Labrador, John Glenn E.

BSED Biological Science

BIOS 2

Science and Technology:

Historical perspective

Ancient Times
It was the growth of the ancient civilizations
which produced the greatest advances in
technology and engineering, advances which
stimulated other societies to adopt new ways of
living and governance.

Mesopotamia
The civilizations of Ancient Mesopotamia brought
many important advances in the areas of science
and technology.
Writing
Perhaps the most important advance made by
the Mesopotamians was the invention of writing
by the Sumerians. Go here to learn more
about Sumerian writing. With the invention of
writing came the first recorded laws called
Hammurabi's Code as well as the first major
piece of literature called the Epic Tale of
Gilgamesh.
The Wheel
Although archeologists don't know for sure who
invented the wheel, the oldest wheel discovered
was found in Mesopotamia. It is likely the Sumer
first used the wheel in making pottery in 3500BC
and then used it for their chariots in around 3200
BC.
Mathematics
The Mesopotamians used a number system with
the base 60 (like we use base 10). They divided
time up by 60s including a 60 second minute and
a 60 minute hour, which we still use today. They
also divided up the circle into 360 degrees. They
had a wide knowledge of mathematics including
addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,
quadratic and cubic equations, and fractions. This
was important in keeping track of records as well
as in some of their large building projects. The
Mesopotamians had formulas for figuring out the
circumference and area for different geometric

shapes like rectangles, circles, and triangles.

Some evidence suggests that they even knew
thePythagorean Theorem long before Pythagoras
wrote it down. They may have even discovered
the number for pi in figuring the circumference of
a circle.
Astronomy
Using their advanced math, the
Mesopotamian astronomers were able to follow
the movements of the stars, planets, and the
Moon. One major achievement was the ability to
predict the movements of several planets. This
took logic, mathematics, and a scientific
process. By studying the phases of the Moon, the
Mesopotamians created the first calendar. It had
12 lunar months and was the predecessor for
both the Jewish and Greek calendars.
Medicine
The Babylonians made several advances in
medicine. They used logic and recorded medical
history to be able to diagnose and treat illnesses
with various creams and pills.
Technology
The Mesopotamians made many technological
discoveries. They were the first to use the
potter's wheel to make better pottery, they used
irrigation to get water to their crops, they used
bronze metal (and later iron metal) to make
strong tools and weapons, and used looms to
weave cloth from wool. Mesopotamian
people(Sumerians, Akkadians, Assyrians and
Babylonians) invented many technologies
including metal working copper-working, glass
making, lamp making, textile weaving, and flood
control. They were also one of the first Bronze
age people in the world. Early on they used
copper, bronze and gold, and later they used iron.
Palaces were decorated with hundreds of
kilograms of these very expensive metals. Also,
copper, bronze, and iron were used for armor as
well as for different weapons such as swords,
daggers, spears, and maces. According to the
assyriologist Stephanie Dalley, the earliest pump
was the Archimedes' screw, first used by
Sennacherib, King of Assyria, for the water
systems at the Hanging Gardens of Babylon and
Nineveh in the 7th century BCE. This attribution,
however, is refuted by the historian of ancient
water-lifting devices Olseon in the same paper,
who still credits, as well as most other scholars,
Archimedes with the invention. For later medieval
technologies developed in the Mesopotamian
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region, now known as Iraq.

Interesting Facts About Mesopotamian
Technology

The Walls of Babylon were once

considered one of the Seven Ancient
Wonders of the World. There were actually
two massive walls that surrounded the
entire city. Archeologists estimate that the
walls were over 50 miles long with each
wall being around 23 feet wide and 35 feet
tall. There were also massive towers at
intervals along the wall that may have
been hundreds of feet tall.
The Mesopotamians may have invented
the simple machine called
the Archimedes' Screw. This would have
helped to raise water to the heights
needed for the plants in the famous
Hanging Gardens of Babylon.

The Assyrians developed glasswork as well

as glazes for pottery and art to help it last
longer.

Eighteen different canals have been found

that brought water to the Assyrian Empire
capital of Nineveh.

