First Fitna

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First Fitna

Part of the Islamic Civil Wars

Region under the control of the Rashidun (Ali ibn Abi Talib)
Region under the control of Muawiyah I
Region under the control of Amr ibn al-As
Date
Location
Result

656661
Arabian peninsula
Rebellion successful, peace treaty signed;
Muawiya I begins the Umayyad dynasty

Belligerents
Rashidun Caliphate

Aisha's forces
Muawiya's forces

Commanders and leaders

Ali ibn Abi Talib

Aisha bint Abu Bakr

Ammar ibn Yasir

Talha ibn Ubayd-Allah

Malik al-Ashtar

Zubair ibn al-Awam

Muawiya I
'Amr ibn al-'As[b]

a.

The Kharijites were a portion of Ali's supporters that

defected and later opposed both parties.

[show]

First
Islamic
Civil War
[show]

Civil wars of
the early Caliphates

The First Fitna or Great Fitna (Arabic: Fitnat Maqtal Uthmn, "The Fitna of the Killing of
Uthman") was a civil war within the early Islamic state which resulted in the overthrowing of
the Rashidun caliphs and the establishment of the Umayyad dynasty. It began when the
caliph Uthman ibn Affan was assassinated by Egyptian rebels in 656 and continued through the fouryear reign of Uthman's successor Ali ibn Abi Talib. It ended in 661 when Ali's heir Hasan ibn
Ali concluded a treaty acknowledging the rule of Muawiyah, the firstUmayyad caliph.
[1]

Contents
[hide]

1 Background

2 Two Family tree of some of the people involved

3 Sabaites, Qurra and the Kharijities

o

3.1 Sunni view of Uthman

3.2 Before hostilities

4 Battle of the Camel

5 Battle of Siffin

6 Appointment of Arbitrators

7 Peace treaty with Hassan

8 After the peace treaty with Hassan the siege of Constantinople

o

8.1 Siege of Constantinople

9 Expansion into North Africa

10 Expeditions after the peace treaty with Hassan

11 His appointment of his son as the next Caliph

12 Many years later: Marwan and Kharijites rule

13 Reforming the Umayyad rule peacefully from the inside

14 Footnotes

15 References

16 Further reading

Background[edit]
Main article: Siege of Uthman
The Islamic State expanded very quickly under Muhammad and the first three caliphs. Local
populations of Jews and indigenous Christians, marginalized as religious minorities and taxed
heavily to finance the ByzantineSassanid Wars, often aided Muslims to take over their lands from
the Byzantines and Persians, resulting in exceptionally speedy conquests. As new areas joining
the Islamic State, they also benefited from free trade while trading with other areas in the Islamic
State; so as to encourage commerce, in Islam trade is not taxed, wealth is taxed. The Muslims
paid Zakat on their wealth to the poor. Since the Constitution of Medina was drafted by the Islamic
prophet Muhammad, the Jews and the Christians continued to use their own laws in the Islamic
State and had their own judges. Therefore they only paid for policing for the protection of their
property. To assist in the quick expansion of the state, the Byzantine and the Persian tax collection
systems were maintained and the people paid a poll tax lower than the one imposed under the
Byzantines and the Persians. Before Muhammad united the Arabs, they had been divided and the
Byzantines and the Sassanid had their own client tribes that they would pay to fight on their behalf.
[2][3]

[4]

[5][6][7]

In 639 Muawiyah I was appointed the Governor of Syria by Umar after his elder brother Yazid ibn Abi
Sufyan (Governor of Syria) died in a plague, along with Abu Ubaidah ibn al-Jarrah (the Governor
before him) and 25,000 other people. To stop the Byzantine harassment from the sea during
the Arab-Byzantine Wars, in 649 Muawiyah set up a navy, manned by Monophysitise
Christian, Copt and Jacobite Syrian Christian sailors and Muslim troops. This resulted in the defeat
of the Byzantine navy at the Battle of the Masts in 655, opening up the Mediterranean.
500
Byzantine ships were destroyed in the battle, and EmperorConstans II was almost killed. Under the
instructions of the caliph Uthman ibn Affan, Muawiyah then prepared for the siege of Constantinople.
[8][9][10][11][12]

The rapid Muslim conquest of Syria and Egypt and the consequent Byzantine losses in manpower
and territory meant that the Eastern Roman Empire found itself struggling for survival. The Sassanid
Dynasty in Persia had already collapsed.
The Quran and Muhammad talked about racial equality and justice as in The Farewell Sermon.
Tribal and nationalistic differences were discouraged. However, after Muhammad's passing the
old tribal differences among the Arabs started to resurface. Following the RomanPersian Wars and
theByzantineSassanid Wars, deep-rooted differences between Iraq, formerly under the
Persian Sassanid Empire and Syria, formerly under the Byzantine Empire, also existed. Each
wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area. Previously, the second
caliph Umar was very firm on the governors and his spies kept an eye on them. If he felt that a
governor or a commander was becoming attracted to wealth or did not meet the required
administrative standards, he had him removed from his position.

[13][14][15][16]

[17][18][19]

[20]

[21]

Early Muslim armies stayed in encampments away from cities because Umar feared that they might
get attracted to wealth and luxury. In the process, they might get away from the worship of God and
start accumulating wealth and establishing dynasties.
"Wealth and children are [but]
adornment of the worldly life. But the enduring good deeds are better to your Lord for reward and
better for [one's] hope." Quran 18:46 "O you who have believed, let not your wealth and your
children divert you from remembrance of Allah. And whoever does that--then those are the losers."
Quran 63:9 Staying in these encampments away from the cities also ensured that there was no
stress on the population, and that the populations remained autonomous and kept their own judges
and representatives. Some of these encampments later grew into cities themselves,
like Basra and Kufa in Iraq and Fustat in Egypt. Some cities also had agreements with the Muslims,
such as during the Siege of Jerusalem in 637 CE.
[22][23][24][25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

As Uthman ibn Affan became very old, Marwan I, a relative of Muawiyah I, slipped into the vacuum
and became his secretary, slowly assuming more control and relaxing some of these
restrictions. Marwan I had previously been excluded from positions of responsibility. Muhammad ibn
Abi Bakr, the son of Abu Bakr and the adopted son of Ali ibn Abi Talib and Muhammad bin Abi
Hudhaifa, the adopted son of Uthman, had no senior positions.
The most controversial governor Uthman appointed was Waleed ibn Uqba, his half-brother, as the
governor of the city of Kufa In the year 30 AH (after Hijra), 650 AD, many Muslims living in the city
of Kufa were angered over Waleed's actions.
Waleed ibn Uqba was then removed and replaced
by Sa'id ibn al-As as the governor in Kufa, in Iraq.
[29]

[30][31]

Two Family tree of some of the people involved[edit]

`Abd Manaf
ibn Qusai

Abd
Shams

Hashim ibn
'Abd
Manaf

Umayya

Abdul
Mutallib

Abu'l-As

Harb

`Abd Allah

Abu Talib

`Abbas(Abbasids)

Muhammad

Ali

`Abd Allah ibn

`Abbas

Affan

AlHakam

Abu
Sufyan

Uthman
ibn Affan

Marwan I

Yazid ibn
Abi
Sufyan

Muawiyah I

Hasan ibn
Ali

Hussein
ibn Ali

Safiyyah bint Abd alMuttalib

Zubayr ibn alAwam

Abd Allah ibn alZubayralso Abu

Bakr's grandson

Yazid ibn
Muawiyah
[32]

Sabaites, Qurra and the Kharijities[edit]

The Islamic empire expanded at an unprecedented rate, but there was a cost associated with it.
Many desert nomads and some bandits living between current-day Iraq and Saudi Arabia also joined
in, not out of commitment to Islam but to share the spoils and benefit from the change in the social
order, after the defeat of the Persian Empire.
[33]

The Qur'an and Muhammad talked about racial equality and justice as in the The Farewell Sermon.
Tribal and nationalistic differences were discouraged. But after Muhammad's passing the
old tribal differences between the Arabs started to resurface.

[13]

[14][34][35][36][37][38]

[show] Timeline

of the

RomanPersian Wars

Byzantine and Persian Sassanid Empires in 600 CE

Before Islam, theRoman-Persian Warsand the ByzantineSasanian wars had occurred every few
years for hundreds of years between 69 BC and 629 AD. High taxes were imposed on the
populations in both the Byzantine Roman and Sassanid Persian empires to finance these wars.
There was also continuous bloodshed of the people during these wars. The Arab tribes in Iraq were
paid by the Persian Sassanids to act as mercenaries, while the Arab tribes in Syria were paid by the
Byzantines to act as their mercenaries. The Persians maintained an Arab satellite state of Lakhm
and the Byzantine Empire maintained the Arab satellite state of Ghassan, which they used to fight
each other. The Syrians and the Iraqis had been fighting each other for centuries. Therefore, each
wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in their area. Later others like the
Lakhm Arabs, many of whom became the Qurra, also wanted to rule Persia.
[39]

[40]

Sects started to form, among them the Sabaites named after Abdala Ben Saba

[41]

At-Tabri (5:66) reported that when a man called "Abdullah ibn Saba" came to Syria, he met Adu
Dharr. He said, "Adu Dharr, aren't you amazed at Muawiya saying, 'The property is the property of
Allah. Doesn't everything belong to Allah?' It seems he means to cut it off from the Muslims and

erase the name of the Muslims!" Adu Dharr therefore went to him and said, "What leads you to call
the property of the Muslims the property of Allah?" Muawiya said, "May Allah have mercy on you,
Adu Dharr! Are we not the slaves of Allah and all property is His property and all creation is His
creation and all the affair is His affair?" Abu Dharr said, "Do not say that." Muawiya said, "I do not
say that it does not belong to Allah, but I say, 'The property of the Muslims'" Adbullah ibn Saba came
back to Abu Dharr. who them said to him, "Who are you? By Allah, I think that you are a Jew." Then
Ibn Saba went to Abdullah ibn as-Samit and attempted to make his discontented. Adbullah took him
to Muawiya and said, "By Allah this is one who sent Abu Dharr to you".
There is also Jewish literature from that time, regarding Adbullah ibn Saba. Much of the Jewish
literature on him from that time regards him as an apostate from Judaism and asks Jews to keep
away from him.
[42][43][44][45]

There was also the movement towards more autonomous tribal groupings, which was particularly
strong in Kufa, in Iraq; they wanted to rule their own states. Among them developed a group called
the Qurra, which later became known as the Kharijities.
[46][47]

The Qurra are referenced in many Hadith from the period of Muhammad, Abu Bakr and Umar in
Sahih Al Bukhari (Volume 6, Book 60, Number 201 and Volume 6, Book 61, Number 509 and
Volume 8, Book 75, Number 403):
The Qurra had taken part in the Battle of Yamama, but they never listened to orders and would start
battles even when they were ordered not to and were heavily outnumbered. At Yamamah Khalid ibn
al-Walid wrote to them and Ikrimah to just observe the forces of Musaylimah at Yamamah, and told
them not to start fighting until he had arrived. Shurahbil bin Hasanah was also dispatched to assist
them. However, even though they were heavily outnumbered, they disobeyed their orders and
started a battle, resulting in their suffering heavy casualties. They later again disobeyed orders and
started the Battle of the Camel and the Battle of Saffin, and did the same against Ali in the Battle of
Nahrawan even through they were heavily outnumbered.
[48]

Sahih Al Bukhari Volume 6, Book 60, Number 201 : Narrated by Zaid bin Thabit Al-Ansari
"...Abu Bakr sent for me after the (heavy) casualties among the warriors (of the battle) of Yamama
(where a great number of qurra' were killed). 'Umar was present with Abu Bakr who said, 'Umar has
come to me and said, The people have suffered heavy casualties on the day of (the battle of)
Yamama, and I am afraid that there will be more casualties among the qurra' at other battle-fields ...
Sahih Al Bukhari Volume 9, Book 92, Number 386 : Narrated by Hammam
Hudhaifa said, "O the Group of Al-qurra! Follow the straight path, for then you have taken a great
lead (and will be the leaders), but if you divert right or left, then you will go astray far away."
Al-Masudi calls them the "ahl al-qar wa l-ashraf". The earliest reference to these people are as Ajl alQura, the people of the village, those who fought with Abu Bakr against the desert tribes of Yamama
during the Ridda when some of the tribes refused to pay taxes.
The Qurra had political and
economic interests that were different from those of Ali or Muawiyah. They had served in the Ridda
wars and had been granted trusteeship over some of the lands in Sawad in Iraq and were now
called Ahl al Ayyam, those who had taken part in the eastern conquests.
They then became
known as the Qurra and received the highest stipend of the Muslim army, the sharaf al ata, and they
had the use of the best lands which they came to regard as their private domain. The Qurra received
stipends varying between 2,000 and 3,000 dirhams, while the majority of the rest of the troops
received only 250 to 300 dirhams. The other Ridda tribesmen in Kufa, in Iraq, resented the special
position given to the Qurra. The tension between the Ridda tribesmen and the Qurra threatened the
Qurra's newly acquired prestige. The Qurra therefore felt obliged to defend their position in the new
but rapidly changing society. Uthman's policies of reducing their status threatened their interests.
[49][50][51]

[52][53]

[50][54]

[55][56]

The Qurra were mainly based in Kufa, in Iraq.

