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Methods of Proof
Section 4.7 Two Classical Theorems
38 / 50
Synopsis
2.
39 / 50
The irrationality of
2.
2 is irrational.
Proof:
Suppose not. Then
2 is rational.
40 / 50
The irrationality of
2.
2 is irrational.
Proof:
Suppose not. Then
such that
2=
m
.
n
40 / 50
The irrationality of
2.
2 is irrational.
Proof:
Suppose not. Then
such that
m
.
n
(We may assume m, n have no common factors other than 1 or 1,
2=
40 / 50
The irrationality of
2.
2 is irrational.
Proof:
Suppose not. Then
such that
m
.
n
(We may assume m, n have no common factors other than 1 or 1,
2=
else we may divide them by their common factors to get a new pair m1
and n1 that have no common factors.)
40 / 50
The irrationality of
2.
2 is irrational.
Proof:
Suppose not. Then
such that
m
.
n
(We may assume m, n have no common factors other than 1 or 1,
2=
else we may divide them by their common factors to get a new pair m1
and n1 that have no common factors.)
Squaring both sides of equation gives
m2
2= 2.
n
MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)
40 / 50
Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
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Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
41 / 50
Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
Note that left side of equation is even. Therefore, right side is even.
41 / 50
Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
Note that left side of equation is even. Therefore, right side is even.
Therefore m is even (by Prop. 4.6.4).
41 / 50
Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
Note that left side of equation is even. Therefore, right side is even.
Therefore m is even (by Prop. 4.6.4).
Therefore
m = 2k
41 / 50
Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
Note that left side of equation is even. Therefore, right side is even.
Therefore m is even (by Prop. 4.6.4).
Therefore
m = 2k
Therefore
2n2 = m2 = (2k)2 = 4k 2 .
41 / 50
Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
Note that left side of equation is even. Therefore, right side is even.
Therefore m is even (by Prop. 4.6.4).
Therefore
m = 2k
Therefore
Therefore
2n2 = m2 = (2k)2 = 4k 2 .
n2 = 2k 2 .
41 / 50
Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
Note that left side of equation is even. Therefore, right side is even.
Therefore m is even (by Prop. 4.6.4).
Therefore
m = 2k
Therefore
Therefore
2n2 = m2 = (2k)2 = 4k 2 .
n2 = 2k 2 .
41 / 50
Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
Note that left side of equation is even. Therefore, right side is even.
Therefore m is even (by Prop. 4.6.4).
Therefore
m = 2k
Therefore
Therefore
2n2 = m2 = (2k)2 = 4k 2 .
n2 = 2k 2 .
41 / 50
Equivalently,
2n2 = m2 .
Note that left side of equation is even. Therefore, right side is even.
Therefore m is even (by Prop. 4.6.4).
Therefore
m = 2k
Therefore
Therefore
2n2 = m2 = (2k)2 = 4k 2 .
n2 = 2k 2 .
41 / 50
1 + 3 2 is irrational.
42 / 50
1 + 3 2 is irrational.
a
1+3 2= .
b
42 / 50
1 + 3 2 is irrational.
a
1+3 2= .
b
Rearranging, we find that
a
ab
3 2 =
1 =
.
b
b
42 / 50
1 + 3 2 is irrational.
a
1+3 2= .
b
Rearranging, we find that
a
ab
3 2 =
1 =
.
b
b
2=
ab
.
3b
42 / 50
1 + 3 2 is irrational.
a
1+3 2= .
b
Rearranging, we find that
a
ab
3 2 =
1 =
.
b
b
2=
ab
.
3b
42 / 50
1 + 3 2 is irrational.
a
1+3 2= .
b
Rearranging, we find that
a
ab
3 2 =
1 =
.
b
b
2=
ab
.
3b
42 / 50
1 + 3 2 is irrational.
a
1+3 2= .
b
Rearranging, we find that
a
ab
3 2 =
1 =
.
b
b
2=
ab
.
3b
42 / 50
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(1)
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(1)
(2)
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Clues
47 / 50
Clues
47 / 50
Clues
47 / 50
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49 / 50
Check
One way to prove that
1
assume
2 is irrational is to
One way to prove that there are infinitely many prime numbers is to
1
.
MH1300 Lecture handout 5 (NTU)
50 / 50
68 / 69
68 / 69
68 / 69
68 / 69
68 / 69
Question cont
x D, y E , (P(x)Q(y )), and (x D, P(x))(x E , Q(x)).
.......................................................................
