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Basic Concepts
1.1
1 Basic Concepts
To explain some commonly-known effects, we start with an experiment (see fig. 1.1-a):
Consider a simple circuit consisting of commonly-known electrical elements, a bulb, a battery, and a
switch. Elements are sometimes also called devices. Wires interconnect the elements and a compass is
installed close to the wires.
detachable clamp
I
switch
+
-
battery
bulb
1/17
resistors, transistors etc.). The physical quantity (physikalische Gre) used to describe an electric current
is simply called current (elektrische Stromstrke, elektrischer Strom). For all physical quantities
standardized symbols are used; for the current the symbol I has been chosen. In the circuit diagram the
direction of the current is shown using an arrow on the line, or close to it on either side, and the symbol I
is written by the arrow.
Generally, each of the phenomena caused by a current could be used to define it. Today, the unit for the
current is defined based on the magnetic effect.
Experiment: Two thin metallic bands are arranged in parallel. They are connected to a battery B using a
switch S.
S open
S closed
Observation: When the switch is closed, a circuit is built and a current will flow. A force will act on the
bands due to the magnetic field built by a current-carrying conductor (see EMF).
The unit introduced for the physical quantity current I is 1 ampere
(1 A).
Definition (1 ampere):
One ampere is the magnitude of a constant electric current
flowing through parallel conductors arranged in vacuum, having
infinite length and negligible circular cross-section, and being
separated at a distance d = 1m if the measured forces per unit
length of the conductors is F = 2 * 10-7 N
1.2
SI-Units
To understand the behaviour of an electrical element (e.g. the battery, the bulb etc.), we need to consider
certain quantities associated with it, such as current and voltage. These quantities (and others), must be
carefully defined. This can be done only if we have a standard system of units so that when a quantity is
described by measuring it, we can all agree on what the measurement means.
The system of units we employ today is the international system of units (le Systme Internationale
dUnits), which is normally referred to as the SI standard system, adopted in 1960 by the General
Conference on Weights and Measures. The SI system is composed of six basic units, in addition the unit
for the amount of substance has been introduced. The SI units are very precisely defined in terms of
permanent and reproducible quantities.
SI quantity
Length
Mass
Time
(electric) current
thermodynamic temperature
amount of substance
luminous intensity
2
SI
unit
name symbol
meter
m
kilogram
kg
second
s
ampre
A
kelvin
K
mole
mol
candela
cd
Electrical Engineering 1
1 Basic Concepts
The derived units for other physical quantities are obtained by combining the base units. Some derived
units are given as an example in the following table together with their formulas in terms of the
fundamental (or base) units.
(derived) quantities
acceleration
velocity
force
energy, work
electric charge
power
voltage
unit
symbol formula
m/s
m/s1
Newton
1N
1kgm/s2
Joule
1J
1Nm
Coulomb
1C
1As
Watt
1W
1J/s
Volt
1V
1J/C
name
The advantage of the SI system is that it incorporates a decimal system for relating larger or smaller
quantities to the basic units. The powers of 10 are represented by standard prefixes:
factor
10-18
10-15
10-12
10-9
10-6
10-3
10-2
10-1
name literal
atto
a
femto
f
piko
p
nano
n
mikro
milli
m
centi
c
deci
d
Factor
1018
1015
1012
109
106
103
102
101
name Literal
Exa
E
Peta
P
Tera
T
Giga
G
Mega
M
kilo
k
hekto
h
Deka
da
Example for the common use of a prefix. The centimetre (cm), which is 0.01 m. The decimal multiplier
must always accompany the units and is never written by itself.
Examples: 2,500 m = 2.5 * 103 m = 2.5 km; 12.5 A = 12.5 . 10-6 A = 1.25 . 10-5 A = 0.0000125 A
Exercises:
- If a microprocessor can perform 4 million instructions per second, how many nanoseconds are required
to execute an operation requiring 5 instructions?
A: 1,250 ns
- The fastest recorded speed run by a human being for 10 m is approximately 39.8 km/h. If this speed
were sustained over 400 m, how long would it take to cover that distance?
A: 36.2 s
1.3
We are familiar with the gravitational force of attraction between bodies, which is responsible for holding
us on earth. There are also much stronger forces which are both attractive and repulsive.
One of the most important of these forces is electrical and is caused by the presence of electrical charges
(elektrische Ladungen). We explain the existence of electrical forces (elektrische Krfte) of both
attraction (Anziehung) and repulsion (Abstoung) by postulating that there are two kinds of charges
(Ladungsarten), positive (positiv) and negative (negativ), and that unlike (ungleichnamige) charges attract
and like (gleichnamige) charges repel.