They had not been involved in Syria. But later
when Uthman declined to give them more lands in Persia they felt that their status was being
reduced and therefore started to cause trouble.
He also removed the distinction between the
Ridda and pre-Ridda tribesmen which was not to their liking and lessened their prestige.
[57][58]

[57][59]

[57][60]

[50][61][62]

The Qurra had previously been desert nomads and some were also bandits and had joined to
Muslims so that they could gain lands and status and become the new aristocrats in Iraq However,
later when Uthman imposed restrictions on them and prevented them from becoming landlords in
Iran, they rebelled.
[50]

[57][63][64][65]

Some of the people with their tribal names as Qurra had been expelled from Kufa, in Iraq, for
fomenting trouble and were sent to Muawiyah in Syria. Muawiyah then said to them:
"You are people from the Arabs. You have importance and are heard. You have obtained nobility by
Islam. You have conquered the nations and you have won their positions and their inheritance. I
have heard that you resent the Quraysh. If it had not been for the Quraysh, you would have been
considered abased as you were before, However, they are still your Imams today and your shelter,
so do not impede your shelter. Your Imamns are patient with you in the face of your injustice and
endure the trouble that you cause. By Allah, either you will cease or Allah will try you with someone
who will be hard on you. Then you will share with them in what you brough about on the populace
while you were alive and after your death. "
[66]

The Qurra Arabs had previously been desert nomads and bandits. One of them then spoke with
great arrogance and said to Muawiyah
"How much you go on about authority and the Quraysh! The Arabs (meaning they the Qurra) were
eating from the hilts of their swords while the Quraysh were nothing but merchants!" He then said
"As for the shelter you mentioned, when the shelter is pierced, then come to us" meaning that they
will remove the Quraysh and will rule them selves.
[67]

Muawiyah then said to him "I remind you by Islam and yet you mention the Jahiliyya (meaning their
days before Islam)"
[68]

Muawiyah then wrote to Uthman saying: "Some people have come to me who have neither intellect
nor deen (faith). Islam is burdensome to them and justice vexes them. They do not aim for Allah in
anything nor do they speak by any proof. They are busy with sedition and appropriating the property
of the non Muslims. Allah is the One who will test and try them. Then He will be the One to disgrace
them and humiliate them. They are those who injure people."
[69]

Then they were sent to Abdur r Rahman ibn Khalid ibn Walid. He said to them:
"Tools of Shaytan! You have no welcome! Shaytan has returned in sorrow and yet you are still active!
May Allah disappoint Abdur Rahman if he does not discipline you until he makes you feel regret! O
company of a people whom I do not know to be Arab or non Arab, you will not say to me what I
heard you said to Muawiyah! I am the son of Khalid ibn al-Walid. I am the son of the one who was
tested by the teeth. I am the son of the one who knocked out the Ridda!" He mentioned the Ridda
and not the defeat of the Byzantine or the Persian because he recognized that these people were an
internal threat. The Qurra had previously fought in the Ridda wars alongside Khalid ibn al-Walid but
now had political and economic interests that were different from the rest of the Muslims.
[70]

[71]

Abdur r Rahman ibn Khalid ibn Walid then sent them to Uthman in Madina. In Madina they took an
oath that they will not cause trouble and following the example of Muhammad, Uthman accepted
their word and let them go. They then split up and went to various different Muslim centers and
started fomenting rebellion, particularly in Egypt.
[72]

[73]

In the best selling book, Shadow of the sword, The Battle for Global Empire and the End of the
Ancient World, Tom Holland writes "Uthman was not content to divide up the loot of the old empires
in the time-honoured manner of a bandit chieftain sharing out plunder after a successful raid. The
Arabs, so it seemed to the new Amir had moved on from that. The conquerors, if they were to make
[74]

best use of the defeated superpowers bureaucracies, would themselves have to accept certain
disciplines: a central administration, not least, and a clear-cut chain of command. Precisely the
marks of slavery, in short, that the desert Arabs had always derided."
The Qurra then felt that Abu Musa al_Ashari could look after their interests better. Sa'id ibn al-As, the
governor in Kufa, in Iraq, then wrote to Uthman "I have no power at all over Kufa with Al-Ashtar and
his friends who are called al-qurra, and they are idiots" In 655/634 the Qurra stopped Uthans
governor Sa'id ibn al-As at Jara'a, preventing him from entering Kufa and declared Abu Musa alAshari to be their governor. (Later the Qurra proposed Abu Musa al_Ashari as the arbitrator against
the wished of Ali after the Battle of Saffin because they felt that he could also better represent their
interests there and split away from Ali and became officially known as the Khawarij.)
[75]

[76]

In 656, The Qurra approached Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr the son of Abu Bakr and the adopted son
of Ali ibn Abi Talib and the great grandfather of Ja'far al-Sadiqand asked him why he was not a
governor. They had fought under the service of his father in the Ridda wars. They also asked
Uthman's adopted son, Muhammad bin Abi Hudhaifa, who Uthman had refused to appoint as a
governor of any province, why he was not a governor.
There were references to these people in earlier texts too. Ab Dharr narrated that Muhammad said:
Ahmad, Muslim, and Ibn Mjah
There will definitely be a people after me from my nation who recite the Quran yet it will not even
reach beyond their throats. They will pass through the religion as an arrow passes through a target,
then they will not return back to it. They are the worst of people, the worst of all creatures.
[77]

al-Bukhr, Muslim, Ab Dwd, and al-Nas` all recorded a Hadth from Ab Sad al- Khudr (

) that he said: Al (
) sent some gold to the prophet ( (






)


so divided and distributed it among four groups: al-Aqra Ibn Hbis al-Hanz al, al-Mujshi, Uyaynah
Ibn Badr al-Fazr, and Zayd al-T`; a man from the Nabhn tribe and Alqamah Ibn Ulthah
al-mir; then a man from the Kilb tribe. (The Muslims of) Quraysh and the residents of Medina
became upset and said, He gives to the noble one from Najd and leaves us? The prophet (

(


) said: (

I am only trying to unite their hearts. Then a man with sunken eyes,
thick cheeks, a high forehead, a thick beard, and a shaven head came up and said, Fear Allah,

Muhammad! He replied:





Who would




obey Allah if I were disobedient (to Him)? Allah trusts me with regards to the people of the earth but


you dont trust me? After the man left, he said:

(










(

(


(
From the progeny of this man, or he said, From the offspring of this man,
there will come a people who will recite the Quran but it will not go beyond their throats. They will go
through the religion like an arrow going through a target. They will murder the people of Islam while
ignoring the people of idol-worship. If I were to reach them (their time), I would destroy them like the
people of d were destroyed.
[78]

[79]

Some modern scholars like R. E. Brunnow trace the origins of the Qurra and the Kharitites back to
Bedouin stock and desert tribesmen, who had become soldiers not out of commitment to Islam but
to share the spoils. Brunnow held that the Kharijites were Bedouin Arabs (Beduinenaraber) or full
blooded Arabs.
[80]

As Muawiyah and Caliph Uthman were preparing to besiege Constantinople, in 656, Muhammad ibn
Abi Bakr, the son of Abu Bakr and the adopted son of Ali ibn Abi Talib, and the great grandfather
of Ja'far al-Sadiq, showed some Egyptians the house of Uthman ibn al-Affan. Later, the Egyptians
ended up killing Uthman ibn al-Affan. Muawiyah had asked Caliph Uthman ibn Affan if he could
send guards to defend him, but Caliph Uthman ibn Affan refused, saying: "I do not want to spill the
blood of Muslims to save my own neck."
[81]

Finding the gate of Uthman's house strongly guarded by his supporters, the Qurra climbed the back
wall and sneaked inside, leaving the guards on the gate unaware of what was going on inside.

Hassan and Hussein were also guarding Uthman at the time. The rebels entered his room and
struck blows at his head.
[82]

[83]

According to Encyclopedia of Islam, Muawiyah sent a relief force led by Habib ibn Maslama al-Fihri
to protect Uthman, but events moved so fast that Uthman got killed before they arrived, so they
turned back from the wadi I kura
According to al-Baladhuri one of the earliest books of these
events, Ali was furious and slapped Hassan and Hussein saying "How did he get killed when you
were at the door?"
[84][85][86][87]

[88]

Ali was then asked by the people in Madina to become the Caliph.
When Uthman was killed, the people went to Ali and said:
"This man is killed. The public have to have a leader. No one we have found more deserving
to the position than you! You are the oldest in the faith and the nearest to the prophet by
relationship."
"Leave me and seek some one else. We are facing a matter which has (several) faces and
colours, which neither hearts can stand nor intelligence can accept. Clouds are hovering over
the sky, and faces are not discernible. You should know that if I respond to you I would lead you
as I know and would not care about whatever one may say or abuse. If you leave me then I am
the same as you are. It is possible I would listen to and obey whomever you make in charge of
your affairs. I am better for you as a counsellor than as chief."
[89]

Ali later wrote in a letter "I did not approach the people to get their oath of allegiance but they
came to me with their desire to make me their Amir (ruler). I did not extend my hands towards
them so that they might swear the oath of allegiance to me but they themselves extended their
hands towards me".
[90]

Ali then assumed the position of caliph. Ali was very religious and had worked very well in
partnership with Umar as his advisor. Umar had consulted him on all the major issues. Ali had
also been the chief judge in Madina. But unlike many of the other companions of Muhammad, Ali
had not been involved in the camel caravan trade and had less business and administrative
experience.
A few years earlier there had been tensions between Iraq, formerly under the Persian Sassanid
Empire and Syria, formerly under the Byzantine Empire, during theByzantine-Sassanid Wars.
The Roman-Persian Wars and the Byzantine-Sassanid Wars had lasted for hundreds of years.
The Iraqis wanted the capital of the newly established Islamic State to be in Kufa. They
convinced Ali to come to Kufa and establish the capital in Kufa.
[91]

Muawiyah I the governor of Syria, a relative of Uthman ibn al-Affan and Marwan I wanted the
culprits arrested. Marwan I and the rebels in Ali's army manipulated everyone and created
conflict.

Sunni view of Uthman[edit]

This section does not cite any references or sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to
reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2014)

According to the Sunni account of Uthman, he was married to two of Muhammads daughters at
separate times, earning him the name Zun-Nurayn (Dhun Nurayn) or the "Possessor of Two
Lights." In this he was supposed to outrank Ali, who had married only one of Muhammad's
daughters.
Sunni Muslims also consider Uthman as one of the ten Sahaba (companions) for whom
Muhammad had testified that they were destined for Paradise. He was a wealthy and very noble
man. When he became khalifa, he used the same method Umar did.

Uthman is regarded by Sunnis as a beacon of light who refused to participate in the civil conflict.

Before hostilities[edit]
Talhah and Zubayr asked Ali the permission for pilgrimage. He let them and they departed. The
Medina people wanted to know Alis point of view about war against Muslims by asking his view
about Muawiyah I and his opposition. So they sent Ziyad Bin Hanzalah of Tamim who was an
intimate friend to Ali. He went to him and sat for a while. Then Ali said:
"Get ready, Ziyad!"
"What for?"
"To fight the Syrians."
"Better to wait and tolerate."
Then Ziyad recited a poem:
"One who doesnt tolerate
"He will be torn by the teeth
"And will be smashed by the feet"
Unconsciously recited another poem:
"When a wake heart and a brave sword and brain
Are gathered, then you will be safe from the oppression"
Then Ziyad came out to the people waiting for his
conclusion. They asked:
"What happened? What is he going to do?"
Ziyad only said:
"You people! Sword!!"
And they understood what Ali was going to do.
He went back and told the people in Medina. In
Medina, Marwan manipulated people. In Iraq many
people hated the Syrians following the ByzantineSassanid Wars. Some of Ali's supporters were also
very extreme in their views and considered
everyone to be their enemy. They also felt that if
there was peace, they would be arrested for the
killing of Uthman. Many of them later became
the Kharijites and eventually killed Ali.
[92]

Aisha (Aisha bint Abu Bakr) (Muhammad's

widow), Talhah (Talha ibn Ubayd-Allah) and Zubayr
ibn al-Awam (Abu Abd Allah Zubayr ibn alAwwam) then went to Iraq to ask Ali to
arrest Uthman ibn Affan killers, not to fight
Muawiyah.
[93][94]

Battle of the Camel[edit]

Main article: Battle of the Camel
Talhah, Al-Zubayr, and Muhammad's
wife Aisha bint Abu Bakr gathered in Mecca and
then went to Basra.

Some chieftains of the Kufa tribes contacted their

tribes living in Basra. A Chieftain contacted Ali to
settle the matter. Ali did not want to fight and he
agreed. He then contacted Aisha and spoke to
her, "Is it not wise to shed the blood of five
thousand for the punishment of five hundred" She
agreed to settle the matter. Ali then met Talha
and Zubair and told them about the prophecy of
Muhammad. Ali's cousin Zubair said to Ali "What a
tragedy that the Muslims who had acquired the
strength of a rock are going to be smashed by
colliding with one another". Both Talha and Zubair
did not want to fight and left the field. Everyone
was happy, but not the people who had killed
Uthman and the supporters of Ibn Saba and the
Qurra. They thought that if a settlement was
reached, they would not be safe. The Qurra and
the Sabaites launches a night attack and started
burning the tents. Ali was restraining his men but
nobody was listening, as every one thought that
the other party had committed break of trust.
Confusion prevailed throughout the night. The
Qurra and the Sabaites attacked the Umayyads
and the fighting started. Qazi K'ab of Basra
advised Aysha to mount her camel tell people to
stop fighting. Ali's cousin Zubair, was by then
making his way to Medina and he was killed in an
adjoining valley by a Sabait called Amr ibn
Jarmouz. Amr ibn Jarmouz had followed Zubair
and murdered him while he was in his prays.
Talhah also left. On seeing this, Marwan who
was also manipulating everyone shot Talhah with a
poisoned arrow saying that he had disgraced his
tribe, by leaving the field. With the two generals
Zubair and Talhah gone confusion prevailing and
the Qurra, the Sabaites and the Umayyads fought.
Aisha's brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr, who
was Ali's commander, then approached Aisha. Ali
pardoned Aisha and her brother Muhammad ibn
Abi Bakr escorted her back to Medina.
Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was the son of Abu
Bakr, the adopted son of Ali ibn Abi Talib, and the
great-grandfather of Jafar al-Sadiq. Muhammad
ibn Abi Bakr was raised by Ali alongside Hasan
and Husein. Hassan also accompanied her part of
the way back to Madina. Ali and Aisha were said
to have become friends after the battle. Aisha then
started teaching in Medina.
[95]

[96]

[97]

[98]

[99]

[100]

[92]

[101]

[102]

[103]

[104]

[105]

[106]

[107]

[108]

[109]

[110][111]

[112]

[113]

Marwan and some of Ali's supporters who later

became the Kawarij caused a lot of the trouble.
Marwan was arrested but he later asked Hassan
and Hussein for assistance and was released.