Part 2. If second statement form is true, then first statement form is true.
69 / 69
Question cont
x D, y E , (P(x)Q(y )), and (x D, P(x))(x E , Q(x)).
.......................................................................
Part 2. If second statement form is true, then first statement form is true.
69 / 69
Question cont
x D, y E , (P(x)Q(y )), and (x D, P(x))(x E , Q(x)).
.......................................................................
Part 2. If second statement form is true, then first statement form is true.
Since second statement form is true, either x D, P(x) is true
or x E , Q(x) is true.
69 / 69
5.1 Sequences
1 / 66
Synopsis
Objective: A review of sequences and sums.
This is mostly a review of past knowledge of that you already
learnt from H2 Mathematics at Alevels or equivalent Math
subject taken at high school.
Sequences.
Examples.
Summation notation, telescoping sum.
Product notation, computing products.
Factorial notation.
Properties of summation and products.
Change of variable.
5.1 Sequences
2 / 66
Sequences
Definition
A sequence is a function whose domain is either
all the integers between two given integers, or
.
5.1 Sequences
3 / 66
Sequences
Definition
A sequence is a function whose domain is either
all the integers between two given integers, or
all the integers greater than or equal to a given integer.
5.1 Sequences
3 / 66
Sequences
Typically denoted as
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an ,
5.1 Sequences
4 / 66
Sequences
Typically denoted as
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an ,
each individual element ak (read as a sub k) is called a term.
5.1 Sequences
4 / 66
Sequences
Typically denoted as
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an ,
each individual element ak (read as a sub k) is called a term.
The k in ak is called a subscript or index.
5.1 Sequences
4 / 66
Sequences
Typically denoted as
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an ,
each individual element ak (read as a sub k) is called a term.
The k in ak is called a subscript or index.
The integer m is the subscript of the initial term.
5.1 Sequences
4 / 66
Sequences
Typically denoted as
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an ,
each individual element ak (read as a sub k) is called a term.
The k in ak is called a subscript or index.
The integer m is the subscript of the initial term.
The integer n is the subscript of the final term.
5.1 Sequences
4 / 66
Sequences
Typically denoted as
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an ,
each individual element ak (read as a sub k) is called a term.
The k in ak is called a subscript or index.
The integer m is the subscript of the initial term.
The integer n is the subscript of the final term.
The notation
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . .
denotes an infinite sequence.
5.1 Sequences
4 / 66
Sequences
Typically denoted as
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . . , an ,
each individual element ak (read as a sub k) is called a term.
The k in ak is called a subscript or index.
The integer m is the subscript of the initial term.
The integer n is the subscript of the final term.
The notation
am , am+1 , am+2 , . . .
denotes an infinite sequence.
An explicit formula or general formula for a sequence is a rule that
shows how the values of ak depend on k.
MH1300 Lecture handout 6 (NTU)
5.1 Sequences
4 / 66
Example 5.1.3
Find an explicit formula for a sequence that has the following initial terms:
1 1
1 1
1
1, , , ,
, , ...
4 9
16 25
36
.......................................................................
Solution:
5.1 Sequences
5 / 66
Example 5.1.3
Find an explicit formula for a sequence that has the following initial terms:
1 1
1 1
1
1, , , ,
, , ...
4 9
16 25
36
.......................................................................
Solution:
Denote by ak the general term of the sequence and suppose the first term
is a1 .
Then
1
,
12
l
a1
1
,
22
l
a2
1
,
32
l
a3
1
,
42
l
a4
5.1 Sequences
1
,
52
l
a5
1
,
62
l
a6
...
...
5 / 66
Example 5.1.3
Find an explicit formula for a sequence that has the following initial terms:
1 1
1 1
1
1, , , ,
, , ...
4 9
16 25
36
.......................................................................
Solution:
Denote by ak the general term of the sequence and suppose the first term
is a1 .
Then
1
,
12
l
a1
1
,
22
l
a2
1
,
32
l
a3
1
,
42
l
a4
1
,
52
l
a5
1
,
62
l
a6
...
...
Then
ak =
MH1300 Lecture handout 6 (NTU)
5 / 66
Example 5.1.3
Find an explicit formula for a sequence that has the following initial terms:
1 1
1 1
1
1, , , ,
, , ...
4 9
16 25
36
.......................................................................
Solution:
Denote by ak the general term of the sequence and suppose the first term
is a1 .