Egypt
The Ancient Egyptians were one of the first
civilizations to form in the ancient world. Their
inventions and technology had an impact on
many civilizations to come. Their technology
included the ability to build large construction
projects such as pyramids and palaces, simple
machines such as ramps and levers, and a
complex system of government and religion.
Writing
One of the most important inventions of the
Ancient Egyptians was writing. They wrote in
hieroglyphics. You can learn more
about hieroglyphics here. Writing allowed the
Egyptians to keep accurate records and maintain
control of their large empire.
Papyrus Sheets
The Egyptians learned how to make durable
sheets of parchment from the papyrus plant. It
was used for important documents and religious
texts. The Egyptians kept the process to make
the sheets a secret so they could sell the
parchment to other civilizations such as Ancient
Greece.
Medicine
The Ancient Egyptians had a wide variety of
medicines and cures. Some of their medicines
were quite strange. For example, they used
honey and human brains to cure eye infections.
They also used a whole cooked mouse to help

cure coughs. Many of their medicines were

accompanied by spells to ward off the evil spirits
making the person sick.
Shipbuilding
With the Nile River playing a major role in the
lives of the Egyptians, building ships was a big
part of their technology. They originally built
small boats from papyrus reeds, but later began
to build large ships from cedar wood imported
from Lebanon.
Mathematics
The Egyptians needed a good understanding
of mathematics and geometry to build the
pyramids and other large buildings. They also
used math and numbers to keep track of business
transactions. For numbers they used a decimal
system. They didn't have numerals for 2 - 9 or
zero. They just had numbers for factors of 10
such as 1, 10, 100, etc. In order to write the
number 3 they would write down three number
1s. To write the number 40, they would write
down four number 10s.
Makeup
All Egyptians wore makeup, even the men. They
made a dark eye makeup called kohl from soot
and other minerals. The makeup was a fashion
statement, but it also had the side affect of
protecting their skin from the hot desert sun.
Toothpaste
Because their bread had so much grit and sand
in it, the Egyptians had a lot of problems with
their teeth. They invented the toothbrush and
toothpaste in an effort to take care of their teeth.
They used a wide variety of ingredients to make
their toothpaste including ashes, eggshells, and
even ground up ox hooves.
Technology
The Egyptians invented and used many simple
machines, such as the ramp to aid construction
processes. They were among the first to extract
gold by large-scale mining using fire-setting, and
the first recognizable map, the Turin papyrus
shows the plan of one such mine in Nubia.
Egyptian paper, made from papyrus, and pottery
were mass-produced and exported throughout
the Mediterranean basin. The wheel, however, did
not arrive until foreign invaders introduced the
chariot. They developed Mediterranean maritime
technology including ships and lighthouses. For
later technologies in Ptolemaic Egypt, Roman
Egypt, and Arab Egypt, see Ancient Greek
technology, Roman technology and Inventions in
medieval Islam respectively.
Fun Facts about the Inventions of Ancient
Egypt
The Ancient Egyptians did not start using
the wheel until it was introduced by
foreign invaders using the chariot.
The word for paper comes from the Greek
word for the papyrus plant.
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The Egyptian number for one million was a

picture of a god with his arms raised in the
air.

They invented a game similar to bowling

where the bowler tried to roll a ball into a
hole.

They invented large door locks which used

keys. Some of the keys were up to 2 feet
long.

China
The Ancient Chinese were famous for their
inventions and technology. Many of their
inventions had lasting impact on the entire world.
Other inventions led to great feats of engineering
like the Grand Canal and the Great Wall of China.
Silk - Silk was a soft and light material much
desired by the wealthy throughout the world. It
became such a valuable export that the trade
route running from Europe to China became
known as the Silk Road. The Chinese learned how
to make silk from the cocoons of silkworms. They
managed to keep the process for making silk a
secret for hundreds of years.
Paper - Paper was invented by the Chinese as
well as many interesting uses for paper like paper
money and playing cards. The first paper was
invented in the 2nd century BC and the
manufacture later perfected around 105 AD.
Printing - Wood block printing was invented in
AD 868 and then moveable type around 200
years later. This was actually hundreds of years
before the invention of the printing press by
Gutenberg in Europe.
The Compass - The Chinese invented the
magnetic compass to help determine the correct
direction. They used this in city planning at first,
but it became very important to map makers and
for the navigation of ships.
Gunpowder - Gunpowder was invented in the
9th century by chemists trying to find the Elixir of
Immortality. Not long after, engineers figured out
how to use gunpowder for military uses such as
bombs, guns, mines, and even rockets. They also
invented fireworks and made great beautiful
displays of fireworks for celebrations.
Boat Rudder - The rudder was invented as a
way to steer large ships. This enabled the
Chinese to build huge ships as early as 200 AD,
well before they were ever built in Europe.
Other - Other inventions include the umbrella,
porcelain, the wheelbarrow, iron casting, hot air
balloons, seismographs to measure earthquakes,
kites, matches, stirrups for riding horses, and
acupuncture.
Technology