From a simple experiment we know that two types of charges exist, marked by a positive (+) or a negative
(-) sign. Our experiences with electricity have their roots in the observation that, for example, a piece of
glass and a piece of resin (or rubber) attract one another if they are first rubbed together and then
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separated.1 Also, if a second piece of glass is rubbed with another piece of resin, the two pieces of glass or
resin repel one another, while each glass piece attracts each peace of resin. These electrical phenomena of
attraction and repulsion are understood in terms of electric charge. When glass and resin, for example, are
rubbed together, a small amount of charge is transferred from one to the other, causing each material to
become non-neutral or charged (geladen). Materials behaving on electrification like glass are said to be
positively charged (positiv geladen). A rubber rod rubbed with a silk, and materials behaving like resin are
said to be negatively charged (negativ geladen).
Charges of the same sign repel each other, while charges of opposite sign attract (fig. 1-2a).
(1.1)
The constant of proportionality, k, is approximately 9109 NmC-2 when the other parameters are given in
SI units and the surrounding medium is free space (vacuum).
If two spheres carrying opposite charges touch each other, the electric forces vanish immediately. The
charges are balanced (charge balance, Ladungsausgleich), we say they are discharged (entladen).
The coulomb forces also occur in vacuum. To describe this phenomenon, we use a model called the field
model (Feldmodell): Each charge changes the state of the space surrounding the charge, so that forces are
exerted on other charges. This state (due to a charge) is called electric field (elektrisches Feld, see EMF
for further discussion). To describe both, the magnitude and the direction of the force exerted on a charge,
we use a vector quantity, called electric field strength (elektrische Feldstrke) .
Definition (electric field strength E): The electric field strength E (at a certain point in space) is the force F
exerted on a positive charge (at that point) devided by the charge Q.
F
Q
(1.2)
So, the direction of E shows in the direction of F if Q is positive. The force onto a negative charge is
directed in the opposite direction (fig. 1-2b).
An electric field is also responsible for the movement (Bewegung) of charges in a conductor. It is set up
from the positive and negative charges of the battery poles, and is built in the conductor between.
1
2
Thales of Miletus (640-540 B.C.) wrote that a piece of amber rubbed in silk attracts pieces of straw.
Charles A. Coulomb (1736-1806)
Electrical Engineering 1
1 Basic Concepts
Now, we want to know where the positive and negative charges exist. They are properties of the atoms. To
describe their structure we use the Bohr Sommerfeld atomic model: 3
In this classical model atoms (Atome) are built from protons (Protonen) and neutrons (Neutronen),
arranged in a so-called nucleus (Kern), surrounded by electrons (Elektronen) circulating around the
central nucleus in an electron shell (Elektronenschale). Most of the mass of the atom is concentrated in the
nucleus, the mass of an electron is roughly 1/2000 of the mass of a proton or neutron.
The charge is quantized, which means that a smallest possible charge exists, called elementary charge
(Elementarladung) e = 1.602 . 10-19 coulombs (C).
Electrons carry a negative elementary charge, protons carry a positive elementary charge.
Each charge is an integral multiple of the elementary charge. Neutrons do not possess a charge. The
definition of which of the charges is defined positive or negative was chosen arbitrarily.
elementary particle
proton
rest mass / kg
charge
-27
+e
-27
-30
-e
1.673 10
neutron
1.675 10
electron
0.911 10
The coulomb forces between protons and electrons are responsible for the attraction of electrons and
protons in atoms. These forces lead to the centripetal force keeping the electrons on orbit. Strong attractive
forces in the nucleus (van der Waals forces) keep the nucleus together.
Generally, in an atom the number of electrons and the number of protons is equal. This electron doesnt
cause electric forces, it is electrically neutral (neutral), uncharged.
In the Bohr Sommerfeld atomic model electrons circulate on definite shells (called K, L, M, etc.). The
maximum number of electrons possible on the shells depend on the shell number. If we number the shell
beginning with n = 1 for the inner shell the maximum number of electrons on the n-th shell is 2 n.
The outermost shell where electrons can be found is responsible for both the electrical and chemical
behaviour of the atom. These electrons are called valency electrons (Valenzelektronen).
