Taxila

For genus of butteries, see Taxila haquinus.

that the city may have grown signicantly during the

Achaemenid Empire of the 6th century BCE. Owing to its
strategic location, Taxila has changed hands many times
over the centuries from Iranian, to Indo-Greek and as last
Indian rule, with many empires vying for its control. It
had an Indo-Iranian society encompassing dierent religions.

Taxila or Takshashila (IAST: Takail meaning City

of Cut Stone or Taka Rock) is a town and an important archaeological site in Rawalpindi District of Punjab,
Pakistan. Taxila is situated about 32 km (20 mi) northwest of Islamabad and Rawalpindi, just o the famous
Grand Trunk Road. The town lies 549 metres (1,801 ft) Historically, Takail lay at the crossroads of three maabove sea level. It is the headquarters of the Taxila Tehsil jor ancient trade routes. In 516 BC, Darius embarked
in Rawalpindi district.
on a campaign to Central Asia, Ariana and Bactria and
Ancient Taxila was situated at the pivotal junction of then marched into Afghanistan to Hindush in modern
South Asia and Central Asia. Some of the earliest ruins Pakistan. Darius I spent the winter of 516-515 BCE in
in this area date to the time of the Achaemenid Empire Gandhara, preparing to conquer the[18]Indus Valley. Darius
I conquered the Indus in 515 BCE. Darius I controlled
in the 6th century BCE.
the Indus Valley from Gandhara to modern Karachi and
Owing to its strategic location, Taxila has changed hands appointed the Greek Scylax of Caryanda to explore the
many times over the centuries, with many empires vy- Indian Ocean from the mouth of the Indus to the Suez.
ing for its control. When the great ancient trade routes Darius then marched through the Bolan Pass and returned
connecting these regions ceased to be important, the city through Arachosia and Drangiana back to Persia.
sank into insignicance and was nally destroyed by the
nomadic Huns in the 5th century. The renowned archaeologist Sir Alexander Cunningham rediscovered the ruins of Takail in the mid-19th century. In 1980, Taxila
was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site.[2] In 2006
it was ranked as the top tourist destination in Pakistan by
The Guardian newspaper.[3]
By some accounts, Taxila was considered to be amongst
the earliest universities in the world.[4][5][6][7][8] Others do
not consider it a university in the modern sense, in that the
teachers living there may not have had ocial membership of particular colleges, and there did not seem to have
existed purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters
in Takshashila,[9][10][11] in contrast to the later Nalanda
university in eastern India.[11][12][13]

In a 2010 report, Global Heritage Fund identied Taxila as one of 12 worldwide sites most On the Verge of
irreparable loss and damage, citing insucient manage- Eastern border of the Achaemenid Empire
ment, development pressure, looting, and war and conict
as primary threats.[14]
Legend has it that Takail derived its name from Taka,
who was the son of Bharata, the brother of the Hindu
deity Rama.[4]

References in ancient texts

When the men of Alexander the Great

came to Taxila in India in the fourth century
BC they found a university there the like of
which had not been seen in Greece, a university
which taught the three Vedas and the eighteen
accomplishments and was still existing when
the Chinese pilgrim Fa-Hsien went there about

See also: Achaemenid invasion of the Indus Valley

Scattered references in later works indicated that Taxila may have dated back to at least the 8th century
BCE.[15][16][17] Archaeological excavations later showed
1

2 POLITICAL HISTORY
Dharmananda Kosambi, Takail is related to Takaka,
Sanskrit for carpenter, and is an alternative name for
the Nga, a non-Indo-Iranian people of ancient India.[21]
In the great Hindu epic, the Mahbhrata, the Kuru
Kingdom's heir, Parikit (grandson of the Arjuna) was
enthroned at Takail.[22] Traditionally, it is believed
that the Mahabharata was rst recited at Takail by
Vaisampayana, student of Vyasa at the behest of the seer
Vyasa himself, at the Snake Sacrice.[23]

Taxila is in western Punjab, and was an important city during

Alexanders campaign in ancient India.