According to the Scottish researcher Joseph

Needham, the Chinese made many first-known
discoveries and developments. Major
technological contributions from China includ
early seismological detectors, matches, paper,
the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the iron
plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the suspension
bridge, natural gas as fuel, the magnetic
compass, the raised-relief map, the propeller, the
crossbow, the south-pointing chariot, and
gunpowder. Other Chinese discoveries and
inventions from the Medieval period, according to
Joseph Needham's research, include: block
printing and movable type, phosphorescent paint,
and the spinning wheel.
The solid-fuel rocket was invented in China about
1150 AD, nearly 200 years after the invention of
black powder (which acted as the rocket's fuel).
At the same time that the age of exploration was
occurring in the West, the Chinese emperors of
the Ming Dynasty also sent ships, some reaching
Africa. But the enterprises were not further
funded, halting further exploration and
development. When Ferdinand Magellan's ships
reached Brunei in 1521, they found a wealthy city
that had been fortified by Chinese engineers, and
protected by a breakwater. Antonio Pigafetta
noted that much of the technology of Brunei was
equal to Western technology of the time. Also,
there were more cannons in Brunei than on
Magellan's ships, and the Chinese merchants to
the Brunei court had sold them spectacles and
porcelain, which were rarities in Europe.
Fun Facts
Gunpowder, paper, printing, and the
compass are sometimes called the Four
Great Inventions of Ancient China.
Kites were first used as a way for the army
to signal warnings.

Umbrellas were invented for protection

from the sun as well as the rain.

Chinese doctors knew about certain herbs

to help sick people. They also knew that
eating good foods was important to being
healthy.

Compasses were often used to make sure

that homes were built facing the correct
direction so they would be in harmony
with nature.

The Grand Canal in China is the longest

manmade canal or river in the world. It is
over 1,100 miles long and stretches from
Beijing to Hangzhou.

They invented the abacus in the 2nd

century BC. This was a calculator that
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used sliding beads to help compute math

problems quickly.

A clear coating called lacquer was made to

protect and enhance certain works of art
and furniture.

Paper money was first developed and used

in China during the Tang dynasty (7th
century).

Greece and Hellenistic

The Ancient Greeks made many advancements
in science and technology. Greek philosophers
began to look at the world in different ways. They
came up with theories on how the world worked
and thought that the natural world obeyed
certain laws that could be observed and learned
through study.
Mathematics
The Greeks were fascinated with numbers and
how they applied to the real world. Unlike most
earlier civilizations, they studied mathematics for
its own sake and developed complex
mathematical theories and proofs. One of the first
Greek mathematicians was Thales. Thales studied
geometry and discovered theories (such as
Thale's theorem) about circles, lines, angles, and
triangles. Another Greek named Pythagoras also
studied geometry. He discovered the Pythagorean
Theorem which is still used today to find the sides
of a right triangle. Perhaps the most important
Greek mathematician was Euclid. Eudlid wrote
several books on the subject of geometry
called Elements. These books became the
standard textbook on the subject for 2000 years.
Euclid's Elements is sometimes called the most
successful textbook in history.
Astronomy
The Greeks applied their skills in math to help
describe the stars and the planets. They
theorized that the Earth may orbit the Sun and
came up with a fairly accurate estimate for the
circumference of the Earth. They even developed
a device for calculating the movements of
the planets which is sometimes considered the
first computer.
Medicine
The Greeks were one of the first civilizations to
study medicine as a scientific way to cure
illnesses and disease. They had doctors who
studied sick people, observed their symptoms,
and then came up with some practical
treatments. The most famous Greek doctor was
Hippocrates. Hippocrates taught that diseases
had natural causes and they could sometimes be
cured by natural means. The Hippocratic Oath to
uphold medical ethics is still taken by many
medical students today.

Biology
The Greeks loved to study the world around
them and this included living organisms. Aristotle
studied animals in great detail and wrote down
his observations in a book called the History of
Animals. He heavily influenced zoologists for
years by classifying animals according to their
different characteristics. Later Greek scientists
continued Aristotle's work by studying and
classifying plants.
Inventions
While the Greeks loved to observe and study the
world, they also applied their learning to make
some practical inventions. Here are some of the
inventions that are typically attributed to the
Ancient Greeks.
Watermill - A mill for grinding grain that is
powered by water. The Greeks invented the
waterwheel used to power the mill and the
toothed gears used to transfer the power to the
mill.
Alarm Clock - The Greek philosopher Plato may
have invented the first alarm clock in history. He
used a water clock to trigger a sound like an
organ at a certain time.
Central Heating - The Greeks invented a type of
central heating where they would transfer hot air
from fires to empty spaces under the floors of
temples.
Crane - The Greeks invented the crane to help lift
heavy items such as blocks for constructing
buildings.
Archimedes' Screw - Invented by Archimedes, the
Archimedes' screw was an efficient way to move
water up a hill.
Interesting Facts About the Science and
Technology of Ancient Greece

The word "mathematics" comes from the

Greek word "mathema" which means
"subject of instruction."
Hypatia was head of the Greek
mathematics school in Alexandria. She
was one of the world's first famous female
mathematicians.

