Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
Abstract
The weight function method is described to analyze the crack growth behavior in functionally graded materials and in particular materials
with a rising crack growth resistance curve. Further, failure of graded thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) under cyclic surface heating by laser
irradiation is modeled on the basis of fracture mechanics. The damage of both graded and non-graded TBCs is found to develop in several
distinct stages: vertical cracking delamination blistering spalling. This sequence can be understood as an effect of progressive
shrinkage due to sintering and high-temperature creep during thermal cycling, which increases the energy-release rate for vertical cracks
which subsequently turn into delamination cracks. The results of finite element modeling, taking into account the TBC damage mechanisms,
are compatible with experimental data. An increase of interface fracture toughness due to grading and a decrease due to ageing have been
measured in a four-point bending test modified by a stiffening layer. Correlation with the damage observed in cyclic heating is discussed. It
is explained in which way grading is able to reduce the damage.
2003 Published by Elsevier B.V.
Keywords: FGM; Fracture mechanics; R-curve; Residual stresses; TBC
1. Introduction
Replacing the sharp transition of the material properties
in a bimaterial joint by a continuous transition, i.e. introduction of a graded interlayer, may improve the strength of the
joint. Various arguments have been mentioned in literature,
according to which a graded material should be beneficial.
These arguments are (see e.g. [1]) that: (i) thermal stresses
can be reduced; (ii) thermal stresses at critical locations can
be reduced; (iii) stress jumps at the interface can be avoided;
(iv) the driving force for crack extension, the stress intensity
factor, can be reduced; and (v) the strength of the interfacial
H.-A. Bahr et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 216
/E11T
2
(a)
E,
1.5
1
0.5
0
-0.5
-1
y/H
y/H
/E11T
/E11T
(c)
E2/E1=5, 2/1=5
1.5
-2
(d)
E2/E1=0.2, 2/1=5
0.5
-4
0
-6
-0.5
-8
-1
-10
y/H
y/H
Fig. 1. Stress distribution in a plate constraint against bending after a change in temperature (linear gradation and bimaterial).
H.-A. Bahr et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 216
KII =
(y)hII (y, a) dy
(1b)
where (y) and (y) are the normal and shear stress distributions in the uncracked component along the crack plane.
The hI and hII are the mode I and mode II weight functions.
For a graded material these weight functions depend on the
distribution of the elastic constants E(y) and (y).
Rice [36] developed a relation to calculate the weight
function from the crack opening displacement u(y, a), the
stress intensity factor Kr (a) of a reference stress distribution
r (y):
hI (y, a) =
E u(y, a)
KIr a
(2)
It can be shown [37] that the same relation holds for a crack
in a graded material, where E(a) at the tip of the crack
has to be introduced for the Youngs modulus. To obtain
the crack opening displacement, a procedure developed for
homogeneous materials (see [38]) can be applied. This was
shown in [37]. The direct adjustment method [39] starts
with the general type of the weight function
2
1
h(y, a) =
Dn (1 )n1/2
(3)
+
a
1 n=1
with = y/a. The expansion is truncated after a certain
number N. Dn can be obtained from N conditions. One set of
conditions can be obtained by applying Eq. (1) for reference
loading r (y) with known stress intensity factors Kr (a). Another condition was obtained in [37,40]. It could be shown
that the second derivative of the crack opening displacement
at the crack mouth (x = 0) disappears. As a direct consequence of Eq. (2) it follows
2 h
y=0 = 0
y2
(4)
As an example, a component with an external crack is considered. Two reference loadings are considered: a constant
crack face pressure (y) = constant and a pair of concentrated forces P acting at the crack mouth, leading to the stress
intensity factors K and KP . With these three conditions, a
four-term weight function can be obtained
2
1
h(y, a) =
+ D1 (1 )1/2 + D2 (1 )3/2
a
1
+ D3 (1 )5/2
(5)
The three conditions lead to
K
2a
=
(2 + 23 D1 + 25 D2 + 27 D3 )
KP
2
=
(1 + D1 + D2 + D3 )
P
a
3 D1 + 3D2 + 15D3 = 0
(6a)
(6b)
(6c)
50
hW
0.8
40
A
B
30
C
0.7
20
0.6
10
a/W=0.4
0
0.2
0.6
0.4
0.8
y/a
Fig. 2. Weight function for a fully graded plate with an external crack: (A)
transition function Eq. (8a); (B) homogeneous material; and (C) transition
function Eq. (8b).