Taxila is also described in some detail in the Buddhist

Jataka tales.[24] The Jataka literature mentions it as the
capital of the kingdom of Gandhara and as a great centre of learning. The Chinese monk Faxian, writing of
his visit to Taxila in 405, mentions the kingdom of Takshasila, meaning the Severed Head. He says that this
name was derived from an event in the life of Buddha
because this is the place where he gave his head to a
man.[25] Xuanzang, another Chinese monk, visited Taxila in 630 and in 643. It appears to have already been
overrun by the Huns and been in ruins by his time. Taxila is called Taxiala in Ptolemys Geography.[26] In the
Historia Trium Regum (History of the Three Kings) composed by John of Hildesheim around 1375, the city is
called Egrisilla.[27]

Panorama of site

2 Political history
See also: Taxila (satrapy)

Statue of a Hellenistic couple excavated in Taxila (IV).

AD 400.[19]
Takas kingdom was called Taka Khanda and its capital
that he founded was named Takail.[20]
According to another theory propounded by Damodar

The northern road the later Grand Trunk or GT

Road the royal road which connected Gandhara
in the west to the kingdom of Magadha and its capital Paliputra in the Ganges valley in eastern India.
This trade route was described by the Greek writer
Megasthenes as the Royal Highway.
The north-western route through Bactria, Kpia,
and Pukalvat. This route connected Taxila with
the western Asia.

3
rians accompanying Alexander described Taxila as
wealthy, prosperous, and well governed.
Shapur I of the Sassanid Empire during the 3rd century CE, which is later recorded in the 6th century CE in the form of Avagn" by the Indian astronomer Varha Mihira in his Brihat-samhita. It
was used to refer to a common legendary ancestor
known as Afghana, propagated to be grandson of
King Saul of Israel.
321317 BCE - Chandragupta Maurya, founder
of the Mauryan empire, makes himself master of
northern and north-western India, including Panjab.
Chandragupta Mauryas advisor Kautilya (also
known as Chanakya) was a teacher at Takail. Under Chandragupta, Taxila became a provincial capital.

The street scene Taxila A.D. 260

The Indus route from Kashmir and Central Asia,

via ri nagara, Mansehra, and the Haripur valley[28]
across the Khunjerab Pass to the Silk Road in the
north to the Indian Ocean in the south. The Khunjerab passes between Kashmir and Xinjiangthe
current Karakoram highwayand was traversed in
antiquity.
There are carbon dates c. 2550-2288 BCE for the
earliest settlement at Taxila (in the Hathial area),
with ties to the nearby Sarai Khola, an earlier site.[29]
Also, some early Indus period culture and relics.
Pottery shards were found in this area. Pottery
dated c. 900 BCE shows ties between Taxila and
Charsadda (ancient Pushkalavati),[30] also in the
kingdom of Gandhara.[31]
c. 518 BCE, or perhaps earlier Darius the Great already part Takail to the Achaemenid Empire.[32]
Taxila, as the capital of Gandhara satrapy, was evidently under Achaemenian rule for more than a century.
486 - 465 BC Xerxes I or in Hebrew Ahasuerus
ruled this part of Takail and was part of the easternmost regions of the Achaemenid Empire.