Hippocrates is often called the "Father of

Western Medicine."

The word "biology" comes from the Greek

words "bios" (meaning "life") and "logia"
(meaning "study of").
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The Greeks also made contributions to the

study of map making or "cartography."

Roman
Romans developed an intensive and sophisticated
agriculture, expanded upon existing iron working
technology, created laws providing for individual
ownership, advanced stonemasonry technology,
advanced road-building (exceeded only in the
19th century), military engineering, civil
engineering, spinning and weaving and several
different machines like the Gallic reaper that
helped to increase productivity in many sectors of
the Roman economy. They also developed water
power through building aqueducts on a grand
scale, using water not just for drinking supplies
but also for irrigation, powering water mills and in
mining. They used drainage wheels extensively in
deep underground mines, one device being
the reverse overshot water-wheel. They were the
first to apply hydraulic mining methods for
prospecting for metal ores, and for extracting
those ores from the ground when found using a
method known as hushing.
Roman engineers build monumenta
arches, amphitheatres, aqueducts, public
baths, true arch bridges, harbours, dams, vaults
anddomes on a very large scale across their
Empire. Notable Roman inventions include
the book (Codex), glass blowing and concrete.
Because Rome was located on a volcanic
peninsula, with sand which contained suitable
crystalline grains, the concrete which the Romans
formulated was especially durable. Some of their
buildings have lasted 2000 years, to the present
day. Roman civilization was highly urbanized by
pre-modern standards. Many cities of the Roman
Empire had over 100,000 inhabitants with the
capital Rome being the largest metropolis of
antiquity. Features of Roman urban life included
multistory apartment buildings called insulae,
street paving, public flush toilets, glass windows
and floor and wall heating. The Romans
understood hydraulics and
constructed fountains and waterworks,
particularly aqueducts, which were the hallmark
of their civilization. They exploited water power
by building water mills, sometimes in series, such
as the sequence found at Barbegal in southern
France and suspected on the Janiculum in Rome.
Some Roman baths have lasted to this day. The
Romans developed many technologies which
were apparently lost in the Middle Ages, and were
only fully reinvented in the 19th and 20th
centuries. They also left texts describing their
achievements, especially Pliny the
Elder, Frontinus and Vitruvius. Other less known
Roman innovations include cement, boat mills,
arch dams and possibly tide mills.

One of the greatest scientific feats of

Ancient Rome is the concrete road. Nearly 30
military highways, all made of stone, exited the
great city. At one point, 372 roads connected 113
provinces. Due to the concrete structure, many of
these roads survived more than a thousand
years.
The Romans used the idea of the arch to create
architecture that has continued to inspire builders
even today. The discovery that the arch shape
allowed weight to be distributed evenly allowed
the Romans to create amazing buildings and
homes. Arches were also used when developing
aqueducts to deliver water to citizens all over
Rome. Eleven aqueducts measuring nearly 220
total miles carried water across valleys and aided
in the areas agriculture.
Citizens of Ancient Rome used sundials to tell
time and even created portable versions. They
also used tools that were quite advanced, such as
measuring tools, manual drills, and metal spikes
(used as nails). Advanced glassblowing
techniques brought new technology to Rome in
the form of window glass, hanging glass oil
lamps, and other objects made of glass. Pliny the
Elder, a key historian from Ancient Rome, also
mentioned the use of mirrors in his writings.
Furthermore, Romes military benefited from
technological improvements to weapons, shields,
armor, and other items. Combined with the citys
ability to build roads and bridges, it is clear that
Romes military success can be partially credited
to its ability to excel in scientific fields.
Some of the first flushing toilets and indoor
plumbing systems were used in Rome. Some
Roman homes contained sewer systems that
carried waste to the Tiber River. Romans used
several different machines. For example, olive
presses were used frequently. They also used
various types of cranes to aid in constructing
homes and buildings. Meanwhile, water power
was also available through the invention of
watermills, which helped grind corn, among other
uses.
Throughout history, several Romans have been
credited with significant scientific contributions,
including:
Galen was a surgeon and philosopher and once
released a piece of writing titled That the Best
Physician is also a Philosopher. Among other
notable achievements, he was to discover the
difference between dark and bright blood. Galen
used animal subjects to learn more about the
circulatory, respiratory, and nervous systems,
among other parts of the body.
Claudius Ptolemy studied astronomy, geology,
astrology, music, and other arts and sciences. He
left behind several works, including Almagest,
which includes a list of 48 constellations and a
star catalog. In addition to an asteroid, craters on
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the Moon and Mars have been named in his

honor.
Vitruvius is another writer whose work has
provided us with important knowledge about
Ancient Rome. He was also an architect and an
engineer, so his writing has a unique perspective.
He is sometimes referred to as the first architect,
although this is likely due to the fact that his
writings have survived. His texts include
information about Romes machines, building
materials, aqueducts, and much more.