Then
1
,
12
l
a1
1
,
22
l
a2
1
,
32
l
a3
Then
ak = (1)k+1
MH1300 Lecture handout 6 (NTU)
1
k2
1
,
42
l
a4
1
,
52
l
a5
1
,
62
l
a6
...
...
5 / 66
Summation notation
Definition
If m and n are integers and m n, then the symbol
n
X
ak , read
k=m
5.1 Sequences
6 / 66
Summation notation
Definition
If m and n are integers and m n, then the symbol
n
X
ak , read
k=m
We write
n
X
ak = am + am+1 + am+2 + + an .
k=m
5.1 Sequences
6 / 66
Summation notation
Definition
If m and n are integers and m n, then the symbol
n
X
ak , read
k=m
We write
n
X
ak = am + am+1 + am+2 + + an .
k=m
5.1 Sequences
6 / 66
Summation notation
Definition
If m and n are integers and m n, then the symbol
n
X
ak , read
k=m
We write
n
X
ak = am + am+1 + am+2 + + an .
k=m
5.1 Sequences
6 / 66
Summation notation
Definition
If m and n are integers and m n, then the symbol
n
X
ak , read
k=m
We write
n
X
ak = am + am+1 + am+2 + + an .
k=m
5.1 Sequences
6 / 66
Example 5.1.7
Express the following using summation notation:
1
2
3
n+1
+
+
+ +
n n+1 n+2
2n
.......................................................................
Solution:
5.1 Sequences
7 / 66
Example 5.1.7
Express the following using summation notation:
1
2
3
n+1
+
+
+ +
n n+1 n+2
2n
.......................................................................
Solution:
The general term is
k+1
n+k
5.1 Sequences
7 / 66
Example 5.1.7
Express the following using summation notation:
1
2
3
n+1
+
+
+ +
n n+1 n+2
2n
.......................................................................
Solution:
The general term is
k+1
n+k
Therefore,
1
2
3
n+1
+
+
+ +
=
n n+1 n+2
2n
5.1 Sequences
7 / 66
Example 5.1.7
Express the following using summation notation:
1
2
3
n+1
+
+
+ +
n n+1 n+2
2n
.......................................................................
Solution:
The general term is
k+1
n+k
Therefore,
n
X
1
2
3
n+1
k +1
+
+
+ +
=
.
n n+1 n+2
2n
n+k
k=0
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.8
What is the value of the expression
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
12 23 34
n (n + 1)
when n = 1? n = 2? n = 3?
.......................................................................
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.8
What is the value of the expression
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
12 23 34
n (n + 1)
when n = 1? n = 2? n = 3?
.......................................................................
For n = 1, the sum is
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.8
What is the value of the expression
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
12 23 34
n (n + 1)
when n = 1? n = 2? n = 3?
.......................................................................
1
1
For n = 1, the sum is
= .
12
2
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.8
What is the value of the expression
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
12 23 34
n (n + 1)
when n = 1? n = 2? n = 3?
.......................................................................
1
1
For n = 1, the sum is
= .
12
2
For n = 2, the sum is
5.1 Sequences
8 / 66
Example 5.1.8
What is the value of the expression
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
12 23 34
n (n + 1)
when n = 1? n = 2? n = 3?
.......................................................................
1
1
For n = 1, the sum is
= .
12
2
For n = 2, the sum is
1
1 1
2
1
+
= + = .
12 23
2 6
3
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.8
What is the value of the expression
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
12 23 34
n (n + 1)
when n = 1? n = 2? n = 3?
.......................................................................
1
1
For n = 1, the sum is
= .
12
2
For n = 2, the sum is
1
1 1
2
1
+
= + = .
12 23
2 6
3
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.8
What is the value of the expression
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
12 23 34
n (n + 1)
when n = 1? n = 2? n = 3?
.......................................................................
1
1
For n = 1, the sum is
= .
12
2
For n = 2, the sum is
1
1 1
2
1
+
= + = .
12 23
2 6
3
1
1
1
1 1
1
3
+
+
= + +
= .
12 23 34
2 6 12
4
5.1 Sequences
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Example 5.1.8
What is the value of the expression
1
1
1
1
+
+
+ +
12 23 34
n (n + 1)
when n = 1? n = 2? n = 3?
.......................................................................
1
1
For n = 1, the sum is
= .
12
2
For n = 2, the sum is
1
1 1
2
1
+
= + = .
12 23
2 6
3
1
1
1
1 1
1
3
+
+
= + +
= .