During the reign of Chandraguptas grandson

Aoka, Takail became a great Buddhist centre of
learning. Nonetheless, Takail was briey the centre of a minor local rebellion, subdued only a few
years after its onset.[33] Ashoka encouraged trade by
building roads, most notably a highway of more than
1,600 kilometers (1,000 miles) linking his capital
Pataliputra with Taxila.
185 BCE The last Maurya emperor, Bhadratha,
is assassinated by his general, Pushyamitra Shunga,
during a parade of his troops.[34]
2nd century BCE - After three generations of Maurya rule, Taxila was annexed by the Indo-Greek
kingdom of Bactria. Indo-Greeks build new capital, Sirkap, on the opposite bank of the river
from Takail.[35] During this new period of Bactrian Greek rule, several dynasties (like Antialcidas)
likely ruled from the city as their capital. During lulls in Greek rule, the city managed protably
on its own, to independently control several local
trade guilds, who also minted most of the citys autonomous coinage.
c. 90 BCE The Indo-Scythian (Sakas) chief Maues
overthrows the last Greek king of Takail.[36]
c. 20 BCE Gondophares, founder of the IndoParthian Kingdom, conquers Takail and makes it
his capital.[37]
c. 46 AD According to early Christian legend, Thomas the Apostle visits king Gondophares
IV.[38][39]

Buddhist literature, especially the Jatakas, mentions

Taxila as the capital of the kingdom of Gandhara.

Neo-Pythagorean sage Apollonius of Tyana visits

Taxila. His biographer described Taxila as a fortied city that was laid out on a symmetrical plan and
compared it in size to Nineveh.

326 BCE Alexander the Great receives submission

of ruler of Taxila, Omphis (mbhi).[32] Greek histo-

76 The date of and inscription found at Taxila

of Great King, King of Kings, Son of God, the

3 ANCIENT CENTRE OF LEARNING

Kushana".[40] Taxila was taken from the Parthians
by the Kushans under Kujula Kadphises. The great
Kushan ruler Kanishka later founded "Sirsukh", the
third city on the site.

codied the rules that would dene Classical Sanskrit, has

also been part of the community at Takshashila.[48]

186364 and 187273 - Excavations begun by

Alexander Cunningham identied a local site known
as Saraikhala (or Sarai Khola) with ancient Taxila.
Prior to that, the location of the ancient city of Taxila, known from literary texts, was uncertain.

By some accounts, Taxilla was considered to be amongst

the earliest universities in the world.[4][5][6][7][8] Others do
not consider it a university in the modern sense, in that the
teachers living there may not have had ocial membership of particular colleges, and there did not seem to have
existed purpose-built lecture halls and residential quarters
in Takshashila,[9][10][11] in contrast to the later Nalanda
University.[11][12][13]

The institution is signicant in Buddhist tradition since it

is believed that the Mahyna branch of Buddhism took
4th century CE: the Sasanian king Shapur II seems shape there. Jivaka, the court physician of the Magadha
to have conquered Taxila, as evidenced by the nu- emperor Bimbisara who once cured the Buddha, and the
enlightened ruler of Kosala, Prasenajit, are some impormerous Sasanian copper coins found there.
tant personalities mentioned in Pali texts who studied at
[49]
c. 460470 CE The Hephthalites (the Huns) Takshashila.
sweep over Gandhra and Punjab; and cause wholesale destruction of the Buddhist monasteries and
stupas at Takail, which never again recovers.[41] 3.2 Nature of education

Ancient centre of learning

Main article: Ancient higher-learning institutions

Takshashila became a noted centre of learning (including
the religious teachings of Hinduism) at least several centuries BCE, and continued to attract students from around
the old world until the destruction of the city in the 5th
century. At its height, it has been suggested that Takshashila exerted a sort of intellectual suzerainty over
other centres of learning in India.,[7] and its primary concern was not with elementary, but higher education.[8]
Generally, a student entered Takshashila at the age of
sixteen. The Vedas, the ancient and the most revered
Hindu scriptures, and the Eighteen Silpas or Arts, which
included skills such as archery, hunting, and elephant
lore, were taught, in addition to its law school, medical
school, and school of military science.[42] Students came
to Takshashila from far-o places such as Kashi, Kosala
and Magadha, in spite of the long and arduous journey
they had to undergo, on account of the excellence of the
learned teachers there, all recognized as authorities on
their respective subjects.[43][44]