Persia
The Qanat, a water management system used for
irrigation, originated in Iran before
the Achaemenid period of Persia. The oldest and
largest known qanat is in the Iranian city
ofGonabad which, after 2,700 years, still provides
drinking and agricultural water to nearly
40,000 people. In the 7th century AD, Persians
in Afghanistan developed the first
practical windmills. For later medieval
technologies developed in Islamic Persia,
see Inventions in medieval Islam.

Africa
Science and technology in Africa has a history
stretching to the beginning of the human species,
stretching back to the first evidence of tool
use by hominid ancestors in the areas of
Africa where humans are believed to have
evolved. Africa saw the advent of some of the
earliest iron working technology in the Ar
Mountains region of what is today Niger and the
erection of some of the world's oldest
monuments, pyramids and towers
in Egypt, Nubia, and North Africa. In Nubia and
ancient Kush, glazed quartzite and building in
brick was developed to a greater extent than in
Egypt. Parts of the East African Swahili Coast saw
the creation of the world's oldest carbon
steel creation with high-temperature blast
furnaces created by the Haya people of Tanzania.

India
Science and technology in ancient and medieval
India covered all the major branches of human
knowledge and activities, including mathematics,
astronomy, physics, chemistry, medical science
and surgery, fine arts, mechanical and production
technology, civil engineering and architecture,
shipbuilding and navigation, sports and games
Ancient India was a land of sages, saints and
seers as well as a land of scholars and scientists.
Ancient India's contribution to science and
technology include:
Mathematics - Vedic literature is replete with
concepts of zero, the techniques of algebra and

algorithm, square root and cube root. Arguably,

the origins of Calculus lie in India 300 years
before Leibnitz and Newton.
Astronomy - Rig Veda (2000 BC) refers to
astronomy.
Physics - Concepts of atom and theory of
relativity were explicitly stated by an Indian
Philosopher around 600 BC.
Chemistry - Principles of chemistry did not
remain abstract but also found expression in
distillation of perfumes, aromatic liquids,
manufacturing of dyes and pigments, and
extraction of sugar.
Medical science & surgery - Around 800 BC,
first compendium on medicine and surgery was
complied in ancient India.
Fine Arts - Vedas were recited and recitation has
to be correct, which gave rise to a finer study of
sound and phonetics. The natural corollary were
emergence of music and other forms of
performing arts.
Mechanical & production technology - Greek
historians have testified to smelting of certain
metals in India in the 4th century BC.
Civil engineering & architecture - The
discovery of urban settlements of Mohenjodaro
and Harappa indicate existence of civil
engineering & architecture, which blossomed to a
highly precise science of civil engineering and
architecture and found expression in innumerable
monuments of ancient India.
Shipbuilding & navigation - Sanskrit and Pali
texts have several references to maritime activity
by ancient Indians.Sports & games - Ancient India
is the birth place of chess, ludo, snakes and
ladders and playing cards.

Middle Ages
The Medieval period saw major
technological advances, including the invention of
vertical windmills, spectacles, mechanical clocks,
greatly improved water mills, building techniques
like the Gothic style and three-field crop rotation.
Between 1000 and 1300 AD this period
also saw the birth of medieval universities, which
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benefited materially from the translated texts and

provided a new infrastructure for scientific
communities. By the 6th century teaching and
learning moved to monastic and cathedral
schools. The center of education was the study of
the Bible. Education of the laymen survived in
Italy, Spain, and the southern part of Gaul, where
Roman influences were most long-lasting. In the
7th century, learning began to emerge in Ireland
and the Celtic lands, where Latin was a foreign
language but were eagerly studied and taught.
Below is a list of some of the cool
inventions from the Middle Ages

Mechanical artillery
Counterweight trebuchet (12th) - Gravity
powers these weapons revolutionized medieval
siege weapons by use of counterweights allowing
it to hurl huge stones very long distances. It was
first used in the eastern Mediterranean basin.
Trebuchets were used in the Crusades by the
1120s, Byzantium by the 1130s and in the Latin
West by the 1150s.
Missile weapons
Longbow with massed, disciplined archery
(13th) - The Longbow was powerful, accurate
and contributed to the eventual demise of the
medieval knight class. It was used by the English
against the French during the Hundred Years' War
(1337-1453).
Steel crossbow (14th, late) - The first handheld mechanical crossbow, this European
innovation Came with several different cocking
aids to enhance draw power. Large and complete
full plates of armour appear by the end of the
14th century.