12 23 34
2 6 12
4
Caution
Although the sum seems to suggest that n must be at least 3 (since the
first 3 terms are given), but there is no such suggestion implied.
MH1300 Lecture handout 6 (NTU)
5.1 Sequences
8 / 66
Telescoping sum
Example 5.1.10. Use the identity
1
1
(k + 1) k
1
=
=
k
k +1
k(k + 1)
k(k + 1)
Pn
1
to find a simple expression for k=1 k(k+1)
.
.......................................................................
5.1 Sequences
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Telescoping sum
Example 5.1.10. Use the identity
1
1
(k + 1) k
1
=
=
k
k +1
k(k + 1)
k(k + 1)
Pn
1
to find a simple expression for k=1 k(k+1)
.
.......................................................................
Solution:
n
X
1
k(k + 1)
k=1
n
X
1
1
=
k
k +1
k=1
5.1 Sequences
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Telescoping sum
Example 5.1.10. Use the identity
1
1
(k + 1) k
1
=
=
k
k +1
k(k + 1)
k(k + 1)
Pn
1
to find a simple expression for k=1 k(k+1)
.
.......................................................................
Solution:
n
X
1
k(k + 1)
k=1
n
X
1
1
=
k
k +1
k=1
1 1
1 1
1 1
1
1
1
1
=
+ +
1 2
2 3
3 4
n1 n
n n+1
5.1 Sequences
9 / 66
Telescoping sum
Example 5.1.10. Use the identity
1
1
(k + 1) k
1
=
=
k
k +1
k(k + 1)
k(k + 1)
Pn
1
to find a simple expression for k=1 k(k+1)
.
.......................................................................
Solution:
n
X
1
k(k + 1)
k=1
n
X
1
1
=
k
k +1
k=1
.
. . . .
.
.
.
1 1
1 1
1 1
1
1
1
1
=
+ +
1 2
2 3
3 4
n1 n
n n+1
5.1 Sequences
9 / 66
Telescoping sum
Example 5.1.10. Use the identity
1
1
(k + 1) k
1
=
=
k
k +1
k(k + 1)
k(k + 1)
Pn
1
to find a simple expression for k=1 k(k+1)
.
.......................................................................
Solution:
n
X
1
k(k + 1)
k=1
n
X
1
1
=
k
k +1
k=1
.
. . . .
.
.
.
1 1
1 1
1 1
1
1
1
1
=
+ +
1 2
2 3
3 4
n1 n
n n+1
1
= 1
.
n+1
5.1 Sequences
9 / 66
Product notation
Definition
For integers m and n with m n, the symbol
n
Y
ak , read the
k=m
5.1 Sequences
10 / 66
Product notation
Definition
For integers m and n with m n, the symbol
n
Y
ak , read the
k=m
n
Y
ak = am am+1 am+2 an .
k=m
5.1 Sequences
10 / 66
Factorial notation
Definition
For each positive integer n, the quantity n factorial denoted n!, is defined
to be the product of all the integers from 1 to n:
n! := n (n 1) (n 2) 3 2 1.
5.1 Sequences
11 / 66
Factorial notation
Definition
For each positive integer n, the quantity n factorial denoted n!, is defined
to be the product of all the integers from 1 to n:
n! := n (n 1) (n 2) 3 2 1.
Zero factorial, denoted by 0!, is defined to be 1:
0! := 1.
5.1 Sequences
11 / 66
Example.
a. Compute
b. Simplify
Q6
k
k=4 (k2)2 3 .
3!3!
7! .
.......................................................................
Solution:
5.1 Sequences
12 / 66
Example.
a. Compute
b. Simplify
Q6
k
k=4 (k2)2 3 .
3!3!
7! .
.......................................................................
Solution:
a.
6
Y
k=4
k
=
(k 2)2 3
=
=
5.1 Sequences
12 / 66
Example.
a. Compute
b. Simplify
Q6
k
k=4 (k2)2 3 .
3!3!
7! .
.......................................................................
Solution:
a.
6
Y
k=4
k
4
5
6
= 2
(k 2)2 3
2 3 32 3 42 3
=
=
5.1 Sequences
12 / 66
Example.
a. Compute
b. Simplify
Q6
k
k=4 (k2)2 3 .
3!3!
7! .
.......................................................................
Solution:
a.
6
Y
k=4
k
4
5
6
= 2
(k 2)2 3
2 3 32 3 42 3
=
4
1
5
6
6
13
5.1 Sequences
12 / 66
Example.
a. Compute
b. Simplify
Q6
k
k=4 (k2)2 3 .