3.1

Notable students and teachers

No external authorities like kings or local leaders subjected the scholastic activities at Takshashila to their control. Each teacher formed his own institution, enjoying
complete autonomy in work, teaching as many students
as he liked and teaching subjects he liked without conforming to any centralized syllabus. Study terminated
when the teacher was satised with the students level
of achievement. In general, specialisation in a subject
took around eight years, though this could be lengthened
or shortened in accordance with the intellectual abilities
and dedication of the student in question. In most cases
the schools were located within the teachers private
houses, and at times students were advised to quit their
studies if they were unable to t into the social, intellectual and moral atmosphere there.[50]
Knowledge was considered too sacred to be bartered for
money, and hence any stipulation that fees ought to be
paid was vigorously condemned. Financial support came
from the society at large, as well as from rich merchants
and wealthy parents. Though the number of students
studying under a single Guru sometimes numbered in the
hundreds, teachers did not deny education even if the student was poor; free boarding and lodging was provided,
and students had to do manual work in the household.
Paying students like princes were taught during the day;
non-paying ones, at night.[51] Guru Dakshina was usually
expected at the completion of a students studies, but it
was essentially a mere token of respect and gratitude many times being nothing more than a turban, a pair of
sandals, or an umbrella. In cases of poor students being unable to aord even that, they could approach the
king, who would then step in and provide something. Not
providing a poor student a means to supply his Gurus
Dakshina was considered the greatest slur on a Kings
reputation.[52]

Takshashila had great inuence on the Hindu culture and

the Sanskrit language. It is perhaps best known because of its association with Chanakya, also known as
Kautilya, the strategist who guided Chandragupta Maurya
and assisted in the founding of the Mauryan empire. The
Arthashastra (Sanskrit for The knowledge of Economics)
of Chanakya, is said to have been composed in Takshashila itself.[45][46] The Ayurvedic healer Charaka also
studied at Taxila.[42] He also started teaching at Taxila in
the later period.[47] The ancient grammarian Pini, who Examinations were treated as superuous, and not consid-

5
ered part of the requirements to complete ones studies.
The process of teaching was critical and thorough- unless
one unit was mastered completely, the student was not allowed to proceed to the next. No convocations were held
upon completion, and no written degrees were awarded,
since it was believed that knowledge was its own reward.
Using knowledge for earning a living or for any selsh
end was considered sacrilegious.[50]
Students arriving at Takshashila usually had completed
their primary education at home (until the age of eight),
and their secondary education in the Ashrams (between
the ages of eight and twelve), and therefore came to Takshashila chiey to reach the ends of knowledge in specic
disciplines.[53]

Ruins

2nd millennium BCE to the 6th century BCE. Bhir

Mound dates from the 6th century BCE and has
Northern Black Polished Ware.
The second city of Taxila is located at Sirkap and
was built by Greco-Bactrian kings in the 2nd century
BCE.
The third and last city of Taxila is at Sirsukh and
relates to the Kushan rulers.
In addition to the ruins of the city, a number of buddhist monasteries and stupas also belong to the Taxila
area. Some of the important ruins of this category include
the ruins of the stupa at Dharmarajika, the monastery at
Jaulian, the monastery at Mohra Muradu in addition to a
number of stupas.