Agriculture
Heavy plough (5th - 8th) - The heavy wheeled
plough first appeared in Slavic lands before it
came to Northern Italy (the Po Valley). By the 8th
century it was used in the Rhineland. The Heavy
Plough was important in cultivation of the rich,
heavy, often wet soils of Northern Europe.
Horse collar (6th - 9th) - The Horse Collar went
through multiple evolutions from the 6th to 9th
centuries. It allowed more horse pulling power,
such as with heavy ploughs.
Horseshoes (9th) - Horseshoes let horses adapt
to rocky terrain, mountains and carry heavier
loads. They may have been known to the Romans
and Celts as early as 50 BC.

Architecture and construction

Artesian well (1126) - A thin rod with a hard
iron cutting edge is placed in a bore hole and
repeatedly struck with a hammer. Underground
water pressure forces the water up the hole
without pumping. Artesian wells are named for
Artois in France, where the first was drilled by
Carthusian monks in 1126.
Wheelbarrow (1170s) - Useful in construction,
mining, and farming. Wheelbarrows appeared in
stories and pictures between 1170 and 1250 in
North-western Europe. First depiction in a drawing
in the 13th century.
Blast furnace (1150-1350) - Cast iron first
appears in Middle Europe around 1150. The
technique was considered to be an independent
European development.

Clocks
Hourglass (1338) - A dependable, affordable
and accurate measure of time. The instrument
isn't liable to freeze as other time measurements
systems of the time did. Hourglasses are a
medieval innovation first documented in Siena,
Italy.
Mechanical clocks (13th -14th) - A European
innovation, these weight-driven clocks were used
primarily in clock towers.
Plate armour (14th, late) - The best in
personal armour in terms of body protection and
the skills involved in working metal. Large and
complete full plates of armour appear by the end
of the 14th century.

Other cool medieval inventions

Vertical windmills (1180s) - Invented in Europe
as the pivotable post mill it was efficient at
grinding grain or draining water. The first mention
of one is from Yorkshire in England in 1185.
Spectacles (1280s) - From Florence, Italy,
convex lenses to help far-sighted people.
Concave lenses fro near-sighted people weren't
developed before the 15th century.
Spinning wheel (13th) - Brought to Europe
probably from India.
Chess (1450) - The earliest predecessors of the
game originated in 6th century AD India and
spread through Persia and the Muslim world to
Europe. The game evolved to its current form in
the 15th century
Mirrors (1180) - First mention of a mirror was
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made in 1180 by Alexander Neckham who said

"Take away the lead which is behind the glass and
there will be no image of the one looking in."
Oil paint (ca. 1410) - As early as the 13th
century by Flemish painter Jan van Eyck around
1410 who introduced a stable oil mixture. Oil was
used to add details to tempera paintings.
Quarantine (1377) - Initially a 40-day-period,
the Quarantine was introduced by the Republic of
Ragusa to prevent the spreading of diseases like
the Black Death. Venice began quarantines, then
the practice spread around in Europe.

Printing, paper and reading

Movable type printing press (1440s) Johannes
Gutenberg's great innovation was not the printing
itself, but instead of using carved plates as
in woodblock printing, he used separate letters
(types) from which the printing plates for pages
were made up. This meant the types were
recyclable and a page cast could be made up far
faster.
Paper (13th century) Paper was invented in
China and transmitted through Islamic Spain in
the 13th century. In Europe, the paper-making
processes was mechanized by water-powered
mills and paper presses (see paper mill).
Spectacles (1280s) The first spectacles,
invented in Florence, used convex lenses which
were of help only to the far-sighted. Concave
lenses were not developed prior to the 15th
century.
Watermark (1282) This medieval innovation was
used to mark paper products and to discourage
counterfeiting. It was first introduced in Bologna,
Italy.

Real Science in the Medieval

Era
We now know it's not going to happen, but
Muslim physicians made a number of real and
significant contributions to medicine. They set up
the earliest dedicated hospitals, including
psychiatric hospitals and medical schools which
issued diplomas to students qualified to become
doctors of medicine.
Scientific activities were carried on throughout
the Middle Ages in areas as diverse as astronomy,
medicine, and mathematics. In the ancient world,
Greek had been the primary language of science.
Latin-speakers who wanted to learn about science
only had access to books by Roman writers.