Marwan later became an Umayyad ruler, as did

his son.
[93]

Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was later killed by the

Umayyads in Egypt. His son Qasim ibn
Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr was then raised and
taught by Aisha. Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu
Bakr's daughter Farwah bint al-Qasim was the
mother of Ja'far al-Sadiq. After this battle Marwan
and Aisha did not get on.
Al-Zubayr's widow Asma' bint Abu Bakr, the
daughter of Abu Bakr the first caliph, and her
sons Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr and Urwah ibn
Zubayr continued to get on well with Ali and held
the Kawarij responsible for their father's
killing. Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr was the second
cousin on Hussein and the grandson of Abu Bakr.
Many years later Abd Allah ibn alZubayr confronted the oppressive Umayyad rulers
Yazid after Ali's son Hussein ibn Ali was betrayed
by the people of Kufa and killed by Syrian Roman
Army which was then under the control of Yazid I,
an Umayyad ruler. Abd Allah ibn alZubayr removed the forces of Yazid from Iraq,
southern Arabia, the greater part of Syria, and
parts of Egypt. After a lengthy campaign, on his
last hour Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr asked his
mother Asma' bint Abu Bakr, the daughter of Abu
Bakr the first caliph, for advice. Asma' bint Abu
Bakr replied to her son, saying: "You know better
in your own self, that if you are upon the truth and
you are calling towards the truth go forth, for
people more honourable than you have been
killed, and if you are not upon the truth, then what
an evil son you are and you have destroyed
yourself and those who are with you. If you say
what you say, that you are upon the truth and you
will be killed at the hands of others, then you will
not truly be free for this is not the statement of
someone who is free... How long will you live in
this world, death is more beloved to me than this
state you are on, this state of weakness". Abd
Allah ibn al-Zubayr left and was later also killed
and crucified by the Syrian Roman Army now
under the control of the Umayyads.
[114]

[115]

Battle of Siffin[edit]
Main article: Battle of Siffin

Combat between the forces of Ali and Muawiyah I during the Battle of
Siffin, from the Tarikhnama.

Ali's inability to punish the murderers of Uthman

and Muawiyahs refusal to pledge allegiance
eventually led to Ali moved his army north to
confront Muawiyah. The two armies encamped
themselves at Siffin for more than one hundred
days, most of the time being spent in negotiations.
Neither side wanted to fight. Then on 11th Safar 37
AH, the Iraqis under Ashtar's command, the Qurra,
in Ali's army, who had their own camp started the
fighting in earnest which lasted three days. The
loss of life was terrible. Suddenly one of the
Syrians, Ibn Lahiya, out of dread of the fitna and
unable to bear the spectacle rode forward with a
copy of the Quran on the ears of his horse to call
for judgement by the book of Allah, and the other
Syrians followed suit. Everyone on both sides took
up the cry, eager to avoid killing their follow
Muslims - except for the conspirators. The majority
of Ali's followers supported arbitration. Nasr b
Muzahim, in one of the earliest source states that
al-Ash ath ibn Qays, one of Ali's key supporters
and a Kufan, then stood up and said:"O company
of Muslims! You have seen what happened in the
day which has passed. In it some of the Arabs
have been annihilated. By Allah, I have reached
the age which Allah willed that I reach. but I have
never ever seen a day like this. Let the present
convey to the absent! If we fight tomorrow, it will be
the annihilation of the Arabs and the loss of what is
sacred. I do not make this statement out of fear of
death, but I am an aged man who fears for the
women and children tomorrow if we are
annihilated. O Allah, I have looked to my people
and the people of my deen and not empowered
anyone. There is no success except by Allah. On
Him I rely and to Him I return. Opinion can be both
right and wrong. When Allah decides a matter, He
carries it out whether His servants like it or not. I
say this and I ask Allah's forgiveness for me and

you." Then, Nasr b Muzahim says people looked at

Muawiya who said "He is right, by the Lord. If we
meet tomorrow the Byzantines will attack our
women and children and the people of Persia will
attack the women and children of Iraq. Those with
forebearance and intelligence see this. Tie the
copies of the Quran to the ends of the spears". So
the fighting stopped.
[116]

Every time Ali tried to negotiate the Qurra and the

Sabait started wars and launched night attacks,
fearing that if there was peace, then they will be
arrested.
[117]

Appointment of Arbitrators[edit]
It was decided that the Syrians and the residents
of Kufa, in Iraq, should nominate an arbitrator,
each to decide between Ali and Muawiya. The
Syrians choice fell on Amr bin al-A'as who was the
rational soul and spokesman of Muawiya. 'Amr ibn
al-'As was one of the generals involved in expelling
the Romans from Syria and also expelled the
Romans from Egypt. A few years earlier 'Amr ibn
al-'As with 9,000 men in Palestine had found
himself confronting Heraclius' 100,000 army until
Khalid crossed the Syrian desert from Iraq to assist
him. He was a highly skilled negotiator and had
previously been used in negotiations with the
Heraclius the Roman Emperor. Ali wanted Malik
Ashtar or Abdullah bin Abbas to be appointed as
an arbitrator for the people of Kufa, Iraq, but the
Qurra strongly demurred, alleging that men like
these two were, indeed, responsible for the war
and, therefore, ineligible for that office of trust.
They nominated Abu Musa al-Ashari as their
arbitrator. (During the time of Uthman, they had
appointed Abu Musa al-Ashari as the Governor of
Kufa and removed Uthams governor before they
started fighting Uthman) Ali found it expedient to
agree to this choice in order to ward off bloody
dissensions in his army. According to "Asadul
Ghaba", Ali had, therefore, taken care to
personally explain to the arbitrators, "You are
arbiters on condition that you decide according to
the Book of God, and if you are not so inclined you
should not deem yourselves to be arbiters."
[118]

[118]

[119]

[120]

The Iraqis under Ali and the Syrians under

Muawiyah were not split over their faith but over
when to bring the people who killed Uthman to
justice. Ali also wanted to bring them to justice but
the dispute was over the timing.
[121]

According to early Shia sources Ali later wrote:

[121]

"The thing began in this way: We and the Syrians

were facing each other while we had common faith
in one Allah, in the same Prophet (s) and on the
same principles and canons of religion. So far as
faith in Allah and the Holy Prophet (s) was
concerned we never wanted them (the Syrians) to
believe in anything over and above or other than
what they were believing in and they did not want
us to change our faith. Both of us were united on
these principles. The point of contention between
us was the question of the murder of Uthman. It
had created the split. They wanted to lay the
murder at my door while I am actually innocent of
it.
I advised them that this problem cannot be solved
by excitement. Let the excitement subside, let us
cool down; let us do away with sedition and revolt;
let the country settle down into a peaceful
atmosphere and when once a stable regime is
formed and the right authority is accepted, then let
this question be dealt with on the principles of
equity and justice because only then the authority
will have power enough to find the criminals and to
bring them to justice. They refused to accept my
advice and said that they wanted to decide the
issue on the point of the sword.
When they thus rejected my proposal of peace and
kept on sabre rattling threats, then naturally the
battle, which was furious and bloody, started.
When they saw defeat facing them across the
battlefield, when many of them were killed, and
many more wounded, then they went down on
their knees and proposed the same thing, which I
had proposed before the bloodshed had begun.
I accepted their proposal so that their desire might
be fulfilled, my intentions of accepting the
principles of truth and justice and acting according
to these principles might become clear and they
might have no cause to complain against me.
Now whoever adheres firmly to the promises made
will be the one whose salvation will be saved by
Allah and one who will try to go back upon the
promises made, will fall deeper and deeper into
heresy, error and loss. His eyes will be closed to
realities and truth in this world and he will be
punished in the next world."
[122]

Encyclopedia of Islam says "According to the non

Muslim view the Syrians were winning" Either
way, neither the Syrians nor the Iraqis wanted to
fight and the battle was stopped.
[123]

When the arbitrators assembled at Daumet-ulJandal, which lay midway between Kufa and Syria
and had for that reason been selected as the place
for the announcement of the decision, a series of
daily meetings were arranged for them to discuss
the matters in hand. When the time arrived for
taking a decision about the caliphate, Amr bin alA'as convinced Abu Musa al-Ashari into
entertaining the opinion that they should deprive
both Ali and Muawiya of the caliphate, and give to
the Muslims the right to elect the caliph. Abu Musa
al-Ashari also decided to act accordingly. As the
time for announcing the verdict approached, the
people belonging to both parties assembled. Amr
bin al-A'as requested Abu Musa to take the lead in
announcing the decision he favoured. Abu Musa
al-Ashari agreed to open the proceedings, and
said, "We have devised a solution after a good
deal of thought and it may put an end to all
contention and separatist tendencies. It is this.
Both of us remove Ali as well as Muawiya from the
caliphate. The Muslims are given the right to elect
a caliph as they think best."
[124]

Ali refused to accept the verdict of him stepping

down and for an election to be held and found
himself technically in breach of his pledge to abide
by the arbitration.
This put Ali in a weak
position even amongst his own supporters. The
most vociferous opponents of Ali in his camp were
the very same people who had forced Ali to
appoint their arbitrator, the Qurra who then
became known as the Kharijites. Feeling that Ali
could no longer look after their interests Also
fearing that if there was peace, they could be
arrested for the murder of Uthman they broke
away from Ali's force, rallying under the slogan,
"arbitration belongs to God alone." The Qurra
then became known as the Kharijites ("those who
leave"). The Kharijites then started killing other
people.
[125][126][127]

[128]

[129]

[57]

[130]

When Ali moved his forces north against Muawiyah

in 656, it bought a precious breathing pause for
Byzantium, which Emperor Constans II (r. 641
668) used to shore up his defences and initiate a
major army reform with lasting effect: the
establishment of the themata, the large territorial
commands into which Anatolia, the major
contiguous territory remaining to the Empire, was
divided. The themata would form the backbone of
the Byzantine defensive system for centuries to
come.
[131]

After the battle of Saffin the Qurra realised that Ali

could not safeguard their interests and therefore
split off and formed their own Party called the
Kharijites and later developed into an anarchist
movement and plagued successive governments
even Harun the Abbasid ruler died fighting the
Kharijites
[132]

[133]

They also started killing Ali's supporters. They

considered anyone who was not part of their group
as an unbeliever.
[134]

In the best selling book, Shadow of the sword, The

Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient
World, Tom Holland writes "The Kharijites argued
a true believer would have trusted his fate not to
diplomacy but to ongoing warfare and God will
decide." Even though they them selves had put
forward their representative and become a party of
them selves, so that the negotiations could go in
their favor and satisfy their own political and
economic interests. Tom Holland says that "they
then condemned Ali as an unbeliever, as the man
who had strayed from the Strait Path. The fact that
he was Muhammad's nephew only confirmed them
in their militancy of their egalitarianism; that the
true aristocracy was one of piety and not blood.
Even a Companion of the Prophet, if he did not
pray until he developed marks on his forehead. If
he did not look pale and haggard from regular
fasting, if he did not live like a lion by day and a
monk by night, ranked in the opinion of the
Kharijites as no better than an apostate." They
then developed even more twisted views. Tom
Holland writes "Other Kharijites, so it was reported,
might go out and with their swords into the markets
while people would stand around not realizing
what was happening; they would shout "no
judgment except God!" and plunge their blades
into whom ever they could reach and go on killing
until they them selves were killed.
[135]

[136]

In 659 Ali's forces finally moved against the

Kharijites and they finally met in the Battle of
Nahrawan. Although Ali won the battle, the
constant conflict had begun to affect his standing.
Tom Holland writes "Ali won a victory over them
as crushing as it was to prove pyrrhic: for all he
had done, in effect was to fertilise the soil of Iraq
with the blood of their martyrs. Three years later,
and there came the inevitable blowback: a Kharijite
assassin.".
[137]

[138]

The Kharijites caused so much trouble that in both

the early Sunni and the early Shia books Ali

said:"With regard to me, two categories of people

will be ruined, namely he who loves me too much
and the love takes him away from rightfulness, and
he who hates me too much and the hatred takes
him away from rightfulness. The best man with
regard to me is he who is on the middle course. So
be with him and be with the great majority of
Muslims because Allahs hand of protection is on
keeping unity. You should beware of division
because the one isolated from the group is a prey
to Satan just as the one isolated from the flock of
sheep is a prey to the wolf. Beware! Whoever calls
to this course [of sectarianism], kill him, even
though he may be under this headband of
mine."(Nahjul Balagha, Sermon 126)
While dealing with the Iraqis, Ali found it hard to
build a disciplined army and effective state
institutions to exert control over his areas and as a
result later spent a lot of time fighting
the Kharijites. As a result, on the Eastern front, Ali
found it hard to expand the state.
[139]

Ali was assassinated by Kharijites in 661. On the

19th of Ramadan, while Praying in the Great
Mosque of Kufa, Ali was attacked by
the Khawarij Abd-al-Rahman ibn Muljam. He was
wounded by ibn Muljam's poison-coated sword
while prostrating in the Fajr prayer.
[140]

When Al was assassinated in 661, Muawiyah, had

the largest and the most organized and disciplined
force in the Muslim Empire.
Scholars like Wellhausen have argued that the
Kharijites when revolting against Ali used the same
formula as they had previously applied against
Uthman, when they revolted against Uthman.
[141]

Wellhausen argues that for the Kharijite Ali's pact

with Muawiyah compromised the Devine Right the
same act which caused the insurgencies against
Uthman and Muawiya as well.
[142]

Scholars like Wellhausen argue that the Kharijites

sprang from the Qurra and they did not start off as
a marginal and clandestine sect, but were in full
public eye. Wellhausen argues that:
[143]

"Their origins were essentially very different from

those of the Abbasid and Fatimid parties. They did
not have to resort to conspiracy and widespread
propaganda and were not held together by a
secret complex organization. They had only
principles but these were always well known to the
people and attracted supporters without them
seeking them".
[144]