3!3!
7! .
.......................................................................
Solution:
a.
6
Y
k=4
k
4
5
6
= 2
(k 2)2 3
2 3 32 3 42 3
=
=
1
20
.
13
5.1 Sequences
5
6
6
13
12 / 66
Example.
a. Compute
b. Simplify
Q6
k
k=4 (k2)2 3 .
3!3!
7! .
.......................................................................
Solution:
a.
6
Y
k=4
k
4
5
6
= 2
(k 2)2 3
2 3 32 3 42 3
=
=
b.
1
20
.
13
5
6
6
13
3! 3!
=
7!
5.1 Sequences
12 / 66
Example.
a. Compute
b. Simplify
Q6
k
k=4 (k2)2 3 .
3!3!
7! .
.......................................................................
Solution:
a.
6
Y
k=4
k
4
5
6
= 2
(k 2)2 3
2 3 32 3 42 3
=
=
b.
1
20
.
13
5
6
6
13
3! 3!
3! 3!
=
=
7 6 5 4 3!
7!
5.1 Sequences
12 / 66
Example.
a. Compute
b. Simplify
Q6
k
k=4 (k2)2 3 .
3!3!
7! .
.......................................................................
Solution:
a.
6
Y
k=4
k
4
5
6
= 2
(k 2)2 3
2 3 32 3 42 3
=
=
b.
1
20
.
13
5
6
6
13
3! 3!
3!
3! 3!
=
=
=
7 6 5 4 3!
7654
7!
5.1 Sequences
12 / 66
Example.
a. Compute
b. Simplify
Q6
k
k=4 (k2)2 3 .
3!3!
7! .
.......................................................................
Solution:
a.
6
Y
k=4
k
4
5
6
= 2
(k 2)2 3
2 3 32 3 42 3
=
=
b.
1
20
.
13
5
6
6
13
3! 3!
3!
1
3! 3!
=
=
.
=
7 6 5 4 3!
7654
140
7!
5.1 Sequences
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5.1 Sequences
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k=m
k=m
5.1 Sequences
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n
X
k=m
k=m
ak =
k=m
n
X
(c ak )
k=m
5.1 Sequences
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k=m
n
X
k=m
n
Y
ak =
ak
k=m
k=m
n
X
(c ak )
k=m
n
Y
k=m
!
bk
(ak bk ).
k=m
5.1 Sequences
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k=m
n
X
k=m
n
Y
ak =
ak
k=m
k=m
n
X
(c ak )
k=m
n
Y
k=m
!
bk
(ak bk ).
k=m
5.1 Sequences
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Ex. 5.1.60
Express the following as a single summation.
2
n
X
(3k + 4) + 5
k=1
n
X
(2k 2 1).
k=1
.......................................................................
5.1 Sequences
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Ex. 5.1.60
Express the following as a single summation.
2
n
X
(3k + 4) + 5
k=1
n
X
(2k 2 1).
k=1
.......................................................................
Solution:
n
n
X
X
2
(3k 2 + 4) + 5
(2k 2 1)
k=1
k=1
5.1 Sequences
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Ex. 5.1.60
Express the following as a single summation.
2
n
X
(3k + 4) + 5
k=1
n
X
(2k 2 1).
k=1
.......................................................................
Solution:
n
n
X
X
2
(3k 2 + 4) + 5
(2k 2 1)
k=1
k=1
n
n
X
X
(6k 2 + 8) +
(10k 2 5)
k=1
k=1
5.1 Sequences
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Ex. 5.1.60
Express the following as a single summation.
2
n
X
(3k + 4) + 5
k=1
n
X
(2k 2 1).
k=1
.......................................................................
Solution:
n
n
X
X
2
(3k 2 + 4) + 5
(2k 2 1)
k=1
n
n
X
X
(6k 2 + 8) +
(10k 2 5)
k=1
k=1
k=1
n
X
(16k 2 + 3)
k=1
5.1 Sequences
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5.1 Sequences
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5.1 Sequences
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5.1 Sequences
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5.1 Sequences
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5.1 Sequences
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5.1 Sequences
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5.1 Sequences
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5.1 Sequences
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k
n+k ,
is now
5.1 Sequences
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k
n+k ,
is now
(j+1)
n+(j+1)
5.1 Sequences
j+1
n+j+1 .