5 Culture
Taxila is a mix of wealthy urban and rustic rural environs. Urban residential areas are in the form of small
neat and clean colonies populated by the workers of heavy
mechanical complex & heavy industries, educational institutes and hospitals that are located in the area. The
city has many educational institutes including CIIT Wah
Campus, HITEC University and the University of Engineering and Technology Taxila.
In addition to the ruins of ancient Taxila, relics of Mughal
gardens and vestiges of historical Grand Trunk Road,
which was built by Emperor Sher Shah Suri in 15th16th
Map of Taxila
centuries, are also found in Taxila region. Nicholsons
The British archaeologist Sir John Marshall (1876-1958) Obelisk, a monument of British colonial era situated at
conducted excavations over a period of twenty years in the Grand Trunk road welcomes the travellers coming
from Rawalpindi/Islamabad into Taxila. The monument
Taxila.[54]
was built by the British to pay tribute to Brigadier John
Nicholson (18221857) an ocer of the British army
who died in India during the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
4.1 Sarai Kala
Taxila Museum, dedicated mainly to the remains of anThis is an archaeological site 3 km southwest of Taxila
cient Taxila, is also situated in the city.
that has the earliest occupation, and preserves Neolithic
remains going back to 3360 BC. It also has Early Harappan remains of 2900-2600 BC. A later settlement in this
6 Industry
area has parallels with Hathial in the Taxila area.[55]
The industries include heavy machine factories and industrial complex, Pakistan Ordnance Factories at Wah
Cantt and the cement factory. Heavy Industries TaxThe ruins of Taxila contain buildings and Buddhist stupas ila and Heavy Mechanical Complexes are also based
located over a large area. The main ruins of Taxila are di- here. Small, cottage and household industries include
vided into three major cities, each belonging to a distinct stoneware, pottery and footwear.
time period.

4.2

Other sites

The oldest of these is the Hathial area, which yielded

surface shards similar to Red Burnished Ware (or
soapy red ware) recovered from early phases at
Charsaddathese may date from as early as the late

A coin from 2nd century BCE Taxila.

The Indo-Greek king Antialcidas ruled in Taxila
around 100 BCE, according to the Heliodorus pillar inscription.

8
Jaulian, a World Heritage Site at Taxila.
Jaulian silver Buddhist reliquary, with content.
British Museum.
Stupa base at Sirkap, decorated with Hindu, Buddhist and Greek temple fronts.
Stupa in Taxila.
A Taxila coin, 200100 BCE. British Museum.

Further information: Taxila Tehsil

REFERENCES

8 References
[1] S. K. Agarwal (1 September 2008). Towards Improving
Governance. Academic Foundation. p. 17. ISBN 97881-7188-666-1. Retrieved 2012-06-06.
[2] UNESCO World Heritage Site, 1980. Taxila: Multiple
Locations. Retrieved 13 January 2007.
[3] Windsor, Antonia (17 October 2006). Out of the rubble. The Guardian (London). Retrieved 24 May 2010.
[4] Needham, Joseph (2004). Within the Four Seas: The Dialogue of East and West. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-36166-4.
[5] Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004). A History of India (4th ed.). Routledge. ISBN 0-415-32919-1.
In the early centuries the centre of Buddhist scholarship
was the University of Taxila.
[6] Balakrishnan Muniapan, Junaid M. Shaikh (2007),
Lessons in corporate governance from Kautilyas
Arthashastra in ancient India, World Review of Entrepreneurship, Management and Sustainable Development
3 (1):
Kautilya was also a Professor of Politics
and Economics at Taxila University. Taxila
University is one of the oldest known universities in the world and it was the chief learning
centre in ancient India.
[7] Radha Kumud Mookerji (2nd ed. 1951; reprint 1989),
''Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist
(p. 478), Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN 81-208-0423-6:

Archaeological artifacts from the Indo-Greek strata at Taxila

(John Marshall Taxila, Archeological excavations). From top,
left: * Fluted cup (Bhir Mound, stratum 1) * Cup with rosace
and decoratice scroll (Bhir Mound, stratum 1) * Stone palette
with individual on a couch being crowned by standing woman,
and served (Sirkap, stratum 5) * Handle with double depiction of
a philosopher (Sirkap, stratum 5) * Woman with smile (Sirkap,
stratum 5) * Man with moustache (Sirkap, stratum 5)

See also
List of UNESCO World Heritage Sites in Pakistan
Taxila Museum
Harappa
Mohenjo-daro
Gandhara
Nalanda