M. A. Shaban in his book Islamic History A.D. 600750 (A.H. 132): A new Interpretation (1971)
Proclaims that the Qurra were the tribesmen who
had the trusteeship of the conquered lands. This
means that they shared the wealth and the
prestige of the new system. Their special position
and prestige in the Sawad in Iraq however was
threatened by Uthmans policies. This explains their
participation in removing Uthman. Although the
policy of Ali was lucrative to the Qurra they realized
that the new Caliph's inheritance of a divided
community and turmoil would make him unable to
protect their newly established economic status.
Thus at this stage and during the Battle of Siffin
(Ali's weakest moments) the Qurra decided to
secede from Ali's coalition and become a party of
their own. In the article entitled "The Emergence
of the Kharijites: Religion and the Social Order in
Early Islam" (1989) Jeffrey T Kenny has argued
that the Kharijites were just one of many factions
that emerged from an intricate web of changing
socioeconomic policies in the newly established
provinces of the Islamic Empire.
[145]

[146]

M. A. Shaban in his book Islamic History A.D. 600750 (A.H. 132): A new Interpretation (1971) writes
the Qurra insisted on choosing Abu Musa al Ashari
to be the Iraqi representative after the battle of
Siffin despite Ali's vehement objection. Shaban
writes that the same Qurra originally insisted on
Abu Musa becoming the governor of Kufa and
replaced Uthmans governor because Abu Musa
had opposed Uthman's policy and therefore had
been the choice of the qurra as governor of Kufa,
when they expelled Uthmans governor Sa'id b AlAs. Shaban adds that the Qurra tried to turn the
negotiations between the Syrians and the Iraqis to
their own advantage and that they wished to
become a third party in the dispute. Thus it is at
this point that the coalition of Ali ended and that
the ex-qurra emerged as the Kharijites.
[147]

While Watt argues that the Kharijites were not

simply dissatisfied with a particular man or family
or economics, rather their dissatisfaction was with
the whole social structure which was represented
by both Uthman and Ali. In the old way they had
freedom in the affairs of the tribe. Now they were in
the "super-tribe" of Islam and could not behave as
they had behaved previously. They wanted to go
back to their old tribal structure where they could
glory and boast about their tribe. He writes "Those
who had been accustomed to tribal societies

missied the security ... provided by the old system;

nothing in the new system quite replaced it
[148]

Peace treaty with Hassan[edit]

The Khawarij then grew stronger in Iraq and
started speaking ill of Ali. After the battle of the
Camel, Aisha and Ali had no bitterness towards
each other and got on well. On the other hand
after the battle of the Camel Marwan and Aisha did
not get on. During the time of Ali, Aishas
brother Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr was a
commander in Ali's army had also been killed by
the Syrian army in Egypt. Muhammad ibn Abi
Bakr was the son of Abu Bakr and the adopted son
of Ali ibn Abi Taliband was also raised by Uthman
and he was the great grandfather of Ja'far alSadiq
[149]

[150]

Aisha's other brother Abdul Rahman was also

opposed to Marwan and his conduct" Aisha had
deeply regretted going to Basra.
[151]

[152]

Ammar bin Yasin and Ushtur went to meet Aisha

and she spoke to Ammar. "O Ammar! don't you
know that the Prophet had said that it was unlawful
to shed the blood of a believer unless he has
become apostate and foughts you or is guilty of
murder or adultery" She explained that during the
battle of the Camel she was talking to Ali when the
Qurra had started the battle. The talks had lasted
for months. When she heard of the assassination
of Ali in Kufa she Said "O God! have mercy of Ali.
When anything pleased him he used to say "God
and His Apostle are true" The people of Iraq made
insinuations against him and exaggerated
everything."
[153]

Six months later in 661, in the interest of peace,

Hasan ibn Ali, highly regarded for his wisdom and
as a peacemaker, the fifth Rightly Guided
Caliphs for the Sunnis and the Second Imam for
the Shias and the grandson of Muhammad, made
a peace treaty with Muawiyah. By now Hassan
only ruled the area around Kufa. In theHasanMuawiya treaty, Hasan ibn Ali handed over power
to Muawiya on the condition that he be just to the
people and keep them safe and secure and after
his death he does not establish a dynasty.
This
brought to an end the era of the Rightly Guided
Caliphs for the Sunnis and Hasan ibn Ali was also
the last Imam for the Shias to be a Caliph.
[154][155]

Narrated by Al-Hasan Al-Basri

By Allah, Al-Hasan bin Ali led large battalions like

mountains against Muawiya. Amr bin Al-As said (to
Muawiya), "I surely see battalions which will not
turn back before killing their opponents." Muawiya
who was really the best of the two men said to him,
"O 'Amr! If these killed those and those killed
these, who would be left with me for the jobs of the
public, who would be left with me for their women,
who would be left with me for their children?" Then
Muawiya sent two Quraishi men from the tribe of
'Abd-i-Shams called 'Abdur Rahman bin Sumura
and Abdullah bin 'Amir bin Kuraiz to Al-Hasan
saying to them, "Go to this man (i.e. Al-Hasan) and
negotiate peace with him and talk and appeal to
him." So, they went to Al-Hasan and talked and
appealed to him to accept peace. Al-Hasan said,
"We, the offspring of 'Abdul Muttalib, have got
wealth and people have indulged in killing and
corruption (and money only will appease them)."
They said to Al-Hasan, "Muawiya offers you so and
so, and appeals to you and entreats you to accept
peace." Al-Hasan said to them, "But who will be
responsible for what you have said?" They said,
"We will be responsible for it." So, what-ever AlHasan asked they said, "We will be responsible for
it for you." So, Al-Hasan concluded a peace treaty
with Muawiya. Al-Hasan (Al-Basri) said: I heard
Abu Bakr saying, "I saw Allah's Apostle on the
pulpit and Al-Hasan bin 'Ali was by his side. The
Prophet was looking once at the people and once
at Al-Hasan bin 'Ali saying, 'This son of mine is a
Saiyid (i.e. a noble) and may Allah make peace
between two big groups of Muslims through
him."
[156]

Hassan had lost many of his close friends,

including Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr, who he was
raised with, he was also the guard, guarding
Uthman the day he was killed. Hassan also had
the Kharijites in Iraq to deal with. There are
different groups with different economic and
political interests and then on top of that the
populations in the different areas were very tribal
and nationalistic. Hassan skillfully managed to get
Muawiyah to deal with the Kharijites. As part of the
peace settlement Muawiyah agreed to pay the
revenues of the Baitul-Mal public treasury in Kufa
to Hassan. However the people of the district
refused to allow their taxes to go towards Hussain,
to recompense for their refusal Muawiyah paid
Hassan six million Dirhams every year. Not once
did al-Hassan fail to receive the payments from
Muawiyah.
[157]

[158]

[159]

People wanted to avoid another battle like the

battle of Siffin where their strong opinions and
inflexibly to compromise caused so much trouble.
Sahih Al Bukhari Volume 9, Book 92, Number 411:
Narrated by Al-A'mash
I asked Abu Wail, "Did you witness the battle of
Siffin between 'Ali and Muawiya?" He said, "Yes,"
and added, "Then I heard Sahl bin Hunaif saying,
'O people! Blame your personal opinions in your
religion. No doubt, I remember myself on the day
of Abi Jandal; if I had the power to refuse the order
of Allah's Apostle, I would have refused it. We have
never put our swords on our shoulders to get
involved in a situation that might have been
horrible for us, but those swords brought us to
victory and peace, except this present situation.' "
Abu Wail said, "I witnessed the battle of Siffin, and
how nasty Siffin was!"
After the peace treaty with Muawiyah, Ibn
Shawdhab is reported to have said that "Hassan
hated to fight. his supporters would say to him "O
Dishonour of the Believers!" So Hassan would
reply to them "Dishonour is better than Hel-fire.".

[160]

After the peace treaty with Hassan, in the book

"The Great Arab Conquests" Hugh Kennedy writes
that "The Nestorian Christian John bar Penkaye
writing in the 690s, says 'the peace throughout the
world was such that we have never heard, either
from our fathers or from our grandparents, or seen
that there had ever been any like it'"
[161]

After the peace treaty with

Hassan the siege of
Constantinople[edit]
In the year 661, Muawiyah was crowned as caliph
at a ceremony in Jerusalem.
[162]

He came to Madina and spoke to the people,

saying, "I desired the way followed by Abu Bakr
and 'Umar, but I was unable to follow it, and so I
have followed a course with you which contains
fortune and benefits for you despite some bias, so
be pleased with what comes to you from me even
if it is little. When good is continuous, even if it is
little, it enriches. Discontent makes life grim."
[163]

He also said in as address which he delivered to

the people, "O people! By Allah, it is easier to
move the firm mountains than to follow Abu Bakr
and 'Umar in their behaviour. But I have followed

their way of conduct falling short of those before

me, but none after me will equal me in it."
[163]

Ali's Caliphate lasted for 4 years. After the treaty

with Hassan, Muawiyah ruled for nearly 20 years
most of which were spent expanding the state.
[164]

Siege of Constantinople[edit]
Hassan's army from Iraq joined Muawiyah's army
from Syria and they shifted their focus back
towards Constantinople. Their forces had been
much depleted after the battle of Saffin and the
Romans were now better prepared. After the
peace treaty with Hassan, Yazeed bin Muawiyah
was then joined by Hussein, Umar Ibn Abbas,
Abdullah Ibn Zubair and Abu Ayyoob al-Ansari for
the expedition to Constantinople.
[165]

[166][167]

Hussein was also in the army that laid siege to alQustanteeniyyah (Constantinople) under the
command of Muawiyah's son Yazeed in 51 AH.
After the peace treaty with Muawiya, Hussein
would frequently visit Muawiya with his brother and
he would show great hospitality in return.
Following Hassans death, Hussein would travel
to see Muawiya every year and in return Muawiya
would show great hospitality.
[168]

[169]

[170]

A massive Muslim fleet reappeared in the Marmara

and re-established a base at Cyzicus, from there
they raided the Byzantine coasts almost at will.
Saeed bin Abdul Azeez narrated that when
Uthman was murdered, the people had no military
incursions to carry out until it reached the "Aam ulJama ah" (The year of the community when the
peace treaty was signed). This was the year in
which Muawiyah initiated sixteen expeditions
against the land of ar-Room (the Romans) after
having dispatched a military detachment in
summer that subsequently spent the winter there.
As they blockaded one place, they would move on
to another, until Yazeed and a number of the
Companions successfully undertook a series of
invasions. Finally in 676, Muawiyah sent an army
to Constantinoplefrom land as well, beginning
the First Arab Siege of the city.
[171]

While Yazeed bin Muawiyah, Hussein, Umar Ibn

Abbas, Abdullah Ibn Zubair and Abu Ayyoob alAnsari laid siege to al-Qustanteeniyyah
(Constantinople), Uqba expanded into North Africa.
[172]

In the book "The Great Arab Conquests" Hugh

Kennedy writes that "In 670 the Caliph Muawiya
appointed Uqba as governor of land under Muslim
[173]

rule in North Africa under the overall control of the

governor of Egypt. He decided to launch a
campaign to conquer Ifriqiya (that is roughly
modern Tunisia) and bring it firmly under Muslim
rule. With his long experience in the area, Uqba
would have known that it was a good moment to
strike. The Byzantine administration was
weakening by the day. The Arabs were attacking
Constantinople itself and all the resources of the
empire were required to defend it. Just as
dangerous was an outbreak of that internal dissent
which had undermined the empire so often before.
Emperor Constantine IV was faced by a pretender
to his throne in Sicily and had been forced to
withdraw troops to combat him."
[174]

Muawiyah built up a professional and disciplined

army where people were promoted on their
abilities not along tribal lines. Additionally the army
units were not based along tribal lines, but along
the disciplines and the type of warfare they
specialized in. While on expeditions, Muawiyah
provided for their families. In the early days, before
the battle of Saffin, Muawiyah and the Syrians also
served under Ali. According to Ali "Sometimes they
would even set out without provisions, without
asking for pay. At the call of Muawiya, they put
themselves on campaigns for two, even three
times a year, not caring where he wanted to take
them (Tabri 1,3410). Even in early Shia sources,
Ali felt that the Syrians were more disciplined and
obeyed Muawiyah telling the people of Kufa "By
Allah, I wish Muawiyya exchanges with me like
Dinars with Dirhams, so that he takes from me ten
of you and gives me one from them. O people of
Kufa, I have experienced in you three things and
two others: you are deaf in spite of having ears,
dumb in spite of speaking, and blind in spite of
having eyes. You are neither true supporters in
combat nor dependable brothers in distress.".
The Romans also found them selves under
attack by Muawiyah's forces every single year.
[175]

[176]

Around Constantinople, Constantine IV (r. 661

685) used a devastating new weapon that came to
be known as "Greek fire", given to them by a
Christian refugeefrom Syria named Kallinikos
of Heliopolis, to decisively defeat the attacking
Umayyad navy in the Sea of Marmara, resulting in
the lifting of the siege in 678. The returning Muslim
fleet suffered further losses due to storms, while
the army lost many men to the thematic armies
who attacked them on their route back. Abu
Ayyub al-Ansari (Eyup) was killed in the siege, the
[177]

standard bearer of Muhammed and the last of his

companions; His tomb is in Istanbul.
[178][179]

Had Ali and Muawiyah made a peace treaty before

the Battle of Siffin like Hasan rather that after the
battle and joined forces in the Siege of
Constantinople, it would have been a very
dangerous situation for the Byzantine Empire. The
battle of Battle of Siffin gave Emperor Constans
II time to shore up his defences and depleted
Muawiyah forces.
[180][181]

Expansion into North Africa[edit]

Throughout history Sicily had been viewed as a
key to naval supremacy in the Mediterranean Sea
as a base for any invasion of North Africa or Italy.
In the middle of the first millennium BC Greeks and
Phoenicians established trading colonies there.
The Romans intense struggle in the third Century
BC to overcome them in Sicily paved the way for
imperial control of the Mediterranean. Likewise,
Byzantium's conquest of Sicily in AD 535 was
central to Justinian's plan to reunify the Roman
empire. The Arabs were keenly aware of the
island's strategic importance, and Muawiya was
the first caliph to begin raiding the island in 670.
[182]

