domestic unity, much less to national consensus or political
momentum. The multiparty political system gave way to a series of military dictatorships, then to Syria's
subordination to Egypt in the short-lived United Arab Republic (UAR) from February 1958 to September
1961. Since 1963, when the Baath Party came to full power in Syria, political competition has evolved
and shifted within the party. Under the party, the role of the military has been especially significant.
The importance placed on the family as the central structure in society has ramifications in politics
and government. Family loyalty is a primary consideration, and there is a general sentiment that family
members (even distant relatives) can be trusted more than other people. The best jobs in the government
generally are held by people related to the president, either of the same religious group or the same
regional background or part of his extended family.
While residents generally are interested in politics both at a local level and as a part of the larger Arab
world and are critical of leaders, they tend not to join political parties. Even the ruling Baath Party has
relatively small numbers of members. It is more common to belong to a labor, farm, or professional union
or another organization based on family and religion that may have political goals. Within these groups,
leadership positions are often hotly contested.

GOVERNMENT
Syria adopted its current constitution in 1973. There is universal suffrage. The unicameral
legislative branch is composed of the People's Council, or Majlis al shaab, whose 195 members are
elected for four-year terms. This body proposes laws, discusses cabinet programs, and approves the
national budget. The president, who serves as the head of state and is required by the constitution to be a
Muslim, is elected every seven years by popular vote. The president appoints a vice president, a prime
minister who serves as head of government, a cabinet, and deputy prime ministers. The president has
wide-reaching powers, including serving on the Supreme Court. Despite the distribution of political
power, in practice, the military government has the ability to overrule all decisions.
Syria is formally a unitary republic. The constitution adopted in 2012 effectively transformed Syria into
a semi-presidential republic due to the constitutional right for individuals to be elected which do not form
part of the National Progressive Front. The President is Head of State and the Prime Minister is Head of
Government. The legislature, the Peoples Council is the body responsible for passing laws, approving
government appropriations and debating policy. In the event of a confidence by a simple majority, the
Prime Minister is required to tender the resignation of their government to the President.
In Early 1987, President Hafiz al Assad, in power since his November 1970 takeover in a
bloodless military coup d'tat, continued to lead Syria. His regime appeared to be resilient, if not
altogether stable. Only a few years earlier, the regime had encountered several major threats. In 1982 the
government of Syria endured nearly simultaneous major domestic and external challenges: the uprising of
Muslim fundamentalist rebels and the Israeli attack on Syrian forces in Lebanon. Then, in late 1983 and
early 1984, Assad became seriously ill, leading to splits within the regime as factions maneuverer to
succeed him. These machinations proved to be premature, however, because Assad subsequently
recovered and reasserted his power. Nonetheless, the domestic political infighting and external military
clashes that occurred while Assad was incapacitated reminded Syrians of their nation's chronic instability
of the 1950s and 1960s and foreshadowed the return of such instability after Assad. The crises also
reinforced the perception that the strength of the Syrian government was not only vested in the president
but derived from him personally. Consequently, although Assad had transformed Syria into a regional
power in the Levant and had created domestic stability, his accomplishments could prove ephemeral
because they were not buttressed by legitimate and viable institutions. Even more unsettling, in 1987 the
question of a successor to President Assad was still unresolved.
The nation of Syria considers itself a republic and consists of an executive, legislative, and judicial
branch of government. The executive branch consists of a presidents, two vice presidents, a prime
minister, and a cabinet. Syria's legislative branch is governed by the People's Council, which is
considered a dictatorship by most outsiders. The judicial branch includes the Supreme Court, the High

Judicial Council, and the State Courts. Islamic law is almost entirely strictly followed by the judicial
system and has many of its roots in ancient Islamic history.
There are three different court levels in Syria: the courts of first instance, courts of appeals, and
the highest court is the constitutional court. In 1971 the nation adopted the Constitution of Syria which
gave the Baath Party the majority of the leadership roles in the government. The Constitution allows
presidents to serve 7-year terms as they are elected so by the people. The President is required to be a
Muslim, but Islam is not considered a state religion. The president has the right to name ministers within
the government and declare states of emergency or war. In 1963 the Syrian government pass the
Emergency Law which is still in effect and suspends most of the protections granted to Syrians under the
Constitution. The government enacted this state of emergency due to the ongoing war with Israel.

EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM
The literacy rate is 64 percent78 percent for men and 51 percent for women. Primary education
is mandatory and free for six years. Middle school, which begins at age thirteen, marks the end of mixedsex education. Most schools are run by the state, which combines a French structure with the rigid
discipline and rote learning of the Islamic tradition. There are a few religious schools, some schools that
are run by the United Nation relief program, and some that are run by the Works Agency for Palestinian
Refugees.
Private schools supplement the public schools, but less
than 5 percent of the Syrian students attend them. There are two
international schools in Syria for grades pre K-12 that serve the
American and international community: ICARDA International
School of Aleppo, which had an enrollment of 275 for the 20002001 school year, and Damascus Community School, which had
an enrollment of 329 for the 2000-2001 school year. Both
schools have a college-preparatory, American-based curriculum.
The teachers at these accredited schools incorporate American
teaching methods and offer a variety of extracurricular and
intramural sports and activities. Students may enroll at any time during the school term. There is also a
separate educational system run by the United Nations for Palestinian refugee children.
Since 1967 all Syrian schools, colleges, and universities have been under close government supervision.
The Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education are primarily responsible for all aspects
of administration, including curricula development.
Schooling is divided into 6 years of compulsory primary education, 3 years of lower secondary education,
and 3 years of upper secondary education. General secondary education offers academic courses and
prepares students for university entrance; the last 2 years of this stage are divided into literary and
scientific streams. Vocational secondary training offers courses in industry, agriculture, commerce, and
primary school-teacher training. The usual entrance age for secondary schooling is 15 but is 14 for
teacher training institutions. This system was established in 1967, when the country signed the Arab
Cultural Unity Agreement with Jordan and Egypt, introducing a uniform school ladder in the three
countries and determining curricula examination procedures and teacher training requirements for each
level.
Primary Education

Education expenditure has gradually been increasing and, although a poor country, Syria now has
a solid basic education system. Control is centralized with the ministry of education that determines the
curriculum. Education is compulsory through grades 1 to 9, and there are few private schools. Following
a period in state-managed kindergartens children enrol in primary school that they will attend for 6 years.
The gender parity principle is being approached, but it is not yet fully achieved.
Middle Education
The final 3 years of compulsory Syrian education takes place at middle school where a unitary
academic curriculum is followed. At the conclusion of this, all students write their national examination.
This determines whether they may proceed to general, or to technical (vocational) secondary school - if
they wish to continue with non-compulsory education.
Secondary Education
The discretionary 3 years at general secondary school are intended to prepare students for tertiary
education. Sadly though, there are wide disparities between urban and rural facilities, and the ability of
parents to afford school fees too. At the beginning of grade 11 two streams emerge, namely the literary
and the scientific branch. National examinations at the end of year 12 determine to which university or
college (and in which specialization) students may apply, as they wish.
Vocational Education
Young people whose middle school results determine their options accordingly may attend
technical school for 3 years. Here young men train in industry and agriculture while their sisters may
learn new crafts. They come together in commercial and computer classes though, and so there is hope for
gender equality someday. However once in this vocational stream there is unfortunately no opportunity to
re-enter the academic program.
Tertiary Education
Tertiary education likewise is under firm control
of the ministry of education, and this includes academic
councils, religious bodies, education hospitals and
universities. There is some leeway for privately regulated
institutions too. Technical education in engineering,
medicine and sciences receives greater emphasis than do
arts,
law
or
business.
The oldest university in Syria is the University of
Damascus established in 1923 following the merger of 2 slightly older institutions. It is currently
undergoing rebirth through the implementation of a strategic plan with fine objectives.
With a growing population, Syria has a good basic education system. Since 2000 the Government
of Syria has significantly increased the expenditure on education 1 to 6. In 2002, elementary and primary
education were combined into one basic education stage and education was made compulsory and free
from grades 1 to 9.
Arabic is the medium of instruction in the Syrian Arab Republic. English and French are taught from
grade 1 in the basic learning stage as the primary second language.
According to the 2007 census, 98 percent of schools in Syria are public(state run), 1.8 percent are private,
and 0.2 percent are United Nations Relief and Works Agency schools for children who are refugees.
In 2007, there were 8 million students in the education system of Syria (4 million in basic
education, 1.4 million in secondary and 2.3 million in tertiary). Given the current growth rate in the

school age population, it is projected that by 2015, the education system in Syria will need to cater to an
additional 1 million students in basic and secondary education.