Thus the various centres of learning in

dierent parts of the country became aliated, as it were, to the educational centre, or
the central university, of Taxila which exercised a kind of intellectual suzerainty over the
wide world of letters in India.
[8] Radha Kumud Mookerji (2nd ed. 1951; reprint 1989),
Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist (p.
479), Motilal Banarsidass Publ., ISBN 81-208-0423-6:
This shows that Taxila was a seat not of
elementary, but higher, education, of colleges
or a university as distinguished from schools.
[9] Anant Sadashiv Altekar (1934; reprint 1965), Education
in Ancient India, Sixth Edition, Revised & Enlarged,
Nand Kishore & Bros, Varanasi:
It may be observed at the outset that
Taxila did not possess any colleges or university in the modern sense of the term.
[10] F. W. Thomas (1944), in John Marshall (1951; 1975
reprint), Taxila, Motilal Banarsidass, Delhi:

We come across several Jtaka stories

about the students and teachers of Takshail, but not a single episode even remotely
suggests that the dierent 'world renowned'
teachers living in that city belonged to a particular college or university of the modern
type.
[11] Taxila (2007), Encyclopdia Britannica:
Taxila, besides being a provincial seat,
was also a centre of learning. It was not a university town with lecture halls and residential
quarters, such as have been found at Nalanda
in the Indian state of Bihar.
Archived 22 December 2007 at the Wayback Machine
[12] Nalanda (2007). Encarta.

[29] Raymond Allchin, Bridget Allchin, The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan. Cambridge University Press,
1982 p.127 ISBN 052128550X
[30] http://a.harappa.com/sites/g/files/g65461/f/
CulturesSocietiesIndusTrad.pdf
[31] Mohan Pant, Shji Funo, Stupa and Swastika: Historical Urban Planning Principles in Nepals Kathmandu Valley. NUS Press, 2007 ISBN 9971693720, citing Allchin:
1980
[32] Marshall, John (1975) [1951]. Taxila: Volume I. Delhi:
Motilal Banarsidass. p. 83.
[33] Thapar 1997
[34] Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (1998). A History of India (3rd ed.). London: Routledge. p. 68. ISBN
0-415-15481-2.
[35] Kulke and Rothermund 1998:70

[13] Nalanda (2001). Columbia Encyclopedia.

[14] Global Heritage Fund | GHF
[15] UNESCO World Heritage Centre: Taxila
[16] Scharfe, Hartmut (2002). Education in Ancient India.
Brill Academic Publishers. p. 141. ISBN 90-04-125566.
[17] History of Education, Encyclopdia Britannica, 2007.
[18] Darius the Great

[36] arshall 1975:84

[37] Marshall 1975:85
[38] Medlycott, A.E. (1905). The Apostle Thomas and Gondophares the Indian King. India and the Apostle Thomas.
London: David Nutt.
[39] Medlycott, A.E. India and the Apostle Thomas in George
Menachery ed., Indian Church History Classics Vol.I, Ollur
1998.
[40] Kulke and Rothermund 1998:75

[19] Needham 2004.

[41] Marshall 1975:86

[20] Invasion of the Genes Genetic Heritage of India, By B. S.

Ahloowalia. p81

[42] Radha Kumud Mookerji (2nd ed. 1951; reprint 1989).

Ancient Indian Education: Brahmanical and Buddhist (p.
478-489). Motilal Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 81-208-04236.

[21] Kosambi 1975:129

[22] Kosambi, Damodar Dharmanand (1975) [1956]. An Introduction to the Study of Indian History (Revised Second
ed.). Bombay: Popular Prakashan. p. 126.
[23] Britannica Online Encyclopedia, article:Taxila. The
great Indian epic Mahabharata was, according to tradition,
rst recited at Taxila at the great snake sacrice of King
Janamejaya, one of the heroes of the story.
[24] Marshall 1975:81

[43] Political and social movements in ancient Panjab (from

the Vedic age up to the Maurya period), by Buddha
Prakash (Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi, 1964)"Students from Magadha traversed the vast distances of northern India in order to join the schools and colleges of
Takshashila. We learn from Pali texts that Brahmana
youths, Khattiya princes and sons of setthis from Rajagriha, Kashi, Kosala and other places went to Takshashila
for learning the Vedas and eighteen sciences and arts.