Under the rule of Muawiyah in 670 the Umayyads

established a garrison town at Qayrawan in Ifriqiya
(modern Tunisia). It was used both as a base for
military operations and as an administrative centre
for North Africa, replacing Carthage.
[183][184]

This then laid the foundations for the expansion

into Spain in 710 when the Umayyad governor
Musa ibn Nusayr sent a largely Berber force led by
Tariq ibn Ziyad into Spain.
[185]

Christian Spain ruled by the Visigoths was in a

weak state where a small class of landowners had
owned almost everything, with the vast majority of
the population being serfs, slaves and bandits, the
latter of which controlled the countryside. There
had also been an intense campaign of persecution
against the Jewish population. Therefore the
Muslims rule quickly expanded is Spain. By 718
the Muslims had crossed the Pyrenees mountains
into France.
[186]

Expeditions after the peace treaty

with Hassan[edit]

[show]

ArabByzantine wars

After the peace treaty with Hassan, Muawiyah

turned is attention back to the Romans. In the best
selling book, Shadow of the sword, The Battle for
Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World,
Tom Holland writes The gaze of Muawiyah was
fixed, not upon the desert Arabs, but upon the
altogether more worthier opponents the Romans.
[187]

[188]

In the best selling book, In the shadow of the

sword, The Battle for Global Empire and the End of
the Ancient World, Tom Holland writes "Muawiya
looked to keep the Muslims busy, duly renewed the
onslaught against the Roman Empire with a
vengeance. In 674, he even sponsored a siege of
Constantinople it self. In the event, after a
blockade of four years, the effort to capture the
New Rome had to be abandoned; yet what was
striking, perhaps, was not its failure but how close
it had come to success. Certainly, there could be
no denying that Muawiya - in the scope of his
achievements, in the awesome scale of his
authority, and in the radiant splendor of his name was patently a favourite of God"
[189]

[190]

The Mosque of Uqba, in Tunisia.

Campaigns

Year

External Expedition

40 AH

Kharijites

42 AH

Defeat of Romans (Byzantines)

Raid on Caucasus

Kharijites

43 AH

Campaign against the Romans by Busr ibn Abi Artah

Campaign against Tukharistanis

Kharijites
Kurdish iss

44 AH

Sea raid by Busr ibn Abi Artah on Romans.

Winter campaign against the Romans
Abdu'r-Rahman b. Walid

45 AH

Winter campaign against the Romans

Abdu'r-Rahman b. Walid.
Campaign in Tukharistan

46 AH

Malik ibn Ubaydullah winter

campaign against the Romans

47 AH

Malik ibn Ubaydullah winter

campaign against the Romans
Abdu'r-Rahman - Antioch, raid on Khorasan; raid on alGhur & Farawanda

48 AH

Abdu'r-Rahman - Antioch raid - Summer; Abdullah ibn

Qays sea raid of Malik ibn Hubayra;
joint sea raid by Uqba with Madinans and Egyptians

49 AH

Malik ibn Hubayra winter campaign against the

Romans; Fadala captured Jabbara
Summer- Abdullah ibn Kurz;
raid of Yazid ibn Shajara; sea raid of Uqba; raid of
Yazid on Constantinople

50 AH

Campaign against the Romans by Busr ibn Abi Artah

and Sufyan.
Sea raid of Fadala; North Africa taken and Qayrawan
founded.
Raid of al-Hakam ibn Amr (Khorasan) against Turks

Amr bin al
by governo
commande
Amr bin al
has been
criticized b
[191]

51 AH

Winter campaign against the Romans raid of Fadala

Summer campaign of Busr ibn Abi Artah; Balkh and
Quhistan taken by ar-Rabi

52 AH

Raid of Sufyan ibn Awf; Winter and summer campaign

against the Romans

53 AH

Winter campaign against the Romans, Rhodes

conquered

54 AH

Winter campaign against the Romans, Muhammad ibn

Malik;
Summer campaign against the Romans by Ma'n ibn
Yazid;
conquest of island of Arwad;
Ubaydullah conquers Ramithan & Baykland in
Bukhara;
campaign against Bukharans

Hujr bin A
Muawiyah
Shia schola
When aske
trouble and

55 AH

Winter campaign against the Romans

56 AH

Winter campaign against the Romans sea and land

campaign.
campaigns in Sugh at Samarqand & Tirmidh

57 AH

Winter campaign against the Romans

58 AH

Campaign against the Romans sea raid

Kharijites

59 AH

Winter campaign against the Romans sea raid

Walid in C

60 AH

Raid against Sawriyya and Rudas

Peikund B

[193][194]

While the nephew of 'Amr ibn al-'As the

general Uqba ibn Nafi went all the way to Morocco.
While in Tunisia, Uqba ibn Nafi built the Mosque of
Uqba. A few years later the Umayyads also

crossed over into Spain and Southern France

under the command of Tariq ibn Ziyad and Musa
bin Nusayr.

Umayyad caliphate in 749

His appointment of his son as the

next Caliph[edit]
One of Muawiyah's most controversial and
enduring legacies was his decision to designate
his son Yazid as his successor. Yazid was
experienced militarily, after taking part in various
expeditions and the siege of Constantinople but
politically inexperienced. Marwan also wanted
Yazid to be the Caliph so that he could run things
behind the scenes, as he would become the senior
member of the Umayyad clan after Muawiyah's
death. Mohammad, Abu Bakr and Umar also
mistrusted Marwan and he had lived in Taif during
their rule, where he became friends with Hajjaj.
Tom Holland writes "Tempers in Medina were not
helped by the fact that the governor in the oasis
was none other than the fabulously venal and
slippery Marwan. Rumours abounded that it was
he, back in the last calamitous days of Uthman's
rule who had double crossed the war band that
had come to Uthman. The locals mistrust of their
governor ran particularly deep. Nothing he had
done had helped to improve his reputation for
double dealing.
[195]

The appointment of Yazid was unpopular in

Madina. Sahih Al Bukhari Volume 6, Book 60,
Number 352, Narrated by Yusuf bin Mahak:
Marwan had been appointed as the governor of
Hijaz by Muawiya. He delivered a sermon and
mentioned Yazid bin Muawiya so that the people
might take the oath of allegiance to him as the
successor of his father (Muawiya). Then 'Abdur
Rahman bin Abu Bakr told him something
whereupon marwan ordered that he be arrested.
But 'Abdur-Rahman entered 'Aisha's house and
they could not arrest him. marwan said, "It is he
('AbdurRahman) about whom Allah revealed this
Verse: 'And the one who says to his parents: 'Fie
on you! Do you hold out the promise to me..?'" On
that, 'Aisha said from behind a screen, "Allah did
not reveal anything from the Qur'an about us
except what was connected with the declaration of
my innocence (of the slander)."
Ibn Katheer wrote in his book the Al-Bidayah wanNihayah that "in the year 56 AH Muawiyah called
on the people including those within the outlying
territories to pledge allegiance to his son, Yazeed,
to be his heir to the Caliphate after him. Almost all
the subjects offered their allegiance, with the
exception of Abdur Rahman bin Abu Bakr (the son
of Abu Bakr), Abdullah ibn Umar (the son of Umar),
al-Husain bin Ali (the son of Ali), Abdullah bin AzZubair (The grandson of Abu Bakr) and Abdullah
ibn Abbas (Ali's cousin). Because of this Muawiyah
passed through al-Madinah on his way back from
Makkah upon completion of his Umrah Pilgrimage
where he summoned each one of the five
aforementioned individuals and threatened them.
The speaker who addressed Muawiyah sharply
with the greatest firmness amongst them was
Abdurrahman bin Abu Bakr as-Siddeeq, while
Abdullah bin Umar bin al-Khattab was the most
soft spoken amongst them.
[196]

Abdur Rahman bin Abu Bakr and Abdullah ibn

Umar were mid level Muslim commanders at
the Battle of Yarmouk that took Syria. Abdur
Rahman bin Abu Bakr sister Asm' bint Abu
Bakr also fought in the Battle of Yarmouk and was
opposed to Yazid. Abdur Rahman bin Abu Bakr
had been one of the first to dual in that battle, after
taking a sword to hand over to a Qays bin
Hubayrah who had lost his sword, while in a dual
with the Roman Army's best horseman. Two more
Roman horsemen then came forward saying "We
see no justice when two of you come against one
of us." Abdur Rahman bin Abu Bakr replied "I only
[197]

came to give my companion a sword and then

return. Were 100 of you to come out against one of
us we would not be worried. You are now three
men. I am enough to take on all three of you". After
which he took down the Roman horsemen on his
own. After seeing this, Bannes the Roman
general said "Caesar really knew these people
best. I now know that a difficult situation is to come
on you. If you do not attack them with great
numbers, you will have no chance". Abdullah ibn
Umar had also been a mid level commander in
the Battle of Yarmouk. Some Roman soldiers went
to the house of Abu al-Jaid a local Christian in azZura ah and after eating all the food, raped his wife
and killed his son. His wife complained to the
Roman general and he ignored her. Abu al-Jaid
then went to the Muslims and told them that he
knows the local area and if the Muslims exempt
him and his descendents from taxes for ever he
will help them defeat the Roman army. He then
took horse men led by Abdullah ibn Umar to the
Roman camp at night and attacked them and then
ran away. The Romans chased them and in the
dark tens of thousands of them fell down a cliff at
the an-Naqusah Creek into a river. Abdullah bin
Az-Zubair had also been a commander in various
battles including in North Africa and was also
involved in the siege of Constantinople.
[198]

[199]

[200]

[201]

Muawiyah then delivered a sermon, having stood

these five men below the pulpit in full view of the
people after which the people pledged allegiance
to Yazeed as they stood in silence without
displaying their disagreement or opposition for fear
of being humiliated. Saeed bin Uthman bin Affan,
the son of Uthman also criticized Muawiyah for
putting forward Yazeed.". They tolerated
Muawiyah but did not like Yazeed.
[202]

The following year Muawiyah removed Marwan bin

al Hakam from the position of Governor in Madina
and appointed al-Waleed bin Utbah bin Abi Sufyan.
[203]

According to some sources Muawiyah warned his

son Yazid against mistreating Hussein. His final
warning to Yazid was: "As for Husayn what can I
tell you concerning him? Be careful not to confront
him except in a good way. Extend to him a free
hand (literally, a long rope) and let him roam the
earth as he pleases. Do not harm him, can show
verbal anger but never confront him with the
weapons of war but rather bestow on him
generous gifts. Give him a place of honor near you
and treat him with due reverence. Be careful O my

son, that you do not meet God with his blood, lest
you be amongst those that will perish"
[204][205]

Yazeed and Hussein knew each other well and

had both been involved in the Siege of
Constantinople. Many years later, after the
events in Karbala when the governor of Kufa, Ibn
Ziyad sent the head of Hussein to Yazeed. The
Servant of Muawiya bin Abu Sufyan is reported to
have said: "When Yazeed came with al-Husain's
head and placed it in his hands, I saw Yazeed
crying and he said: 'If there had been any
relationship between Ibn Ziyad and al-Husain then
he would not have done this (referring to Ibn
Ziyad).'"
[206]

[207]

Many years later: Marwan and

Kharijites rule[edit]
Many years later after Hussein was killed Abdullah
Ibn Az-Zubair expelled Yazids forces from Hijaz
and the Qurra who were also called Kharijites got
stronger in Iraq. Yazid died a few months later in
young age and his son did not want to take part in
a civil war against Abdullah Ibn Az-Zubair and
abdicated and later died.
After years of planning and scheming and making
every one else fight, Marwan came to power in
Syria and the Qurra (the Kharijites) established a
state in Southern Iraq. The very thing Hassan
signed a treaty with Muawiyah to avoid.
Now there were three camps, the Scholars in
Madina, the Kharijites in Iraq and Umayyads in
Syria.
In Sahih Al Bukhari the people still referred to the
Kharijites by their old name Qurra and most
Muslims resented these civil wars and felt that the
Arabs had left the teachings of Muhammad and
gone back to their old ways of fighting over wealth.
Sahih Al Bukhari Volume 9, Book 88, Number 228:
Narrated by Abu Al-Minhal
[208]

When Ibn Ziyad and Marwan were in Sham and

Ibn Az-zubair took over the authority in Mecca and
Qurra' (the Kharijites) revolted in Basra, I went out
with my father to Abu Barza Al-Aslami till we
entered upon him in his house while he was sitting
in the shade of a room built of cane. So we sat with
him and my father started talking to him saying, "O
Abu Barza! Don't you see in what dilemma the
people has fallen?" The first thing heard him
saying "I seek reward from Allah for myself

because of being angry and scornful at the

Quraish tribe. O you Arabs! You know very well
that you were in misery and were few in number
and misguided, and that Allah has brought you out
of all that with Islam and with Muhammad till He
brought you to this state (of prosperity and
happiness) which you see now; and it is this
worldly wealth and pleasures which has caused
mischief to appear among you. The one who is in
Sham (i.e., Marwan), by Allah, is not fighting
except for the sake of worldly gain: and those who
are among you, by Allah, are not fighting except for
the sake of worldly gain; and that one who is in
Mecca (i.e., Ibn Az-zubair) by Allah, is not fighting
except for the sake of worldly gain."
Abdullah Ibn Az-Zubair then sent his brother to
Iraq to take on the Kharijites who were by then
getting stronger. This depleted Abdullah Ibn AzZubair forces and he was later defeated by the
Syrians.
Ibn Zubayr was finally defeated by Abd al-Malik ibn
Marwan, who sent Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf. Hajjaj
defeated and killed Ibn Zubayr on the battlefield in
692.
On his last hour he asked his mother Asm' bint
Abu Bakr what he should do. Asm' bint Abu
Bakr replied to her son, she said: "You know
better in your own self that if you are upon the
truth and you are calling towards the truth go forth
for people more honourable than you were killed
and have been killed and if you are not upon the
truth, then what an evil son you are, you have
destroyed yourself and those who are with you. If
you say what you say, that if you are upon the
truth and you will be killed at the hands of others
then you will not truly be free, for this is not the
statement of someone who is free".
[115]

Then Asm' bint Abu Bakr said to her son, this is

the statement of the mother to her son, "how long
will you live in this world, death is more beloved to
me than this state you are on/ this state of
weakness".
Then this conversation between Abd Allah ibn alZubayr and his mother continued.
Then Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr said to his mother
after she had told him to go forth and fight.
He said, "I am afraid I will be mutilated by the
people of Sham, I am afraid that they will cut up
my body after they have killed me".