The first half of the 14th century saw the

scientific work of great thinkers. The logic studies
by William of Occam led him to postulate a
specific formulation of the principle of parsimony,
known today as Occam's Razor. You might have
heard that one in a movie or book too! It simply
means "the simplest explanation is usually the
correct one." This principle is used by scientists
today to select between two or more
undetermined theories.
Here's a short list of a few of the great
minds of the Middle Ages and how they've
affected us today.

About 900, Al-Battani improved the

precision of the measurement of the
precession of the Earth's axis.

Physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen), an

11th-century Muslim is considered the father
of modern optics.

Al-Kindi wrote the De Gradibus, where he

demonstrated the application of
quantification and mathematics to medicine
and pharmacology. He used mathematics to
measure the strength of drugs and to
determin in advance of the most critical days
of a patient's illness.

Al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the

concept of the algorithm, while the term
algebra is derived from his publication AlJabr. He recognized algebra as a distinct field
of mathematics.
The replacement of Roman numerals with the
decimal system and the invention
of algebra allowed more advanced mathematics.
The Saracens (Muslims) themselves were the
originators not only ofalgebra, chemistry,
and geology but of many of the so-called
improvements or refinements of civilization in
and before the middle ages such as street lamps,
window-panes, firework, stringed instruments,
cultivated fruits, perfumes, spices, and so forth.
A series of events that came to be known as
the Crisis of the Late Middle Ages. The Black
Death of 1348 caused a sudden end to a period
of massive scientific change. The plague killed a
third of the people in Europe, mostly in the
crowded conditions of the towns, where the heart
of the innovations lay. Recurrences of the plague
and other disasters caused a continuing decline
of population for a century.

Rennaissance/
Seventeenth Century
The Renaissance came about because of a
change in the way of thinking. In an effort to
M.A.M.A.

learn, people began to want to understand the

world around them. This study of the world and
how it works was the start of a new age of
science.
Many new ideas flourished and areas such
as the fine arts, sciences, and philosophy. This
time period produced many new inventions and
innovations. Da Vinci sketched a design of an
early submarine. An early version of a grand
piano.
Science and Art
Science and art were very closely related during
this time. Great artists, such as Leonardo da
Vinci, would study anatomy to better understand
the body so they could create better paintings
and sculptures. Architects such as Filippo
Brunelleschi made advances in math in order to
design buildings. The true geniuses of the time
were often both artists and scientists. They were
both considered talents of the true Renaissance
man.
The Scientific Revolution
Near the end of the Renaissance, the scientific
revolution began. This was a time of great strides
in science and mathematics. Scientists like
Francis Bacon, Galileo, Rene Descartes, and Isaac
Newton made discoveries that would change the
world.
Printing Press
The most important invention of the
Renaissance, and perhaps in the history of the
world, was the printing press. It was invented by
German Johannes Gutenberg around 1440. By
1500 there were printing presses throughout
Europe. The printing press allowed for information
to be distributed to a wide audience. This helped
to spread new scientific discoveries as well,
allowing scientists to share their works and learn
from each other.
Scientific Method
The Scientific Method was further developed
during the Renaissance. Galileo used controlled
experiments and analyzed data to prove, or
disprove, his theories. The process was later
refined by scientists such as Francis Bacon and
Isaac Newton.
Astronomy
Many of the great scientific discoveries made
during the Renaissance were in the area of
astronomy. Great scientists such as Copernicus,
Galileo, and Kepler all made major contributions.
This was such a big subject that we devoted an
entire page to it. Learn more about it at our page
onRenaissance Astronomy.
Microscope/Telescope/Eyeglasses

Both the microscope and the telescope were

invented during the Renaissance. This was due to
improvements in making lenses. These improved
lenses also helped with making eyeglasses, which
would be needed with the invention of the
printing press and more people reading.
Clock
The first mechanical clock was invented during
the early Renaissance. Improvements were made
by Galileo who invented the pendulum in 1581.
This invention allowed clocks to be made that
were much more accurate.
Warfare
There were also inventions that advanced
warfare. This included cannons and muskets
which fired metal balls using gunpowder. These
new weapons signaled the end of both the Middle
Age castle and the knight.
Other Inventions
Other inventions during this time include the
flushing toilet, the wrench, the screwdriver,
wallpaper, and the submarine.
Alchemy
Alchemy was sort of like chemistry, but generally
wasn't based on a lot of scientific facts. A lot of
people thought that there was a single substance
from which all other substances could be made.
Many hoped to find a way to make gold and
become rich.
Science
The rediscovery of ancient texts and the
invention of printing democratized learning and
allowed a faster propagation of ideas. In the first
period of Italian Renaissance, humanists favoured
the study of humanitiesover natural
philosophy or applied mathematics. And their
reverence for classical sources further enshrined
the Aristotelian and Ptolemaic views of the
universe.
Even though, around 1450, the writings
of Nicholas Cusanus were
anticipating Copernicus' heliocentricworld-view, it
was made in a philosophical fashion. Science and
art were very much intermingled in the early
Renaissance, with polymath artists such
as Leonardo da Vinci making observational
drawings of anatomy and nature. He set up
controlled experiments in water flow, medical
dissection, and systematic study of movement
and aerodynamics; he devised principles of
research method that led to Fritjof Capra
classifying him as "father of modern science".[57]
In 1492 the discovery of the New
World by Christopher Columbus challenged the
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classical world-view, as the works

