Characteristics of time-dependent

measurand

Classification of time dependent

measurands

Examples of time-dependent functions

Simple harmonic relation

Any two variables can have a simple harmonic relation if the
second derivative of one w.r.t. the other is related to the
function itself.
e.g. if the distance of a circular motion is described by
x A sin t
the first derivative (velocity) is
x
v
A cos t
t
and the second derivative (acceleration) is
v
a
A 2 sin t
t
where is called the circular frequency ( rad/s)
while, the cyclic frequency (cycle per second, Hertz, f)is given by
=2 f

The scotch-Yoke mechanism

It illustrates the definition of both cyclic and
circular frequency
When the mass block rotates a complete
cycle in a time t
The number of cycles per time (cyclic
frequency) is calculated by
f=1/t
while the circular frequency is
=2f
Example:
given that the time of one cycle is 0.2 sec
what is the cyclic and circular frequency
F=1/t=5 cycle/sec (Hz)
= 2*3.14*5=31.4 rad/s
=31.4*57.3 degree/sec

One cycle t=1/f

The mass is oscillating between two

peaks to form a harmonic motion.

Phase difference

In this case both of the mass block and the piston

have the same frequency, but they may have a
phase shift, i. e. there is a difference between the
start and end points for their cycles.

Different units for cyclic motion

Angular frequency

(Ordinary) frequency

2 radians per second

exactly 1 hertz (Hz)

1 radian per second

approximately 0.159155 Hz

1 radian per second

approximately 57.29578 degrees

per second

1 radian per second

approximately 9.5493 revolutions

per minute (rpm)

0.1047 radian per second

approximately 1 rpm

Fourier Analysis
Putting any function in the form of the summation of its
trigonometric components (Sinusoidal functions).
The special case is when the function is itself a periodic function.
Then the Fourier series is used to transform it to a summation of
infinity number of sines and cosines.
The more general case is when the function is not periodic, then the
Fourier transform is the way to analyze it to its sinusoidal
constituents

The analogy of Fourier transform in

nature

A complex function can be represented as a summation of several more simple

sinusoidal functions. This is analogous to the analysis of the white light to many
simpler sinusoidal frequency-dependent components.

Mathematical representation of periodic

measurand
Any periodic function can be represented in terms of
its sinusoidal components. This is the main purpose
of Fourier series analysis

f t A0 An cos nt Bn sin nt
n 1

where

t
n
A0

is the circular frequency

is time
is the number of the harmonic
is the constant component

is the variating component

An , Bn

are the coefficients for each frequency component of the signal

Trigonometric identities
Using the relations between the
trigonometric functions, the
representation of the periodic
functions can be simplified to:

f t A0 An cos nt Bn sin nt
n 1

can be written as

f t A0 Cn cos( nt )

A0

n 1

or

An

f t A0 Cn sin( nt * )
n 1

Bn

where
Cn

An2 Bn2

tan

Bn
An

1
T
2
T
2
T

T
2

f t dt

T
2
T
2

f t

cos( nt ) dt

T
2
T
2

f t

sin( nt ) dt

T
2

where

, tan
*

An
Bn

n 1, 2,3,......

and T is the periof of f t i.e. T=

1 2

Even and odd functions

The definition of even and odd functions:
If f(-t) = f(t) it is an even function (e.g cos
If f (-t)= - f(t) it is an odd function (e.g. sin
It is helpful when you are going to calculate the coefficients of
Fourier series.
If the function is even then all sins part will be zero. On the other
hand, if the function is odd then all cosins part is zero.
So for even functions
f (t )

A
n 1

cos nt

and for odd functions

f (t )

B
n 1

sin nt

Example to find Fourier series coefficients

for a periodic function
From the first look This is an odd function, why?
Then the function can be represented by

f (t ) Bn sin nt
n 1

while the frequency and the period can be concluded from the
drawing as
f

1 1

0.1 Hertz
T 10

and

=2 f 2 * 3.14 * 0.1 0.628 rad/sec

The coefficients (1 , 2 , 3 , . ) are calculated as follows:

Bn

2
T

T
2

f t

T
2

sin(nt ) dt

0
5
2
2

nt

2 nt
Bn 1 sin
dt 1 sin
dt
10 5
10
10
0
0
5

2 10
10
2 nt
2 nt
=
cos
cos


10 2 n
10 5 2 n
10 0
2 10
4
=
1 cos n cos n 1

10 2 n
n

then the function can be written as

2
f t sin

10
4

4
6 4
10
t
sin
t
sin
t .........
3
10 5
10

Periodic Function interpretation

Heterodyne and beat frequencies

This is a useful phenomenon that resulted when two signals that have the same
amplitude and close frequencies are mixed. Then two new frequencies are generated.

One important application based on this phenomenon is mixing the high frequency
from broadcast stations with a local oscillator signal that have a close frequency signal.
The output will contain a high and low frequency components. By filtering the high
frequency component, the lower frequency signal that is easier in dealing with can be
used to extract data.

Frequency spectrum

Frequency spectrum

Steps for Fourier transform

the sampling frequency, Nyquist frequency and
resolution

Effect of sampling frequency and number of samples on

frequency analysis

 > 2

FT of common function

Sine wave is represented by a impulse in the frequency domain at its own frequency

FT of common function

An impulse is represented by a constant value over all the frequency range (real part is a cosine, imaginary one
a sine)

FT of common function
Rectangular windows are represented by a sinc wave in the frequency domain (this
explains a lot in frequency analysis)

Leakage and windowing

To limit this effect a different set a windows can
be chosen, depending on what is required

One commonly used is the hanning one