7
(7a)
2a
16 a
16
P
35 2 K
15
KP
25
D2 =
+
2a
+
(7b)
12 a
8
P
3
35 2 K
7
KP
7
2a
(7c)
D3 =
48 a
16
P
3
In Fig. 2, weight functions are given for a homogeneous
material and for two gradation functions: homogeneous material, part C is transition function in Eq. (8b).
y
(8a)
A:
E(y) = E0 1
2W
y
C:
E(y) = E0 1 +
(8b)
W
where W is the length of the plate in y-direction. It can
be seen that for this linear change in the Youngs modulus
by a factor of two, only a small deviation from the weight
function occurs for a homogeneous material.
The crack opening displacement u(a, y) for given stress
distribution follows from Eq. (2) as
a
h(y, a )K(a )
u(y, a) =
da
(9)
E(a )
y
Introducing Eq. (1) leads to
a
a
h(y, a )
(y)h(y, a )dy da
u(y, a) =
0
x E(a )
(10)
H.-A. Bahr et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 216
h1
h2
h3
KI/1E1TH
f1
(b)
(a)
M1
h1
interface
0.8
n=2
n=1
0.6
f2
FGM
M2
h1+h2
Fig. 3. (a) Crack in a plate with a graded interlayer; and (b) graded
functions in the interlayer; M1, M2: homogeneous materials.
n=1/2
0.4
0.2
0.05
0.1
0.15
a/H
A joint with a graded interlayer between two materials is
considered, which is subjected to a change in temperature
T from the stress-free state (Fig. 3). The thickness of the
two materials is h1 and h3 , the thickness of the interlayer h2 .
It is assumed that the Youngs modulus E and the thermal
expansion coefficient follow the same gradation function,
whereas the Poissons ratio is assumed to be constant. The
relation
h2 y n
f(x) = f2 (f2 f1 )
(11)
h2
is used for E and with n = 1/2, 1 and 2. The normalized stress x in the uncracked joint is shown in Fig. 4 for
1 /2 = 0.5, E1 /E2 = 2, h3 /H = 0.05 and h1 /H = 0.125
(h1 + h2 + h3 = H). There is a continuous transition in
the stresses. The stresses in the top layer are higher than in
the ungraded joint. In Fig. 5, the normalized stress intensity
factor is plotted versus the crack length. As can be expected
from the stress distribution in the uncracked joint, the stress
Fig. 5. Normalized stress intensity factor for joints with a graded interlayer.
x/1E1T
0.8
KI/1E1TH
two layers joint
0.6
0.8
0.4
n=1/2
0.2
n=1
n=2
0.6
0
0.4
-0.2
B
0.2
-0.4
-0.6
0.1
0.2
y/H
Fig. 4. Normalized stress distribution in the uncracked joint.
0.02 0.04
0.06 0.08
0.1
a/H
Fig. 6. Normalized stress intensity factors for three joints.
H.-A. Bahr et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 216
In a bimaterial with E1 /E2 > 1, the stress intensity will exceed the fracture toughness, if the crack approaches the interface. Then, the crack may arrest at the interface because
of the lower K in material 2 or the crack may kink and extend along the interface. In the graded material the stress intensity factor may always be below the fracture toughness,
if a suitable grading function is selected. The gradation also
affects subcritical crack extension. Under thermal fatigue
loading, the crack growth rate da/dN depend on the range
of the stress intensity factor K, which can be described by
the Paris-relation
da
(12)
= C(K)n
dN
The parameters C and n depend on the material and are,
therefore, a function of y. By integration of Eq. (12) from
an initial to a critical crack size, the number of cycles to
failure can be obtained. A possible beneficial effect depends
on the distribution of K and the material parameters along
the crack path.
Based on these considerations, a beneficial effect of a
graded interlayer on the crack growth behavior may be possible, but has to be evaluated for each specific problem.
2.3. Rising crack growth resistance curve in
gradient materials
In ceramic materials the resistance against crack extension
increases with increasing crack extension. For most materials this effect is caused by crack border interaction behind
the crack tip due to frictional contact of the crack borders
or unbroken islands. This crack border interaction can be
described by compressive stresses br (y) acting along the
crack border and leading to a negative stress intensity factor
Kbr (a). The stress intensity factor at the crack tip K0 is the
superposition of Kbr (a) and
a
Kappl (a) = aY
(13)
W
For homogeneous materials, the crack extends at constant
K0 and, therefore, Kappl increases to compensate the increase
of the negative Kbr . The bridging stress of a homogeneous
material is a unique function of the crack opening displacement u:
br = br (u)
The crack growth resistance curveKappl = KR as a function of the crack extension a is not an unique curve. The
relation depends on the initial crack size and the stress distribution in the uncracked component.