[25] A Record of Buddhistic Kingdoms, Being an Account by the

Chinese Monk Fa-Hien of his Travels in India and Ceylon
in Search of the Buddhist Books of Discipline, Chapter 11

[44] Universities in Ancient India, by DG Apte. Page 9

[26] J. W. McCrindle, The Invasion of India by Alexander

the Great as Described by Arrian, Q. Curtius, Diodorus,
Plutarch and Justin, Westminster, Constable, 1893,
pp.343-344.

[46] Radhakumud Mookerji (1941; 1960; reprint 1989).

Chandragupta Maurya and His Times (p. 17). Motilal
Banarsidass Publ. ISBN 81-208-0405-8.

[45] Kautilya. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Archived 10 January

2008 at the Wayback Machine

[47] Takshila university. Retrieved 1 April 2012.

[27] Frank Schaer, The Three Kings of Cologne, Heidelberg,
Winter, 2000, Middle English Texts no.31, p.196.
[28] Thapar, Romila (1997) [1961]. Aoka and the Decline of
the Mauryas. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 237.
ISBN 0-19-563932-4.

[48] Political and social movements in ancient Panjab (from

the Vedic age up to the Maurya period), by Buddha
Prakash (Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi, 1964)."Pini
and Kautilya, two masterminds of ancient times, were also
brought up in the academic traditions of Takshashila

[49] Political and social movements in ancient Panjab (from

the Vedic age up to the Maurya period), by Buddha
Prakash (Motilal Banarsidass, New Delhi, 1964)"Likewise, Jivaka, the famous physician of Bimbisara who
cured the Buddha, learnt the science of medicine under
a far-famed teacher at Takshashila and on his return was
appointed court-physician at Magadha. Another illustrious product of Takshashila was the enlightened ruler of
Kosala, Prasenajit, who is intimately associated with the
events of the time of the Buddha.
[50] Universities in Ancient India, by D.G Apte. Page 9-10.
[51] Universities in Ancient India, by D.G Apte. Page 16-17.
[52] Universities in Ancient India, by D.G Apte. Page 18-19.
[53] Universities in Ancient India, by D.G Apte. Page 11.
[54] Marshall, Sir John (1918). A Guide to Taxila. Calcutta:
Government Press.
[55] Raymond Allchin, Bridget Allchin, The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan. Cambridge University Press,
1982 p.127 ISBN 052128550X

External links
Taxila: An Ancient Indian University by S. Srikanta
Sastri
Explore Taxila with Google Earth on Global Heritage Network
Guide to Historic Taxila by Professor Dr. Ahmad
Hasan Dani in 10 chapters
Taxila, by Jona Lendering
Some photos by Umayr Sahlan Masud
Taxila page from punjab-info
Travel With Young Taxila
Map of Gandhara archeological sites, from the
Huntington Collection, Ohio State University (large
le)
Taxila Museum and Jaulian Monastery, by
Saadullah Bashir
John Marshall, A guide to Taxila (1918) on
Archive.org

EXTERNAL LINKS

10

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

10.1

Text

Taxila Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxila?oldid=691984679 Contributors: Danny, Olivier, Shyamal, Skysmith, Ahoerstemeier,

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Radulovich, Everyking, Sukh, Per Honor et Gloria, Jason Quinn, Kukkurovaca, Cosal868, Utcursch, Antandrus, Pavankp, D6, Bender235,
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Hazard-Bot, Pakistan Zindabad 2010, ClueBot NG, Jack Greenmaven, MIKHEIL, Snotbot, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, AnsarParacha,
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10.2

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File:AlexanderIndiaMap.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/39/AlexanderIndiaMap.jpg License: Public

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File:Map_of_Taxila_-_The_ancient_geography_of_India,_Volume_1_-_Sir_Alexander_Cunningham_-_pg46.jpg
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10

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File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?

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