WEATHER AND CLIMATE

The Euphrates River and several of its tributaries pass through Syria, supplying more than 80
percent of the country's water. There are two natural lakes: Arram in the crater of an extinct volcano in the
Golan Heights and Daraa along the Jordanian border. There are several artificial lakes created by dams
that supply irrigation and electrical power.
Most of the country has a desertlike climate, with hot, dry summers and milder winters. What little rain
there is falls in the winter, mainly along the coast. The climate in Syria is dry and hot, and winters are
mild. Because of the country's elevation, snowfall does occasionally occur during winter.
The most striking feature of the climate is the contrast. Between the humid Mediterranean coast and the
arid desert regions lies a semiarid steppe zone extending across three-quarters of the country and bordered
on the west by the Anti-Lebanon Mountains and the Jabal an Nusayriyah, on the north by the Turkish
mountain region, and on the southeast by the Jabal al Arab, Jabal ar Ruwaq, Jabal Abu Rujmayn, and the
Jabal Bishri ranges.
Rainfall in this area is fairly abundant, annual precipitation ranging between 750 and 1,000
millimeters (29.5 and 39.4 in). Most of the rain, carried by winds from the Mediterranean, falls between
November and May. The annual mean temperatures range from 7 C (44.6 F) in January to 27 C
(80.6 F) in August. Because the high ridges of the Jabal an Nusayriyah catch most of the rains from the
Mediterranean, the Al Ghab depression, located east of these mountains, is in a relatively arid zone with
warm, dry winds and scanty rainfall. Frost is unknown in any season, although the peaks of the Jabal an
Nusayriyah are sometimes snow covered.
In the southeast, the humidity decreases, and annual precipitation falls below 100 millimeters
(3.9 in). The scanty amounts of rain, moreover, are highly variable from year to year, causing periodic
droughts. In the barren stony desert south of the Jabal ar Ruwaq, Jabal Abu Rujmayn, and Jabal Bishri
ranges, temperatures in July often exceed 45 C (113 F). Sandstorms, common during February and
May, damage vegetation and prevent grazing. Syria's climate consists of four different seasons and offers
tourists with beautiful blue skies throughout most of the year. During the Fall and Spring seasons
temperatures average around 20 to 25 degrees Celsius. During the summer months it rises to about 30
degrees Celsius and drops to around 10 degrees during winter months.

LAND AREA
Slightly larger than North Dakota, Syria lies at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea. It is
bordered by Lebanon and Israel on the west, Turkey on the north, Iraq on the east, and Jordan on the
south. Coastal Syria is a narrow plain, in back of which is a range of coastal mountains, and still farther
inland a steppe area. In the east is the Syrian Desert and in the south is the Jebel Druze Range. The
highest point in Syria is Mount Hermon (9,232 ft; 2,814 m) on the Lebanese border.
The area includes about 185,180 square kilometers of deserts, plains, and mountains (about the
size of North Dakota, by comparison).
It is divided into a coastal zonewith a narrow, double mountain belt enclosing a depression in the west
and a much larger eastern plateau. The climate is predominantly dry; about three-fifths of the country
has less than 250 millimeters (9.84 in) of rain a year.