In a gradient material, the critical stress intensity factor
at the onset of crack extension K0 and the relation between
br and the crack opening displacement depend on y:
K0 = K0 (y),
br = br (u, y)
and the crack extension by using Eq. (11) with Y(a/W) for the
specific gradient function E(y). On the other hand, the crack
growth resistance curve can be calculated from the known
relations K0 (y) and br (y, u) by applying the relations
utotal = uappl + ubr
total = appl + br
and Eq. (10):
utotal (y, a) =
a h(y, a )
E(a )
a h(y, a )
y
E(a )
br (utotal , y)h(y, a )dy da
appl (y)h(y, a )dy da
Kappl = appl aY
,y
W
(14)
appl (y)h(y, a ) dy da
y E(a ) 0
a
h(y, a ) a
=
br (y)h(y, a ) dy da
y E(a ) 0
(16)
H.-A. Bahr et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 216
12
uappl
10
8
(m)
umeas
6
4
-ubr
2
0
a-x
10
(mm)
100
(a)
br
(b)
br
Fig. 10. Measured crack growth resistance curves for three different
gradation functions.
80
80
(MPa)
(MPa)
60
60
40
40
20
20
00
6
8
(mm)
a-x
8
(m)
10
Fig. 8. Bridging stress vs.: (a) distance from crack tip; and (b) crack
opening displacement (Al/Al2 O3 with 27% Al).
20
p=1
(%)
p=3
10
c = 0.03 + 0.27( 2 x / W 1) p
cAl
where cAl is the relative content of aluminum in the material and p(u) taken from Fig. 8b. Based on the experimental
results, the change of the stress intensity factor at the initiation of crack extension was assumed as to be
K0 = 2.3 + 10.7cAl MPa m
0
0
10
20
(mm)
30
Gradient materials contain residual stresses due to the processing conditions. It is possible to determine these residual
stresses from measurements of the crack opening displacement. The procedure is as follows: notches of different length
are cut in the direction of gradation. The crack opening dis-
H.-A. Bahr et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 216
p=1/3
15
p=1
15
KR
KR
10
10
MPam
MPam
5
including res
including res
without res
without res
10
12
(mm)
10
12
14
(mm)
including res
15
without res
KR
p=3
10
MPam
5
10
12
14
(mm)
Fig. 11. Comparison of measured and calculated crack growth resistance curves.
placement is measured at the crack mouth. The crack opening displacement is given by
a
a
h(y, a )
ures =
h(y, a )res (y)dy da
(17)
y E(a )
0
To solve this equation, the residual stresses are described a
polynomial expression:
res =
n
Ai y i
(18)
i=0
n
(19)
i=0
with
Ci (y) =
y
a h(y, a )
E(a )
h(y , a )y dy
da
(20)
Thermal barrier coatings (TBCs) with superior heat resistance are applied for gas turbine engine blades with to
increase the energetic efficiency by running at higher operating temperature. The service life of TBCs is limited by
spalling fracture [45]. Application of functionally graded
TBCs with improved resistance against delamination and
spalling is expected to extend service life. The strategy of
graded TBC optimization is outlined in Fig. 13. It represents
an extension of the scheme proposed in [46].
H.-A. Bahr et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 216
100
150
p=1/3
(a)
res
50
bimaterial
(b)
res
100
(MPa)
(MPa)
FEM
50
COD
0
-50
COD
-100
-150
10
20
FEM
-50
-100
30
(mm)
10
20
(mm)
30
150
p=3
(c)
res
100
(MPa)
50
COD
0
FEM
-50
-100
20
10
30
(mm)
Load
parameters
Geometry
Energy
release rate G
Material
parameters
Interface
toughness GC
G GC
Delamination crack
(21)
10
H.-A. Bahr et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 216
Table 1
Results of GC measurementa
GC (N/m)
Non-graded
EBPVDTBC
Graded
EBPVDTBC
Without aging
100 h at 1000 C
10 h at 1100 C
>81b
63
37
>81b
>81b
45
[51].
In these cases, there was no TBC failure, but a detachment of the
stiffening layer.
b
H.-A. Bahr et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 216
2000
Temperature [C]
Overheating
1500
1000
500
Increase of
laser power
0
0,2
0,4
11
0,6
0,8
1,0
1,2
Time [s]
Fig. 16. Thermal cycling: part of an 11 s cycle, heating phase 1 s, and
cooling phase 10 s.
Fig. 17. Progress of damage in non-graded and graded TBCs [51] N and Tmax denote the number of cycles and maximum surface temperature. For
non-graded EB-PVD TBC (homogeneous ZrO2 ): (a) N = 30, Tmax = 1500 C; (b) N = 1400, Tmax = 1500 C; and (c) N = 900, Tmax = 1600 C.
For graded EB-PVD TBC (graded transition: Al2 O3 ZrO2 ): (d) N = 300, Tmax = 1530 C; (e) N = 1000, Tmax = 1530 C; and (f) N = 300,
Tmax = 1600 C.