of Ptolemy (geography) and Galen (medicine)
were found not always to match everyday
observations: a suitable environment was created
to question scientific doctrine. As the Protestant
Reformation and Counter-Reformation clashed,
the Northern Renaissance showed a decisive shift
in focus from Aristotelean natural philosophy to
chemistry and the biological sciences (botany,
anatomy, and medicine).[58] The willingness to
question previously held truths and search for
new answers resulted in a period of major
scientific advancements.
In the end of the 15th century, Luca
Pacioli published the first work on bookkeeping,
making him the founder of accounting.
Some have seen this as a "scientific revolution",
heralding the beginning of the modern age,
[60]
others as an acceleration of a continuous
process stretching from the ancient world to the
present day.[61] Regardless, there is general
agreement that the Renaissance saw significant
changes in the way the universe was viewed and
the methods sought to explain natural
phenomena.[62] Traditionally held to have begun in
1543, when were first printed the books De
humani corporis fabrica (On the Workings of the
Human Body) by Andreas Vesalius, which gave a
new confidence to the role of dissection,
observation, and mechanistic view of anatomy,
[62]
and also De Revolutionibus, by Copernicus.
The famous thesis of Copernicus's book was that
the Earth moved around the Sun. Significant
scientific advances were made during this time
by Galileo Galilei, Tycho Brahe and Johannes
Kepler.[63]
One important development was not any
specific discovery, but rather the further
development of the process for discovery,
the scientific method.[62] It focused on empirical
evidence, the importance of mathematics, and
discarded Aristotelian science. Early and
influential proponents of these ideas included
Copernicus, Galileo, and Francis Bacon.[64][65] The
new scientific method led to great contributions
in the fields ofastronomy, physics, biology,
and anatomy.[66][67]
Key ideas and people that emerged from
the 16th and 17th centuries:

First printed edition of Euclid's Elements in

1482.
Nicolaus Copernicus (14731543)
published On the Revolutions of the Heavenly
Spheres in 1543, which advanced
the heliocentric theory of cosmology.

Andreas Vesalius (15141564)

published De Humani Corporis Fabrica (On
the Structure of the Human Body) (1543),
which discredited Galen's views. He found
that the circulation of blood resolved from
pumping of the heart. He also assembled the
first human skeleton from cutting open
cadavers.
Franciscus Vieta (15401603) published In
Artem Analycitem Isagoge (1591), which gave
the first symbolic notation of parameters in
literal algebra.
William Gilbert (15441603) published On
the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies, and on the
Great Magnet the Earth in 1600, which laid
the foundations of a theory
of magnetismand electricity.
Tycho Brahe (15461601) made extensive
and more accurate naked eye observations of
the planets in the late 16th century. These
became the basic data for Kepler's studies.
Sir Francis Bacon (15611626)
published Novum Organum in 1620, which
outlined a new system of logic based on the
process of reduction, which he offered as an
improvement
over Aristotle's philosophical process
of syllogism. This contributed to the
development of what became known as
the scientific method.
Galileo Galilei (15641642) improved
the telescope, with which he made several
important astronomical observations,
including the four largest moons of Jupiter,
the phases of Venus, and the rings of Saturn,
and made detailed observations of sunspots.
He developed the laws for falling bodies
based on pioneering quantitative experiments
which he analyzed mathematically.
Johannes Kepler (15711630) published
the first two of his three laws of planetary
motion in 1609.
William Harvey (15781657)
demonstrated that blood circulates, using
dissections and other experimental
techniques.
Ren Descartes (15961650) published
his Discourse on the Method in 1637, which
helped to establish the scientific method.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (16321723)
constructed powerful single lens microscopes
and made extensive observations that he
published around 1660, opening up the microworld of biology.
Isaac Newton (16431727) built upon the
work of Kepler and Galileo. He showed that an
inverse square law for gravity explained the
elliptical orbits of the planets, and advanced
the law of universal gravitation. His
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development of infinitesimal calculus opened

up new applications of the methods of
mathematics to science. Newton taught that
scientific theory should be coupled with
rigorous experimentation, which became the
keystone of modern science.

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