Not in all cases, the inner shells are fully occupied. Example:
element
hydrogen
helium
oxygen
neon
aluminum
copper
silver
gold
symbol
H
He
O
Ne
Al
Cu
Ag
Au
total
1
2
8
10
13
29
47
79
K
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
number of electrons
L
M
1
6
8
8
8
8
8
3
18
18
18
1
18
32
1
18
A more comprehensive description can be given using the orbital model of quantum physics. But, it is not
really necessary to be able to understand the basic technical concepts.
Each electron can be attributed a certain energy (Energie). The lowest possible energy is called normal
energy level or ground state (Grundzustand). By supplying energy an electron can be excited (angeregt;
excited state, Anregung or angeregter Zustand). During transition from a state of higher energy to a lower
3
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level the atom can radiate light. The frequency (or wavelength) of the light emitted is interrelated with the
difference in energy.
Practical aspect (example): A L(ight) E(mitting) D(iode) is a semiconductor device which is able to emit
light if a current is supplied to the diode. Due to the current (energy) the electrons are excited to a higher
energetic level. When falling back to the ground state, each electron will emit a photon of wavelength
= c h / W
c velocity of light in vacuum: c 2.998 108 m/s
h Planck constant
h 6.64 * 10-34 Js 4.16 * 10-15 eV s ( 1eV = 1.602 * 10-19 J)
W energy difference of the charge
For a GaAsP diode an energy difference of W 1.92 eV must be supplied. So, the wavelength of the light
emitted will be
= c h / W 2.998 108 m/s * 4.16 * 10-15 eV s / 1.92 eV = 6.5 * 10-7 m = 650 nm
If more energy is supplied, e.g. by heat, an atom can be ionised. There are two possibilities:
One or more electrons can be removed (example for H(ydrogen): W 2.2 * 10-18 J). A positive ion
(Ion) is created, which acts like a positive charge.
One or more electrons are added. A negative ion will be created, acting like a negative charge.
Normally, ions try to recombine (rekombinieren).
Elements (atoms, molecules, elementary particles) which cause electric effects are called [charge] carriers
(Ladungstrger), e.g. electrons, ions, protons.
1.4
The movement of charges differs between different material. The main questions which have to be
answered are:
- How many free carriers (per volume) can we find in a given material?
- How good can they move in the material?
Depending on the amount of carriers and their mobility the material is divided into three groups:
conductors, semi-conductors and insulators. A material which is well-suited to conduct an electric current
is called conductor (Leiter). In conducting material many freely movable carriers are available, such as
metals (Ag (silver), Cu (copper), Al (aluminium), Au (gold)). The atoms of pure metals (high-grade) are
arranged to form a periodic three-dimensional lattice (Gitter), e.g. the crystal structure for copper (cu), an
arrangement which is called face-centered cubic.
At room-temperature the atoms are ionised. The atomic residues oscillate around their position of rest. The
oscillation amplitude increases with higher temperature. The valency electrons can move quasi freely
between these residues (diameter of atoms: 0.1 nm, diameter of nucleus 1 fm); so, they are called free
electrons (freie Elektronen). Normally, they cannot leave the metal. Only if the work of emission
(Austrittsarbeit) is supplied can the attractive forces between electrons and nucleus be overcome, and the
electrons will leave the metal (e.g. oscilloscope, see EMI). First, the electrons move randomly
(ungeordnet) in the lattice and this motion cannot be observed from outside the material. An electric
current will only flow when a privileged direction is superimposed by an external force (electric field).
To become a good conductor a metal must be of high quality (nearly pure, e.g. E-Cu has a purity of more
than 99.98 %). Even very low pollution reduces the movability of the free electrons significantly, and the
conduction properties of the material are significantly reduced.
6
Electrical Engineering 1
1 Basic Concepts
Example: We want to estimate how many free electrons we can expect in 1 cm of copper (Cu):
material properties and physical constants:
relative atomic mass
63.54 (the mass of 1 mole of copper; 63.54 g)
density
= 8.93 g cm-3
constant of Avogadro:
N = 6.022 . 1023 mol-1 (number of atoms per mole)
1 valency electron per atom
electrical properties
one free electron per atom (at room temperature)
solution:
number of atoms (nuclei) in 1 g of Cu:
nn = 6.022 . 1023 1/mol / 63.54 g/mol 9.48 *. 1021 g-1
number of free carriers in 1 cm of Cu:
ne = nn = 9.48 . 1021 g-1 ( 9.48 . 1021 g-1 * 8.93 g/cm) 8.5 * 1022 cm-3.