H.-A. Bahr et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 216
12
1600
1400
no visible damage
vertical cracks
delamination cracks
local blistering
local spalling
1200
1000
10
1000
10000
Fig. 19. Shrinkage cracks in thermally cycled TBC.
100
Number of cycles N
(a)
(b)
1600
1400
no visible damage
vertical cracks
delamination cracks
local blistering
1200
1000
10
100
1000
10000
residual crack opening after cyclic heating (Fig. 19) indicates the presence of an average shrinkage strain of about
1%. Sintering of TBCs was discussed in [45,51]. Prolonged
heating of TBC samples detached from the substrate by
chemical dissolution of the NiCoCrAlY bond coat resulted
in shrinkage strains of S 1.4% for 100 h at 1200 C and
S 0.6% for 250 h at 1050 C (Fig. 20, curvature due
to inhomogeneity of TBC). Progressive shrinkage due to
sintering in thermal cycling increases the energy release
rate for vertical cracks which subsequently turn into delamination cracks. (Note that the temperature needed for TBC
damage in Fig. 17 is much higher because of the smaller
total duration of laser heating with N cycles.)
Number of cycles N
Fig. 18. Damage maps of cyclically heated: (a) non-graded; and (b) graded
TBCs [51].
Fig. 20. Detached TBC: before (left) and after (right) deformation due to
sintering for 100 h at 1200 C.
H.-A. Bahr et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 216
l=h
TBC
E1,
a
E2,
13
l=h
E1,
a
E2,
H = 10h
Substrate
H = 10h
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 21. Model for the analysis of delamination crack propagation due to sintering.
E2 , and 2 being the elastic constants for the TBC and the
substrate, respectively. The sintering effect is characterized
by two parameters: average shrinkage strain S and depth
(see also Fig. 21b).
3.6. FE modeling
Delamination crack propagation was computed by means
of the finite element method (FEM). The finite element
model corresponding to the problem depicted in Fig. 20b is
shown in Fig. 22. The MARC finite element program package [62] was used for the calculation involving a 2D mesh
of eight-noded isoparametric finite elements with four integration points for stiffness matrix computation. The number
of elements varied with relative thickness h/H and dimensionless crack length a/l and reached about 1500. A highly
refined self-similarly focused mesh was used in the vicinity
of the crack tip. The size of the elements around the crack
Fig. 22. Delamination crack propagation caused by sintering (s = 0.4%, / h = 0.8, a/ l = 0.75). Displacements 20 times magnified.
H.-A. Bahr et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 216
(22)
1 1 2
h
h
The curves in Fig. 23 start from values of G|a/ l0 for delamination cracks, which are defined by the energy release
rate for a vertical crack. (In case of a homogeneous material,
the energy release rate of the infinitesimal delamination kink
is 1/4 of that of the vertical crack). The value of G|a/ l0
may exceed GSS at / h = 1, and it depends strongly on
the relative depth /h of the sintering zone. With further delamination crack propagation, G approaches the steady state
value GSS , but does not reach it, due to relatively small
value of l. For a l the energy release rate G approaches
zero (convergent debonding by [63]). In view of these tendencies, the existence of a maximum in the G(a) curves, as
shown in Fig. 23, is obviously necessary. In contrast to /h,
the loading parameter S has no influence on G(a)/GSS .
In reality, the geometry parameter l is more or less random. The experiments show that the average half distance
between vertical cracks is about equal to the TBC thickness
h. The value l = 1.5 h was assumed in [51]. G depends on
l/h as shown in Fig. 24. (Note also the convergence of the
curves for a l.) The case l = h is considered here in de0,3
/h=0.7
/h=0.6
/h=0.5
/h=0.4
/h=0.3
G / GSS
0,2
0,1
0,0
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
/h=0.2
0,5
l/h=1.5
0,4
0,3
G / GSS
14
0,2
l/h =1.0
0,1
0,0
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
H.-A. Bahr et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 216
150
100
Non-graded coating
GC=63N/m
50
15
S=0.4%
/h=0.8
0
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
(a)
150
Graded coating
GC>81 N/m
100
S=0.4%
50
/h=0.8
0
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
(b)
100
S=0.5%
/h=0.9
80
60
S=0.4%
/h=0.8
40
Unstable
delamination
20
GC
Stable
delamination
S=0.3%
0
0,2
Acknowledgements
/h=0.7
0,0
4. Conclusions
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,0
The authors thank the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) for support within the priority program
Gradientenwerkstoffe and the Deutsches Zentrum fr
Luft- und Raumfahrt (DLR) Kln for supplying sample
material.
16
H.-A. Bahr et al. / Materials Science and Engineering A362 (2003) 216
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]
[23]
[24]
[25]
[26]
[27]
[28]
[29]
[30]
[31]
[32]
[33]
[34]
[35]
[36]
[37]
[38]
[39]