So she said to her son, "after someone has died it

won't make any difference what they do to you if
you have been killed". Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr then
said to his mother, "I did not come to you except to
increase myself in knowledge".
He said to her, "I did not come to you except to
increase me in knowledge, look and pay attention
to this day for verily I am a dead man, your son
never drank wine, nor was he fornicator, nor did he
wrong any Muslim or Non Muslim, nor was he
unjust, I am not saying this to you to show off or
show how pure I am but rather as an honour to
you".
So then Abdullah Ibn Zubair left by himself on his
horse and he was killed by the Army of Hajjaj and
when he was killed by the Army of Hajjaj all the
Army said Allah hu Akhbar and Abdullah Ibn
Omer heard this and he said, how strange is it
that this man when he was born all of the Muslims
said Allah hu Akhbar and now that he is killed
everyone is also saying Allah hu Akhbar.
Asma refused to go and ask permission to put
down her sons body and it was said to her, "if you
don't go his body will remain like that. So she said
let it be then".
Until eventually, Hajjaj came to her and said, "what
do you say about this matter" and Asma was in her
old age and blind by then. Asma said, "Verily you
have destroyed him you have ruined his life and
with that you have ruined your hereafter". Asma
died a few days later.

Reforming the Umayyad rule

peacefully from the inside[edit]
Ibn Katheer says that Abdullah Ibn Umar resented
Hajjaj. Imam Abu Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul
Hakam who lived near that time, said in his book
the first biography on Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz that
Abdullah Ibn Omar's niece was married to one of
Marwans son called Abdul Aziz who lived in
Madina. Abdul Aziz lived in Madina and had not
become an Umayyad ruler, but he had a young
son called Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz. Abdullah ibn Umar
kept Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz with him for his
education when Abdul Aziz and his wife moved to
Egypt. Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz was educated in
Madina. The scholars in Madina including Abdullah
Ibn Umar andQasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu
Bakr who was jafar Sadiqs grandfather and Abu
[209]

Bakr's grandson felt that they could use Umar Ibn

Adbul Aziz to peacefully reform the Umayyad rule.
Imam Abu Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam
(died 214 AH) wrote that many years
earlier:"During the time of Umar Ibn al Khattab the
(second Caliph) he prohibit the sale of milk mixed
with water. One night, he came out for some need
at the outskirts of Madinah. Suddenly, he heard the
voice of a woman. She was telling her daughter,
"Daughter, you have not yet mixed water in the
milk. It is nearly dawn. "The daughter said, "How
can I mix water in the milk? Amir ul Muminin has
prohibited it". The mother said, "Other people also
mix it. You also mix it. How does Amir ul Muminin
know?" The daughter replied. "If Umar does not
know, then the creator of Umar knows. Once he
has prohibited it, then I cannot do it."
Umar was greatly pleased with this conversation.
When morning came, he called his son Asim and
narrated the incident that took place at night. He
then said, "Go and find out who that girl is". Asim
went. He made enquiries and found out that the
girl was from the tribe of Banu Hilal. He returned
and informed Umar. He said to Asim "Son, go and
get married to her. Definitely, she is worthy of
bearing a horseman who will lead the entire
Arabia."
Consequently Asim married her and a daughter
Umm e Asim bint Asim Ibn Umar Ibn al Khattab
was born from her. Umm e Asim got married to
Adbul Aziz bint Marwan bin al Hakam. Umar Ibn
Adbul Aziz was born from her.
[210]

After his education, Raja bin Haiwah who was also

a scholar and an advisor to some of the Umayyad
rulers took Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz to Syria. Raja bin
Haiwah also worked closely with the scholars in
Madina. Ibn Katheer wrote in his book the AlBidayah wan-Nihayah that during the time of Abdul
Malik, Raja bin Haiwah also managed the finances
for the construction of the Dome of the Rock in
Jerusalem, that stands to this day.
[211]

Ibn Katheer wrote that even the Umayyad ruler AlWaleed bin Abdul Malik would write to Umar Ibn
Abdul Aziz in Madina for advice on legal matter.
Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz would then convene a
meeting with the jurists in Madina and they would
all decide on the reply.
[212]

Later the future Umayyad ruler Sulaiman would

also consult Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz. Hajjaj opposed
Sulaiman from becoming Caliph, even through his

father had written in his will that after his brother

Al-Waleed bin Abdul Malik, Sulaiman would be
Caliph. So Sulaiman became even closer to Umar
Ibn Adbul Aziz who also opposed Hajjaj.
[213]

When Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz was made the governor

of Madina, he asked the Khalifah that he wished to
be excused from Hajjaj coming to Madinah. After
which, Hajjaj was prevented from going to Madina.
[214]

According to Imam Abu Muhammad Adbullah ibn

Abdul Hakam from Madina (died 214 AH 829 C.E)
Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz then said to the ruler Walid
Ibn Abdul Malik "After ascribing partners to Allah,
there is no greater sin than spilling blood. Your
governors are unjustifiably killing people and they
only write the crime of the killed person (murder) to
inform you. You will be answerable for this and you
will be held accountable (by God). Therefore, write
to your governors telling them that no one should
be punished by death, but they should write of the
crime to you. There should be witnesses to it, then
you should decide on that punishment to be meted
out after great thought and deliberation" Walid said
"O Abu Hafs (He called Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz, Abu
Hafs), May Allah grant you blessings in your life
and delay your demise. Bring the pen and paper."
Walid then wrote this command to all the
governors. Besides Hajjaj, no one found it difficult.
It weighed heavily on him and he became very
agitated. He thought that no one else besides him
got this command. He investigated and found that
he was wrong. He said "Where did this calamity
come from? Who told this to Walid?" he was told
that 'Umar Ibn Abdul Aziz was responsible for this.
When he heard this he said, "Oh, if the one who
gave this consultation is Umar, then it is not
permissible to reject it". Hajjaj then devised a
plan and sent an extreme Khariji from Iraq to Walid
when Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz was present. The
Khariji swore at Walid and his father. So Ibn
Rayyan, Walid's guard executed him. Walid then
called Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz and asked "Abu Hafs,
what do you think? Did I do the right thing or was I
wrong?" Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz said "You did not do
the right thing in killing him. The better step to take
would have been to send him to jail. Then, he
could have repented before Allah or death would
have come to him." Walid said "He swore at me
and Adbul Malik (my father) and he was a Khariki,
but still according to you, I was not correct in killing
him." Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz replied. "No, by Allah, I
do not think it was permissible. You could have
[215]

jailed him and if you foregave him, then what to

say? (i.e. it would have been better)"
Walid became livid and went away. Ibn Rayyan
said to Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz "Abu Hafs, May Allah
have mercy on you. You answered Walid with such
a reply that I feared that he would have ordered
me to chop your head" Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz asked
"If he ordered you, would you have carried it out?"
He said, "Definitely". Later when Umar Ibn Adbul
Aziz became Caliph, Ibn Rayyan was the first one
to be sacked.
Sulayman Ibn Abdul Malik said to Umar Ibn Adbul
Aziz "Look how many people gather during the
Hajj season." He replied "Amir ul Mu minin, all of
them are your plaintiffs" (They will complain about
you in the court of Allah on the Day of judgment)

[216]

According to Imam Abu Muhammad Adbullah ibn

Abdul Hakam who lived near that time and later
Ibn Katheer said that Ibn Jareer said that, Raja bin
Haiwah (who was also a scholar) the minister of
marriage, for the Umayyad ruler Sulaiman said
that when Sulaiman was on his death bed, I told
him "Indeed amongst the things that preserves the
caliph in his grave is his appointment of a
righteous man over the muslims." So he wrote a
letter appointing the scholar from Madina, Umar
bin Abdul Azeez. To allow the Umayyads to accept
this, Raja then advised him to make his brother
Yazeed bin Adbul Malik the successor after Umar
bin Abdul Azeez.
Umar bin Abdul Azeez was a
grandson of Omar, the second Caliph from his
mothers side. After his appointment he set up a
committee of the jurist in Madina headed by Qasim
ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr and it
included Urwah ibn Zubayr, Ubaidullah bin
Abdullah bin Utbah, Abu Bakr bin Abdur-Rahman
bin al-Harith bin Hisham, Abu Bakr bin Sulaiman
bin Abu Hathmah, Sulaiman bin Yasar, Salim bin
Abdullah, Abdullah bin Amir bin Rabee'ah and
Kharijah bin Zaid bin Thabit, in Madina to advise
on legal matters. The work of Malik ibn Anas and
successive jurists is also based on the work of this
early committee in Madina.Malik ibn Anas also
refers to these Fuqaha' of Madina. Madina at the
time had the largest number of Muhammad's
companions therefore no one could lie about what
Muhammad had said, while in Madina during that
period. After becoming the Khalif, Umar Ibn Adbul
Aziz worked very closely with the scholars in
Madina to make the laws in line with the Quran
and the teachings of Muhammad's. He also
[217][218]

[219]

[220]

reduced the allowances of the Umayyad family

members. Which they deeply resented.
When Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz reduced the
allowances of the Umayyad family members. They
sent some one to him to ask for more. When Umar
Ibn Adbul Aziz refused, the man said to them "O
Banu Umayyah, you should rebuke yourself. You
got up and married a person of your family to the
grand daughter of Umar. He wrapped Umar in a
cloth and presented him to you. You should
therefore rebuke yourself".
[221]

Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz also started peace talks with

the Kharijites. He then reduced the taxes for the
Muslims. He sacked oppressive governors and
replaced them. His policies made him very
popular with the population but not so popular with
the Umayyads. The reduction in the taxes also
reduced further expeditions and the expansion of
the state. But lower taxes and better justice
allowed the economy to expand. The tax collector
Yahya Ibn Sa'id complained that after collecting
the taxes, he could not find people willing to take
the charity from the welfare state
[222]

[223]

Imam Abu Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam

(died 214 AH) writes that Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz then
stopped the allowance of the Banu Umayyah,
stopped giving them land and made them the
same as every one else. And they complained
bitterly. So Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz said to them "By
Allah, I want that no impermissible decision should
remain on the earth that I will not finish off."
[224]

Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz was soon killed, but when the
future rulers tried to reverse his policies, the
population started to rebel.
With the death of Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz the scholars
in Madina got very upset. But in the short time
Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz was in power the changes he
made, had a long-lasting effect in the minds of the
people. An associate of Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz, Zayd
ibn Ali the grandson of Husayns was also very
upset. Zayd ibn Ali then started receiving letters
from Kufa asking him to come to Kufa. In 740, Abu
Hanifah supported his friend Zayd ibn Ali against
an Umayyad ruler but asked his friend not to go to
Kufa. Abu Hanifah, Malik ibn Anas and Zayd ibn
Ali's family advised Zayd ibn Ali not to go to Kufa
feared that Zayd ibn Ali would get betrayed inKufa.
But Zayd ibn Ali felt that he needed to
oppose the Umayyads by force. Zaydis believe
that on his arrival in Kufa, on the last hour of Zayd
ibn Ali, the people in Kufa asked him: "May God
[225][226][227][228]

have mercy on you! What do you have to say on

the matter of Abu Bakr and Umar ibn alKhattab?" Zayd ibn Ali said, "I have not heard
anyone in my family renouncing them both nor
saying anything but good about them...when they
were entrusted with government they behaved
justly with the people and acted according to the
Qur'an and the Sunnah.".
After which they
withdrew their support and Zayd ibn Ali fought
bravely against the Umayyad army but was killed.
The Scholars kept up the pressure on the
Umayyads and as the Umayyads tried to reimpose the taxes abolished by Umar Ibn Adbul
Aziz, the population also got more rebellious.
[229][230]

Later after the Abbasids came to power they tried

to change the laws, in 767 Abu Hanifah died in
prison when he refused to support the Abbasid
ruler Al-Mansurand Malik ibn Anas was flogged.
But then they backed off and allowed the laws of
Madina to be implemented again and the
book Muwatta Imam Malik ofMalik ibn Anas based
on the laws based on the Quran and the example
of Muhammad and based on the work of the
committee of the main jurist in Madina headed
by Qasim ibn Muhammad ibn Abu Bakr, who was
jafar Sadiq's grandfather and Abu Bakr's grandson
were again implemented.
[231]

[232]

Later the Abbasids tried to impose the mutazilite

philosophy so that they could change the laws.
Imam Ahmed Hanbal confronted a ruler and was
tortured and sent to an unlit Baghdad prison cell
for nearly thirty months.
[233]

Footnotes[edit]
1.

Jump up^ Martin Hinds. "Muwiya I". Encyclopaedia

of Islam (2nd ed.). Brill. Retrieved21 September 2014.

2.

Jump up^ Esposito (2010, p. 38)

3.

Jump up^ Hofmann (2007), p.86

4.

Jump up^ Islam: An Illustrated History By Greville

Stewart Parker Freeman-Grenville, Stuart Christopher
Munro-Hay Page 40

5.

Jump up^ R. B. Serjeant, "Sunnah Jami'ah, pacts with

the Yathrib Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: analysis
and translation of the documents comprised in the socalled 'Constitution of Medina'", Bulletin of the School of
Oriental and African Studies (1978), 41: 1-42,
Cambridge University Press.

6.

Jump up^ Watt. Muhammad at Medina and R. B.

Serjeant "The Constitution of Medina." Islamic Quarterly
8 (1964) p.4.

7.

Jump up^ Constitution of Medina

8.