EE1-WS1213-Ise
Application
resistor
rectifier
diode, transistor
diode, transistor
luminescent diode, LED
Hall element
varistor
7/17
1.5
Current is the movement of carriers. It can be the movement of only positive carriers, or of only negative
carriers, or of both at the same time.
In metals we only have a movement of electrons, which are negative carriers. Positive carriers, free
protons, do not occur in technical applications. Moving positive charges can only be ions (in liquids or
gases) or holes (in semiconductors). In liquids and semiconductors positive and negative carriers can move
at the same time.
Henry Rowland4 proved experimentally that the magnetic effect of the electric current results from the
movement of carriers. He showed that positive carriers moving in the direction of the reference direction
cause the same magnetic effect as a current flowing in this direction. If instead, negative carriers are
moving opposite to the reference direction, we will find the same result. Thus, we need a definition for the
direction which is independent from the type of carrier.
Definition (current reference direction, Strombezugsrichtung):
A current flowing in a conductor from cross-section 1 to cross-section 2 is defined positive, if positive
carriers move from 1 to 2 or negative carriers move from 2 to 1.
+
+
+
+
+
+
I
-
battery -
conductor 1
battery +
conductor 2
I
+
-
movement
of electrons
fig. 1-3 b: current reference direction and direction of electrons in metallic conductors
Electrical Engineering 1
1 Basic Concepts
In the next step, we want to find the relationship between current and the quantity of electricity (Ladungsmenge) Q. We are looking at a certain cross-section A of a given conductor (see fig. 1-4) and counting the
number of carriers passing the cross-section during a time-interval t.
I
-+ A - + +
- +
-
+
-+
Q QR
t
t
(1.3a)
This rate of movement may not be constant but may vary with time. Hence the general definition of current
is
dq
dt
(1.3b)
q 1C 1A; 5
t 1s
1A(mpre)
1C (oulomb)
1s (econd )
Note: Lower case letters are used, such as q, to denote a variable that is a function of time, q(t). We use an
upper case letter, such as Q, to represent a constant. As a matter of vocabulary, we say that a current exists
in or through an element.
In circuit theory, current is specified as the movement of positive charges, called conventional current
(technische Stromrichtung). This convention was developed by Benjamin Franklin. Today, we know that
charge flow in metal conductors results from electrons. Nevertheless, we will conceive current as the flow
of positive charge, according to accepted convention.
Although we know that current flow in metallic conductors results from electron motion, the conventional
current flow, which is universally adopted, represents the movement of positive charges.
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Current flow along a lead or through an element will be specified by two indicators: an arrow (Pfeil),
which establishes a current reference direction (Strombezugspfeil) and a value (Wert) which quantifies
the current flow in the reference direction:
B
A
i1
i2
The current i1 is the flow of electric charge from terminal A to terminal B. If i2 is the flow of electric
charge from terminal b to terminal A, it must be the same size but have different direction. Therefore, i2 is
the negative of i1
i2 i1
Note: Without a reference direction a currents numerical value alone is not enough to specify the current.
Several types of currents are frequently encountered: If a current is constant, we represent it by the
constant I. A constant current is called direct current (or dc, Gleichstrom). A time-varying current
i i (t ) can take many forms, such as a ramp, a sinusoid, an exponential, etc. The sinusoidal current is
called an alternating current (or ac, Wechselstrom).
Examples:
a dc current:
a ramp with slope c:
a sinusoid (sine current):
an exponential:
10
iI
i c t , t 0s
i i sin( t ), t 0
i I0 e
at
,t 0
Electrical Engineering 1
1 Basic Concepts
iI
Q neV
l
neA neAv
t
t
t
(1.4 b)
As already mentioned the current reference direction shows in the direction of moving positive charges
which means opposite to the direction of the moving electrons.
Example #5: Given a current I = 1 A, flowing through a copper wire (cross-section: A = 1.5 mm, l = 1 m),
find the speed of the electrons.
Solution:
i
1A
mm
20
0.0416
19
s
neA
10 mm 1.602 10 C 1.5mm
I
neAv
nev
A
A
(1.5 a)
Example #5 (continued): (given: I = 2 A, A = 1.5 mm) Find the current-density in the wire.
Solution:
2A
A
1.33
1.5 mm
mm
dI
dA
(1.5 b).
It should be clear that the speed of the electrons may vary over the cross-section if the conductor is
arbitrarily shaped. If v varies, so does J.