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j+1
n+j+1 .
k=1
5.1 Sequences
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j=0
5.1 Sequences
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Check
n
X
ak is
k=m
ak + c
k=m
n
Y
k=m
n
X
.
.
bk =
k=m
!
ak
n
Y
!
bk
k=m
5.1 Sequences
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17 / 66
Synopsis
18 / 66
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n(n + 1)
.
2
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n(n + 1)
.
2
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n(n + 1)
.
2
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n(n + 1)
.
2
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n(n + 1)
.
2
1 (1 + 1)
.
2
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n(n + 1)
.
2
1 (1 + 1)
.
2
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n(n + 1)
.
2
1 (1 + 1)
.
2
1(1+1)
2
12
2
= 1.
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n(n + 1)
.
2
1 (1 + 1)
.
2
1(1+1)
2
12
2
= 1. Therefore P(1) is
21 / 66
Inductive step: Let k Z with k 1 and suppose that P(k) is true, i.e.,
1 + 2 + + k =
k(k + 1)
.
2
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Inductive step: Let k Z with k 1 and suppose that P(k) is true, i.e.,
1 + 2 + + k =
k(k + 1)
.
2
(1)
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Inductive step: Let k Z with k 1 and suppose that P(k) is true, i.e.,
1 + 2 + + k =
k(k + 1)
.
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
.
2
(1)
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Inductive step: Let k Z with k 1 and suppose that P(k) is true, i.e.,
1 + 2 + + k =
k(k + 1)
.
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
.
2
(1)
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Inductive step: Let k Z with k 1 and suppose that P(k) is true, i.e.,
1 + 2 + + k =
k(k + 1)
.
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
.
2
(1)
k(k + 1)
+ (k + 1)
2
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Inductive step: Let k Z with k 1 and suppose that P(k) is true, i.e.,
1 + 2 + + k =
k(k + 1)
.
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
.
2
(1)
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Inductive step: Let k Z with k 1 and suppose that P(k) is true, i.e.,
1 + 2 + + k =
k(k + 1)
.
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
.
2
(1)
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Inductive step: Let k Z with k 1 and suppose that P(k) is true, i.e.,
1 + 2 + + k =
k(k + 1)
.
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
.
2
(1)
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Inductive step: Let k Z with k 1 and suppose that P(k) is true, i.e.,
1 + 2 + + k =
k(k + 1)
.
2
(k + 1)(k + 2)
.
2
(1)
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xi =
i=0
x n+1 1
.
x 1
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xi =
i=0
x n+1 1
.
x 1
Pn
i=0 x
x n+1 1
x1 .
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xi =
i=0
x n+1 1
.
x 1
Pn
i=0 x
x n+1 1
x1 .
23 / 66
xi =
i=0
x n+1 1
.
x 1
Pn
i=0 x
x n+1 1
x1 .
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xi =
i=0
x n+1 1
.
x 1
Pn
i=0 x
x n+1 1
x1 .
x 0+1 1
.
x 1
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xi =
i=0
x n+1 1
.
x 1
Pn
i=0 x
x n+1 1
x1 .
x 0+1 1
.
x 1
Simplifying, the left side equals x 0 = 1, and the right side equals
MH1300 Lecture handout 6 (NTU)
x1
x1
= 1.
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xi =
i=0
x n+1 1
.
x 1
Pn
i=0 x
x n+1 1
x1 .
x 0+1 1
.
x 1
Simplifying, the left side equals x 0 = 1, and the right side equals
Therefore, both sides of the equation agree, and so P(0) is true.
MH1300 Lecture handout 6 (NTU)
x1
x1
= 1.
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Inductive step: Let k Z with k 0 and suppose that P(k) is true, i.e.,
k
X
i=0
xi =
x k+1 1
.
x 1
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Inductive step: Let k Z with k 0 and suppose that P(k) is true, i.e.,
k
X
xi =
i=0
x k+1 1
.
x 1
(2)
i=0
xi =
i=0
=
=
which is the right side of equation (2).
Therefore P(k + 1) is true.
Therefore Theorem is true by mathematical induction.
MH1300 Lecture handout 6 (NTU)
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Inductive step: Let k Z with k 0 and suppose that P(k) is true, i.e.,
k
X
xi =
i=0
x k+1 1
.
x 1
(2)
i=0
x i = x k+1 +
k
X
i=0
xi
i=0
k+1
1
(by the inductive hypothesis)
x 1
x k+1 (x 1) + x k+1 1
x k+2 1
=
,
=
x 1
x 1
= x k+1 +
24 / 66