TOURISM
The number of people visiting Syria during vacation time is
increasing every year. Syria is quickly becoming one of the hottest
spots for international tourism because of its long history,
educational and entertaining tours, fine dining and shopping, and
beautiful scenery. Over 400 luxury hotels are located within the
country, most of which are in the commercial center found in
Damascus. Coastal regions are dotted with fine hotels, wonderful
shopping venues, and beautiful beaches on the Mediterranean. All
visitors to Syria will be able to find some type of new food that
they will enjoy. Syrian cuisine is varied and delicious and American
and European foods are available at most hotels and restaurants in
the major cities. Visitors will be happy to know that drinking water
throughout Syria is natural and safe as it arrives from springs
located high in the mountains. Museums and historic places are
located throughout the entire countryside. Syria is an important
place for many religions and has witnessed a vast amount of
history. Any trip to Syria will provide the visitor with dramatic new
insights to some of mankind's earliest activities. Shoppers will be
excited to visit the vast amount of local shops that sell unique and distinct products. Some of the popular
items include silk, hand-engraved silver and brass, hand-printed cloths and garments, hand-woven rugs
made of pure Syrian wool, and many other local items that can be found nowhere else in the world.
The Wall was built in the Roman era with large, tapered stones.It was oblong in shape, designed in
the manner of Roman military camps, cities, and fortifications.There are seven gates in it:Bab Sharqi, Bab
al-Jabieh, Bab Keissan, Bab al-Saghir, Bab Tuma, Bab al-Jeniq, and Bab al-Faradiss.The main
thoroughfare traversed the city from Bab al-Jabieh to Bab Sharqi; on both sides there were Corinthian
columns, and across it numerous triumphal arches.
This great Mosque stands at the heart of the Old City at the end of Souq al-Hamidiyeh.It was built
by the Omayyad Caliph al-Walid ibn Abdul Malek in 705 A.D. when Damascus was the capital of the
Arab Islamic Empire. When al-Walid decided to erect an impressive mosque suited to the grandeur of the

Arab state 'whose like was never built before, nor will
ever be built after' as he is reported to have said, he
negotiated with the Christian community of Damascus,
and undertook to construct a new church for them
(St.John's) and allot several pieces of land for other
churches, if they relinquished their right to their part of
the Mosque. They agreed. It took ten years and eleven
million gold dinars, as well as a huge number of masons,
artists, builders, carpenters, marble-layers, and painters
to complete.It became an architectural model for hundreds of mosques throughout the Islamic world.
This also stands at the heart of the Old City, on the southern side of the Omayyad Mosque, and
very close to it. It is an astonishing example of a Damascene house, where the simple, almost primitive,
exterior contrasts rather sharply with the beauty and
sophistication of the interior.Here one finds a sense of space, a
wealth of polychrome stone, splendid marble, cascading
fountains, and fragrant flowers.The palace was built in the mideighteenth century for the Governor of Damascus.
The only fortress
in Syria built on the same
level as the city, it does
not atop a hill or a mountain like all other castles and citadels. It
was erected by the Seljuks in 1078 A.D. with masonry taken from
the city wall, and turned into a heavily-fortified citadel surrounded
by walls, towers, a moat and trenches. Inside, they built houses,
baths, mosques, and schools; it was a city within a city. At the
height of Crusader raids and attacks, it was used as residence for
the Sultans of Egypt and Syria such as Nureddin, Saladin, and al-Malek al-Abdel, whence they supervised
military operations against the Crusaders.

The old covered souqs of Damascus have

a unique flavour you can savour with eyes
closed. As you walk about in the warm darkness
of these streets with their fragrant scents, spices,
and colourful merchandise spilling out of the
shops onto the pavements, you enter the strange
world of exotic legends

The National Museum of Damascus is generally recognised as one of

the finest of its kind in the world.Visitors can see artifacts of the great
civilisations that emerged and flourished in Syria.There are thousands of
statues, stamps, pieces of jewerelly, weapons, precious stones; sculpture,
masks, tablets, textiles, mosaics, glass-work and earthenware, coins, and
manuscripts from the ancient Syrian kingdoms of Ebla, Ugarit, Palmyra, Tel
Sukas, Mari, Doura Europos, Bosra, Shahba and others.

Is situated behind Bab Keissan, one of the gates in the old

wall encircling Damascus. It commemorates the memory of St.Paul,
whose name was Saul of Tarsus, charged by the Roman to persecute
the Christians.