EE1-WS1213-Ise
11/17
Electric currents produce forces as do stationary electric charges. The forces produced by currents
(movement of charge) are called magnetic forces, and they possess many of the properties of those
produced by ordinary bar magnets.
l
d
N
A2
F k I1 I 2
k 2 10 7
(1.6)
Magnetic field lines surrounding a current-carrying conductor are cylindrical. The direction of the
magnetic field lines is given by the right-hand rule: if the thumb of the right hand is pointed in the
direction of the current, the fingers will point in the direction of the magnetic field. The needle of a
compass that is placed in this field will align with the field lines.
Example #6: Given two wires arranged in parallel: I1 = I2 = 1 A, l = 10 m, d = 2.5 mm,
find the forces between the wires.
Solution:
F 2 10 7
N
10m
1A 1A
0.8mN
2
A
2.5 10 m
Usually, in a household the forces acting between parallel wires are negligibly small: per unit length (1 m)
the values lie in the range of some mN. If in the case of a short-circuit the maximum possible current
occurs, (65 A) the forces will still be small enough.
If the charge q is known, the current can be found using equation (1.2). Conversely, if the current is
known, the charge can also be calculated. The total charge qT entering a general circuit element with a
current flowing from the left towards the right terminal in any time range, lets say between t = t0 and t =
t1, can be found by integrating equation (1.2)
t1
qT q (t1 ) q(t 0 ) i( ) d
(1.7a)
t0
This can be rewritten as follows. If the total charge q0 at time t0 is given, we find the charge at t1 by
integrating i(t) in the time range t0 t t1 and adding the value of q0.
t1
q (t1 ) i( ) d q 0
t0
where
t0
q 0 q(t 0 ) i( ) d
12
(1.7b)
Electrical Engineering 1
1 Basic Concepts
Example #1:
For the current defined piecewise as follows:
0
1A
i (t ) t
s
t0
0 t 1s
1s t 3s
t 3s
t 0s
0
q(t ) 2mC
0 t 2s
s
4mC 2mC e 2( t / s 2) t 2 s
a) find the current i(t) in the time range 1s t 3s
b) sketch the function i(t) and q(t).
Example #4:
For example #1 find the total charge transported.
EE1-WS1213-Ise
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Since charges exert forces on other charges, energy must be expended in moving a charge in the vicinity of
other charges. Thus charges produce a type of force field.
The unit of energy is the joule (J), defined as the energy extended in the exertion of a force of one Newton
in moving an object through a distance of one meter (1 J = 1N m). For example, consider moving a charge
q from a point a to another point b along a chosen path in the presence of another charge Q. Over certain
portions of the path, the force exerted by Q may oppose the movement, while over other portions the force
may be in the direction of q as to aid the movement of q. Hence the net energy Wab expended in moving the
charge q from a to b may be positive or negative.
This is similar to gravitational potential energy. For example, lifting a mass of m = 100 g (chocolate) to a
height h = 1m above the earth requires work on our part against the gravitational force (F = m g 100 g 10
ms-2 = 1 kg m s-2 =: 1 N(ewton)). We say that points above the earth are at a higher gravitational potential
with respect to the earth as our reference. The change of (potential) energy stored in the mass is
W F s mg h
(1.8 a)
Similarly, if the movement of a charge Q requires work, then we say that the voltage of point b with
respect to point a is the work per unit charge required to move the charge from point a to point b:
W
Q
(1.8 b)
1.6.1 Voltage
The basic variables in an electrical circuit are current and voltage. These variables describe the flow of
charge through the elements of a circuit and the energy required to cause charge to flow.
The notation we use to describe the voltage consists of two parts:
- a value (perhaps represented by a variable name, e.g. v, u) and
- an assigned direction (voltage reference direction).
There are two ways to label the voltage across an element. The
voltage uAB is the proportional to the work needed to move a positive charge from terminal A to terminal B.
Conversely, uBA is the work needed to move a positive charge in the opposite direction (from B to A). The
voltages uBA and uAB are similar but different. They have the same magnitude but opposite directions:
u BA u AB
14
Electrical Engineering 1
1 Basic Concepts
Sometimes we read uAB as the voltage (or potential difference) at terminal A with respect to terminal B.
Alternatively, we sometimes say that uAB is the voltage drop (Spannungsfall) from terminal A to terminal
B. When considering uAB , terminal A is called positive terminal (or + terminal, terminal at higher
potential) and terminal B is called negative terminal (or terminal, terminal at lower potential).
The voltage across an element is defined to be the work (energy) required to move a unit positive charge
(+1 C) from the negative terminal to the positive terminal. The unit of the voltage is the volt, V.
Some practical values:
telecommunication
electronic circuits (TTL)
accumulators in cars
household
energy distribution
1 V
1 .. 40 V (5V)
12 V (24 V)
230 V (US: 110 V)
10 .. 30 kV
110 .. 400 kV (1100 kV)
10 .. 50 MV
w u q
If the time involved is t, then the rate at which the work is being done, is given by
w
q
u
t
t
(1.9 a)
lim ( t )
t 0
dw
dq
p u
u i
dt
dt
(1.9 b)
Power is simply the product of the voltage across an element times the current through the element.
Power (Leistung) is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy. Power has the unit of watts, W.
(p6=w/t=uq/t=V C/s = V As / s = VA =: W)
The quantities u and i are generally functions of time. Therefore p is a time-varying quantity. It is
sometimes called the instantaneous power (Augenblickswert der Leistung) because its value is the power
at the instant of time at which u and i are measured.
Two circuit variables correspond to each element of a circuit: a voltage and a current. There are two
different ways to arrange the directions of this current and voltage. If the current reference direction arrow
and the voltage reference direction arrow point in the same (opposite) direction(s) which means that the
6
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arrows are in parallel (anti-parallel), the current and voltage so defined are said to satisfy the passive sign
convention (Verbraucherpfeilsystem) (active sign convention (Erzeugerpfeilsystem).
In the passive (sign) convention, the voltage indicates the work required to move a positive charge in the
direction indicated by the current. Accordingly, the power p = ui is the power absorbed (aufgenommene
Leistung) by the element (also called the power dissipated by the element or the power delivered to the
element). The power absorbed can be either positive or negative. This depends on the values of the element
voltage and current. In the active (sign) convention, the voltage indicates the work required to move a
positive charge in the direction opposite to the direction indicated by the current. Accordingly, the power is
the power supplied by the element (also called the power delivered by the element). Again, the power
delivered by an element can either be positive or negative, depending on the values of the element voltage
and current.
Example: (to illustrate the concept of power
delivered to or absorbed by an element) Charging a discharged automobile battery
The power absorbed by an element and the power delivered by the same element are related by
power absorbed = - power delivered
Summary:
{u}7
{i}
{p}
passive sign
convention
active sign
convention
>0
<0
>0
<0
> 0: absorption
power absorbed
(or dissipated)
>0
<0
<0
>0
< 0: supply
power supplied
(or delivered)
>0
<0
>0
<0
> 0: supply
>0
<0
<0
>0
< 0: absorption
When the element voltage and current adhere to the passive convention, the energy absorbed by an element
can be determined from equation 1.9
dw pdt
On integrating, we get
t
p( )d
(1.10 a)
If the element only receives power for t t0 and we let t0 = 0, then we have
t
w p( )d
0
16
(1.10 b)
Electrical Engineering 1
1 Basic Concepts
Example #7:
a) Given U = 4 V, I = 10 A,
a1) passive convention
a2) active convention
Find the power absorbed (or delivered) and the energy absorbed (or delivered) over a 10 s interval.
b) Given U = - 4 V, I = 10 A,
b1) passive convention
b2) active convention
Find the power absorbed and the energy absorbed (or delivered) over a 10 s interval.
c) Given u = 8 e-t, i = 2.5 e-t, active convention. Find the power delivered and the energy supplied by this
element over the first second of operation. Assume that both u and i are zero for t 0.
Electric circuits consist of interconnections of circuit elements. Circuit elements, e.g. a battery, a bulb, a
switch, wiring, etc., may be represented by a model of their behaviour described in terms of the terminal
current and voltage of each element.
We may classify circuit elements in two categories, passive and active, by determining whether they
absorb energy or supply energy. A circuit element is said to be passive (passiv) or (active (aktiv)), if it
cannot (can) deliver more energy than has previously been supplied to it by the rest of the circuit. That is,
at each t the net energy absorbed by a passive (supplied by an active) element up to t must be nonnegative
(negative):
t
pd ui d 0
(1.10 a,b)
pd ui d 0
If (1.10 a) does not hold at each time t, the element is active. Examples of active elements are batteries,
generators, electronic power supplies, etc.
The feature of an electric circuit component is that its behaviour is described in terms of a voltage-current
relation. The voltage-current characteristic may be obtained experimentally or from physical principles.
Although no device is exactle linear for all values of current, we can often assume a range of linear
operation.
Example: voltage-current relationship (with assumed range of linearity) for
an incandescent lamp
a diode
EE1-WS1213-Ise
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