Jump up^ European Naval and Maritime History, 3001500 By Archibald Ross Lewis, Timothy J. Runyan
Page 24 [1]

9.

Jump up^ History of the Jihad By Leonard Michael

Kroll Page 123

10. Jump up^ A History of Byzantium By Timothy E.

Gregory page 183
11. Jump up^ Prophets and Princes: Saudi Arabia from
Muhammad to the Present By Mark Weston Page 61 [2]
12. Jump up^ The Medieval Siege By Jim Bradbury Page
11
13. ^ Jump up to:a b The Spread of Islam: The Contributing
Factors By Abu al-Fazl Izzati, A. Ezzati Page 301
14. ^ Jump up to:a b Islam For Dummies By Malcolm Clark
Page
15. Jump up^ Spiritual Clarity By Jackie Wellman Page 51
16. Jump up^ The Koran For Dummies By Sohaib Sultan
Page
17. Jump up^ Quran: The Surah Al-Nisa, Ch4:v2
18. Jump up^ Quran: Surat Al-Hujurat [49:13]
19. Jump up^ Quran: Surat An-Nisa' [4:1]
20. Jump up^ Iraq, a Complicated State: Iraq's Freedom
War By Karim M. S. Al-Zubaidi Page 32
21. Jump up^ Arab Socialism. [al-Ishtirakiyah Al-?
Arabiyah]: A Documentary Survey By Sami A. Hanna,
George H. Gardner Page 271 [3]
22. Jump up^ Arab Socialism. [al-Ishtirakiyah Al-Arabiyah]:
A Documentary Survey By Sami A. Hanna, George H.
Gardner Page 271 [4]
23. Jump up^ Men Around the Messenger By Khalid
Muhammad Khalid, Muhammad Khali Khalid Page
117 [5]
24. Jump up^ The Cambridge History of Islam:, Volume 2
edited by P. M. Holt, Ann K. S. Lambton, Bernard Lewis
Page 605 [6]
25. Jump up^ The Early Caliphate By Maulana
Muhammad Ali

26. Jump up^ [7]

27. Jump up^ [8]
28. Jump up^ Rahman (1999, p. 37)
29. Jump up^ Madelung, Wilferd. The Succession to
Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate. Cambridge:
Cambridge UP, 1997. Print. ISBN 0-521-64696-0 Pgs.
18, 87, 88, 90, 92-107, 111-113, 130, 134, 140-145,
147, 155-156, 158, 241 - 259, and 334
30. Jump up^ Sayyid, Kaml, and Jasim Alyawy. Malik alAshtar. [Qum, Iran]: Ansariyan Foundation, 1996. Print.
Pgs. 2-4
31. Jump up^ al-Nawawi, "Sharh Sahih Muslim" vol. 11
number 219 n.p Print
32. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 81
33. Jump up^ Modern Intellectual Readings of the
Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 49[9] Some
modern scholars like R.E. Brunnow trace the origins of
the Qurra and the Kharitites back to Bedouin stock and
desert tribesmen, who had become soldiers not out of
commitment to Islam but to share the spoils. Brunnow
held that the Kharijites were Bedouin Arabs
(Beduinenaraber) or full blooded Arabs.
34. Jump up^ Spiritual Clarity By Jackie Wellman Page 51
35. Jump up^ The Koran For Dummies By Sohaib Sultan
Page
36. Jump up^ Qur'an: The Surah Al-Nisa, Ch4:v2
37. Jump up^ Qur'an: Surat Al-Hujurat [49:13]
38. Jump up^ Qur'an: Surat An-Nisa' [4:1]
39. Jump up^ A Chronology Of Islamic History 570-1000
CE, By H.U. Rahman 1999 Page 10
40. Jump up^ Iraq a Complicated State: Iraq's Freedom
War By Karim M. S. Al-Zubaidi Page 32
41. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa her life and works
by Allamah Syed Sulaiman Nadvi translated by Syed
Athar Husain and published by Darul Ishaat Page 39
42. Jump up^ History of the Jews: From the Roman
Empire to the Early Medieval ..., Volume 2 By Simon
Dubnov page 330 where it talks about Abdala Ben
Saba [10]
43. Jump up^ Jewish Literature from the Eighth to the
Eighteenth Century: With an ... By Moritz
Steinschneider, William Spottiswoode page 59 [11]

44. Jump up^ history of the jews, Volume 2 By Ernst G.

Maier Page 330
45. Jump up^ There is also other non Muslim literature
from near that time like The Chronography of Bar
Hebraeus By Bar Hebraeus [12]
46. Jump up^ al-Baladhuri and At-Tabari 5:66
47. Jump up^ Modern Intellectual Readings of the
Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 62 [13]
48. Jump up^ The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin al-Waleed,
His Life and Campaigns, Nat. Publishing. House,
Rawalpindi (1970) ISBN 0-7101-0104-X
49. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 13
50. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Modern Intellectual Readings of the
Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 61 [14]
51. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith by
Aisha Bewley, page 14, with text from Al-Baladuri
52. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 13
53. Jump up^ Modern Intellectual Readings of the
Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 62 [15]
54. Jump up^ Modern Intellectual Readings of the
Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 62 [16]
55. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 13
56. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 14 with text from Al-Baladuri
57. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Modern Intellectual Readings of the
Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 61-65 about the
writings of M. A. Shahban, In his Islamic History A.D.
600-750 (A.H. 132): A new Interpretation (1971) [17]
58. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 13
59. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 13
60. Jump up^ The Arab World: An Illustrated History By
Kirk H. Sowell Page 42
61. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 13
62. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 14 with text from Al-Baladuri

63. Jump up^ Modern Intellectual Readings of the

Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 58 [18]
64. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 14 with text from Al-Baladuri
65. Jump up^ [19][20]Al-Baladuri
66. Jump up^ text from al Baladhuri in the book Muawiya
Restorer of the Muslim Faith By Aisha Bewley Page 14
67. Jump up^ text from al Baladhuri in the book Muawiya
Restorer of the Muslim Faith By Aisha Bewley Page 15
68. Jump up^ text from al Baladhuri in the book Muawiya
Restorer of the Muslim Faith By Aisha Bewley Page 15
69. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 15
70. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 15
71. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 16
72. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 16
73. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa her life and works
by Allamah Syed Sulaiman Nadvi translated by Syed
Athar Husain and published by Darul Ishaat Page 39
74. Jump up^ In the shadow of the sword, The Battle for
Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World By Tom
Holland, ISBN 978-0-349-12235-9 Abacus Page 396
75. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 14
76. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 14
77. Jump up^ Ibn Mjah no. 174, Sahh al-Jmi by alAlbn (no. 8027).
78. Jump up^ Recorded by Muslim (no. 1068) and it is in
Sahh al-Jmi (no. 7913) by al-Albn.
79. Jump up^ [21] page 7 says it is in al-Bukhr (no.
3344), Muslim (no. 1064), al-Nas` (no. 2578), and Ab
Dwd (no. 4764). It is also in Sahh al-Jmi by alAlbn (no. 2223) and al-Lulu wa al-Marjn (no. 639).
80. Jump up^ Modern Intellectual Readings of the
Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 49 [22]
81. Jump up^ Rahman (1999, p. 53)

82. Jump up^ A Chronology Of Islamic History 570-1000

CE, By H.U. Rahman 1999 Page 53
83. Jump up^ The Many Faces of Faith: A Guide to World
Religions and Christian Traditions By Richard R. Losch
84. Jump up^ Encyclopedia of Islam Volume VII, page 264
By Bosworth
85. Jump up^ tabri 2959 2985
86. Jump up^ al-Baladuri 204-5
87. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 17
88. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 18
89. Jump up^ Nahj ul Balagha Sermon 91
90. Jump up^ Nahj ul Balagha, Letter 54.
91. Jump up^ Iraq, a Complicated State Page 32
92. ^ Jump up to:a b Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa By Allamah
Syed Sulaiman Nadvi Page 44
93. ^ Jump up to:a b Nahj al Balagha Sermon 72
94. Jump up^ Medieval Islamic civilization By Josef W.
Meri Page 131
95. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa By Allamah Syed
Sulaiman Nadvi p. 44"
96. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa By Allamah Syed
Sulaiman Nadvi p. 44"
97. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa By Allamah Syed
Sulaiman Nadvi p. 44"
98. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa By Allamah Syed
Sulaiman Nadvi p. 44"
99. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa By Allamah Syed
Sulaiman Nadvi p. 44"
100. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa By Allamah Syed
Sulaiman Nadvi p. 44"
101. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa By Allamah Syed
Sulaiman Nadvi p. 44"
102. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa By Allamah Syed
Sulaiman Nadvi p. 44"
103. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa By Allamah Syed
Sulaiman Nadvi p. 44"

104. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa By Allamah Syed

Sulaiman Nadvi p. 44"
105. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa By Allamah Syed
Sulaiman Nadvi p. 44"
106. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa By Allamah Syed
Sulaiman Nadvi p. 44"
107. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa By Allamah Syed
Sulaiman Nadvi p. 44
108. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa By Allamah Syed
Sulaiman Nadvi p. 44
109. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa By Allamah Syed
Sulaiman Nadvi p. 44
110. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa By Allamah Syed
Sulaiman Nadvi p. 44"
111. Jump up^ The Early Caliphate, Maulana Muhammad
Ali, Al-Jadda Printers, pg. 169-206, 1983
112. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa By Allamah Syed
Sulaiman Nadvi p. 44"
113. Jump up^ See:

Lapidus (2002), p.47

Holt (1977a), p.70 - 72

Tabatabaei (1979), p.50 - 53

Nahj Al-Balagha Sermons 8, 31, 171, 173,

114. Jump up^ Najeebabadi, Akbar Shah (2001). The

History of Islam V.2. Riyadh: Darussalam. pp. 110. ISBN
9960-892-88-3.
115. ^ Jump up to:a b [23]
116. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 22 from Ibn Hisham from Ibn
Muzahim died 212 AH from Abu Mikhnaf died 170 AH
117. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa her life and works
by Allamah Syed Sulaiman Nadvi translated by Syed
Athar Husain and published by Darul Ishaat Page 44
118. ^ Jump up to:a b Islamic Conquest of Syria A translation
of Fatuhusham by al-Imam al-Waqidi Translated by
Mawlana Sulayman al-Kindi Page 31 [24]
119. Jump up^ Islamic Conquest of Syria A translation of
Fatuhusham by al-Imam al-Waqidi Translated by
Mawlana Sulayman al-Kindi [25]

120. Jump up^ "Asadul Ghaba" vol 3, p. 246. Name of

book needed
121. ^ Jump up to:a b Nahjul Balaagha - Letter 58
122. Jump up^ Nahjul Balaagha - Letter 58
123. Jump up^ Encyclopedia of Islam Volume VII, page 265
By Bosworth
124. Jump up^ A Chronology of Islamic History 570-1000
CE By H U Rahman Page 59
125. Jump up^ A Chronology of Islamic History 570-1000
CE By H U Rahman Page 60
126. Jump up^ Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World:
A Historical Encyclopedia edited by Alexander
Mikaberidze, p. 836 [26]
127. Jump up^ Ground Warfare: H-Q edited by Stanley
Sandler, p. 602. Books.google.co.uk. Retrieved 201304-30.
128. Jump up^ A Chronology of Islamic History 570-1000
CE By H U Rahman Page 60
129. Jump up^ A Chronology of Islamic History 570-1000
CE By H U Rahman Page 59
130. Jump up^ A Chronology of Islamic History 570-1000
CE By H U Rahman Page 59
131. Jump up^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 314318
132. Jump up^ Modern Intellectual Readings of the
Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 58 [27]
133. Jump up^ The Arab World: An Illustrated History By
Kirk H. Sowell Page 57 [28]
134. Jump up^ Modern Intellectual Readings of the
Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 46 [29]
135. Jump up^ In the shadow of the sword, The Battle for
Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World By Tom
Holland, ISBN 978-0-349-12235-9 Abacus Page 389
136. Jump up^ In the shadow of the sword, The Battle for
Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World By Tom
Holland, ISBN 978-0-349-12235-9 Abacus Page 399
137. Jump up^ A Chronology of Islamic History 570-1000
CE By H U Rahman Page 59
138. Jump up^ In the shadow of the sword, The Battle for
Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World By Tom
Holland, ISBN 978-0-349-12235-9 Abacus Page 399

139. Jump up^ A Chronology of Islamic History 570-1000 By

H. U. Rahman
140. Jump up^ name="Tabatabaei 1979 192"
141. Jump up^ Modern Intellectual Readings of the
Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 53 [30]
142. Jump up^ Modern Intellectual Readings of the
Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 53 [31]
143. Jump up^ Modern Intellectual Readings of the
Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 53 [32]
144. Jump up^ Modern Intellectual Readings of the
Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 53 [33]
145. Jump up^ Modern Intellectual Readings of the
Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 63 [34]
146. Jump up^ Modern Intellectual Readings of the
Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 63 [35]
147. Jump up^ Modern Intellectual Readings of the
Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 62 [36]
148. Jump up^ Modern Intellectual Readings of the
Kharijites By Hussam S. Timani Page 59 [37]
149. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa her life and works
by Allamah Syed Sulaiman Nadvi translated by Syed
Athar Husain and published by Darul Ishaat Page 46
150. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa her life and works
by Allamah Syed Sulaiman Nadvi translated by Syed
Athar Husain and published by Darul Ishaat Page 47
Ahmad Musnad Vol V1 pp 86-87
151. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa her life and works
by Allamah Syed Sulaiman Nadvi translated by Syed
Athar Husain and published by Darul Ishaat Page 47
152. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa her life and works
by Allamah Syed Sulaiman Nadvi translated by Syed
Athar Husain and published by Darul Ishaat Page 48
153. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa her life and works
by Allamah Syed Sulaiman Nadvi translated by Syed
Athar Husain and published by Darul Ishaat Page 47
Ahmad Musnad Vol V1 pp 86-87
154. Jump up^ The Succession to Muhammad: A Study of
the Early Caliphate By Wilferd Madelung Page 232 [38]
155. Jump up^ Sahih Al Bukhari Volume 3, Book 49
(Peacemaking), Number 867
156. Jump up^ [39] Book of "Peacemaking" Sahih Bukhari Volume 3, Book 49 (Peacemaking), Number 867

157. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first

Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 45
158. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 45
159. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 45
160. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 45
161. Jump up^ The Great Arab Conquests By Hugh
Kennedy, page 349
162. Jump up^ History of Israel and the Holy Land By
Michael Avi-Yonah, Shimon Peres.Books.google.co.uk.
Retrieved 2013-04-30.
163. ^ Jump up to:a b Mu'awiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith
By Aisha Bewley, Page 33, Publisher Dar Al Taqwa
Ltd [40]
164. Jump up^ Hadhrat Ayesha Siddiqa her life and works
by Allamah Syed Sulaiman Nadvi translated by Syed
Athar Husain and published by Darul Ishaat Page 47
165. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 135
166. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 39
167. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 135
168. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 135

169. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first

Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 134
170. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 134
171. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 121
172. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 135
173. Jump up^ The Great Arab Conquests by Hugh
Kennedy Page 209
174. Jump up^ The Great Arab Conquests by Hugh
Kennedy Page 209
175. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 48
176. Jump up^ Nahjul Balagha, Sermon 96
177. Jump up^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 325327
178. Jump up^ The Walls of Constantinople, AD 324
1453, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1-84176-759-X.
179. Jump up^ Treadgold (1997), pp. 318324
180. Jump up^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 314318
181. Jump up^ Treadgold 1997, pp. 318324
182. Jump up^ The Arab World: An Illustrated History By
Kirk H. Sowell Page 77
183. Jump up^ The Arab World: An Illustrated History By
Kirk H. Sowell Page 73
184. Jump up^ Fred M Donner "Muhammad and the
Caliphate; Political History of the Islamic Empire up to
the Mongol Conquest" in The Oxford History of Islam,
John Esposito, ed (New York Oxford University Press,
1999) 35.
185. Jump up^ The Arab World: An Illustrated History By
Kirk H. Sowell Page 80

186. Jump up^ The Arab World: An Illustrated History By

Kirk H. Sowell Page 80
187. Jump up^ In the shadow of the sword, The Battle for
Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World By Tom
Holland, ISBN 978-0-349-12235-9 Abacus Page 400
188. Jump up^ In the book, In the shadow of the sword, The
Battle for Global Empire and the End of the Ancient
World By Tom Holland, ISBN 978-0-349-122359 Abacus Page 400
189. Jump up^ In the shadow of the sword, The Battle for
Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World By Tom
Holland, ISBN 978-0-349-12235-9 Abacus Page 400
190. Jump up^ In the shadow of the sword, The Battle for
Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World By Tom
Holland, ISBN 978-0-349-12235-9 Abacus Page 400
191. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 55-56
192. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 55-56
193. Jump up^ Muawiya Restorer of the Muslim Faith By
Aisha Bewley Page 50 to 51
194. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 21 to 127
195. Jump up^ The shadow of the sword, The Battle for
Global Empire and the End of the Ancient World By Tom
Holland, ISBN 978-0-349-12235-9 Abacus Page 409
196. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 82
197. Jump up^ Islamic Conquest of Syria A translation of
Fatuhusham by al-Imam al-Waqidi Translated by
Mawlana Sulayman al-Kindi Page 352-353 [41]
198. Jump up^ Islamic Conquest of Syria A translation of
Fatuhusham by al-Imam al-Waqidi Translated by
Mawlana Sulayman al-Kindi Page 313 [42]
199. Jump up^ Islamic Conquest of Syria A translation of
Fatuhusham by al-Imam al-Waqidi Translated by
Mawlana Sulayman al-Kindi Page 358 [43]

200. Jump up^ Islamic Conquest of Syria A translation of

Fatuhusham by al-Imam al-Waqidi Translated by
Mawlana Sulayman al-Kindi Page 358 [44]
201. Jump up^ Islamic Conquest of Syria A translation of
Fatuhusham by al-Imam al-Waqidi Translated by
Mawlana Sulayman al-Kindi Page 359 [45]
202. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 82
203. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 83
204. Jump up^ [46] Hosay Trinidad: Muharram
Performances in an Indo-Caribbean Diaspora By Frank
J. Korom Page 24
205. Jump up^ Redemptive Suffering in Islam: A Study of
the Devotional Aspects of Ashura ... By Mahmoud M.
Ayoub Page 95 [47]
206. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 135
207. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 152
208. Jump up^ [48]
209. Jump up^ Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz By Imam Abu
Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH
829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi
210. Jump up^ Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz By Imam Abu
Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH
829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi Page
35-36
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Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 265
212. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 414

213. Jump up^ Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz By Imam Abu

Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH
829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi
214. Jump up^ Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz By Imam Abu
Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH
829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi Page
46
215. Jump up^ Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz By Imam Abu
Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH
829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi Page
203-204
216. Jump up^ Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz By Imam Abu
Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH
829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi Page
225
217. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
Page 505
218. Jump up^ Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz By Imam Abu
Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH
829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi Page
54-59
219. Jump up^ The Caliphate of Banu Umayyah the first
Phase, Ibn Katheer, Taken from Al-Bidayah wanNihayah by Ibn Katheer, Ismail Ibn Omar 775 ISBN 978603-500-080-2 Translated by Yoosuf Al-Hajj Ahmad
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220. Jump up^ [49]
221. Jump up^ Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz By Imam Abu
Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH
829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi Page
84-85
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Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH
829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi Page
220-221
223. Jump up^ Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz By Imam Abu
Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH
829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi Page
171
224. Jump up^ Umar Ibn Adbul Aziz By Imam Abu
Muhammad Adbullah ibn Abdul Hakam died 214 AH
829 C.E. Publisher Zam Zam Publishers Karachi Page
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226. Jump up^ Tarikh al-madhahib al-fiqhiyah - Page 114

227. Jump up^ Islam re-defined: an intelligent man's guide

towards understanding Islam - Page 54 [51]
228. Jump up^ Rebellion and Violence in Islamic Law By
Khaled Abou El Fadl page 72
229. Jump up^ The waning of the Umayyad caliphate by
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230. Jump up^ The Encyclopedia of Religion Vol.16, Mircea
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232. Jump up^ Decline of Muslim States and Societies By
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Societies (2nd ed.). Cambridge University
Press. ISBN 978-0-521-77933-3.

Madelung, Wilferd (1997). The Succession to

Muhammad: A Study of the Early Caliphate.
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-52164696-0.

Tabatabae, Sayyid Mohammad

Hosayn (1979). Shi'ite Islam. Translated
by Seyyed Hossein Nasr. Suny press. ISBN 087395-272-3.
Encyclopedia

Encyclopdia Iranica. Center for Iranian

Studies, Columbia University. ISBN 1-56859050-4.

List of expeditions of Muhammad

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

[hide]This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page.
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This list of expeditions of Muhammad, also includes a list of battles of Muhammad and
comprises information about casualties, objectives, and nature of the military expeditions ordered
by Muhammad, as well as the primary sources which mention the expeditions.
Contents
[hide]

1 List of expeditions

2 Notes

3 References

4 Main sources

List of expeditions[edit]
Key/Legend

Sariyyah (expeditions which he ordered but did not take part (73))
(27))

No
.

Muhammad's order and

reason for expedition

Casualties
description

Name

Date

Al Is
Caravan
Raid

623 [1][2][3][4]

Raid Quraysh caravan to

relieve themselves from
poverty[5]

Batn
Rabigh
Caravan
Raid

623 [1][2][3][6]

Raid Quraysh caravan to

relieve themselves from
poverty[4][5]

Kharar
Caravan
Raid

May & June

623 [1][2][3][4][8]

Attack a Quraysh
caravan[4]

Invasion of
Waddan

August 623[8]

Attack a Quraysh caravan

which included camels[4][8]

[9]

October
623[11][12]

Raid a Quraysh caravan

which included 200
camels[13][14]

Invasion of
Dul Ashir

December
623[15]

Attack a Quraysh
caravan[6]

Invasion of
Safwan

623 [15]

To pursue Kurz ibn Jabir

al-Fihri who led a small
group that looted
Muhammad's animals[13]

Nakhla
Raid

Battle of
Badr

January
624[15]

March
624 [22]

Attack a Quraysh caravan

and gather information[6][18]

According to the Muslim

scholar Safiur Rahman
Mubarakpuri the purpose
was to raid a Quraysh
caravan carrying 50,000

None [2]

None,
caravan left [2]

None,
caravan left[2]

Notable primary sources

Ibn Hisham & Ibn Ishaq [4]

Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:57:74

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[7]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[7]

Sahih alBukhari, 4:52:256

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq [10]

Unknown

Invasion of
Buwat

Ghazwah (expeditions which he ordered and took part

None,
caravan left [2]

Sahih Muslim, 42:7149

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq [14]

None,
caravan left [13][16]

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq [16]

None,
enemy
escaped[13]

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq [17]

Muslims: 0
Casualties

NonMuslims: 1
killed, 2
captured [18]

Muslims:
14 killed

[Quran 2:217] [19][20]

Ibn Hisham & Ibn Ishaq[21]

[Quran 8:47] [Quran 68:25] [Quran 8:5] [Quran 8:6]

,
,
,
and more[26]

gold Dinars guarded by 40

men, and to further the
Muslim political,
economic and military
position.[23] The Muslim
scholar Ibn Kathiralso said
the purpose of this battle
was to capture Quraysh
war booty/spoils and make
Islam dominant by raiding
the Quraysh Caravan, he
claimed Muhammad
encouraged the Muslims
by saying: "This is the
caravan of Quraysh
carrying their property, so
march forth to intercept it,
Allah might make it as
war spoils for you".[24]

10

11

12

13

14

Assassinati
on of Asma
bint
Marwan

January
624[29]

Assassinati
on of Abu
Afak

February
624[32]

Invasion of
Sawiq

Invasion of
Banu
Qaynuqa

Al Kudr
Invasion

Kill 'Asma' bint Marwan

for opposing Muhammad
with poetry and for
provoking others to attack
him[30]

Kill Abu Afak for

opposing Muhammad
through poetry[31]

Pursue Abu Sufyan for

killing 2 Muslims and
burning of palm trees[36]

624 [35]

Attack the Banu Qaynuqa

Jews for allegedly
breaking the treaty known
as the Constitution of
Medina[40] by pinning the
clothes of a Muslim
woman, which lead to her
being stripped naked[41]

February
624[39]

May 624

[48]

Surprise attack on the

Banu Salim tribe for
allegedly plotting to attack
Medina[49]

Sahih alBukhari, 4:53:369,Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:357,Sunan Abu

Dawood,14:2716, Sahih alBukhari,5:59:293 [27]

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq [28]

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq [31]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2 [30]

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq [33]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2 [34]

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq [37]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2 [38]

NonMuslims: 70
killed, 30-47
captured[25]

Asma' bint
Marwan
assassinated[28]

Abu Afak
assassinated[31]

2 Muslims
killed[36]

[Quran 8:58] [42][Quran 3:118] [43][44][Quran 3:12]

[Quran 3:13][45]

Unknown,
some revenge
killings[41]

Unknown

Sahih Muslim, 19:4364

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2 [46]

Tabari, Volume 7, The

foundation of the community[47]

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq [50]

15

16

17

18

19

20

Invasion of
Thi Amr

Assassinati
on of Ka'b
ibn alAshraf

Invasion of
Bahran

Nejd
Caravan
Raid

Expedition
of
'Abdullah
ibn 'Atik

Battle of
Uhud

Raid the Banu Muharib

and Banu Talabah tribes
after he received
intelligence that they were
allegedly going to raid the
outskirts ofMedina[53]

September
624 [55]

According to Ibn Ishaq,

Muhammad ordered his
followers to kill Ka'b
because he "had gone to
Mecca after Badr and
inveighed against
Muhammad. He also
composed verses in which
he bewailed the victims of
Quraysh who had been
killed at Badr. Shortly
afterwards he returned to
Medina and composed
amatory verses of an
insulting nature about the
Muslim women".[56][57]

Ka'b ibn alAshraf

assassinated[57]

624 [58]

Raid the Banu Sulaym

tribe,[59] no reason given in
primary sources ( Possibly
a continuation of the
previous war)

None [58]

September
624 [51][52]

624 [58]

December
624[63]

March 23
625[67][68]

Intercept and capture

Quraysh caravan and its
goods[58]

Kill Abu Rafi' ibn Abi AlHuqaiq for mocking

Muhammad with his
poetry and for helping the
troops of the Confederates
by providing them with
money and supplies[64]

Defend against Quraysh

attack[69]

1 captured
by Muslims[53]

3 captured
by
Muslims(includi
ng guide)[58]

Abu Rafi
assassinated[64]

Muslims:

[Quran 5:11][53]

Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:458

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2 [54]

Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:369,Sahih

Muslim, 19:4436

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq [60]

Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:627,Sahih

Muslim, 19:4330,Sunan Abu
Dawood, 14:2672

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq [61]

Tabari, Volume 7, The

foundation of the community[62]

Sahih alBukhari, 4:52:264,Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:370,Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:371,Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:372and more [65]

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq [66]

Tabari, Volume 7, The

foundation of the community[51]

[Quran 8:36] [70] [Quran 3:122] [Quran 3:167] [71]

70 killed

21

22

Invasion of
Hamra alAsad

Expedition
of Qatan

March 625[73]

June 625 [73]

Prevent Quraysh attack on

weakened Muslim army[74]

Attack Banu Asad bin

Khuzaymah tribe after
receiving intelligence that
they were allegedly
plotting to attack Medina[81]

NonMuslims: 22 or
37 Killed[69]

Muslims: 2
spies killed

NonMuslims: 3
beheaded, 3
captured[74]

23

24

Expedition
of
Abdullah
Ibn Unais

Expedition
of Al Raji

625

[83]

Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:404[79]

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq [80]

Sahih
Muslim, 19:4330,Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:627and more

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2 [82]

3 captured
by Muslims[82]

625 [88]

Some men requested that

Muhammad send
instructors to teach them
Islam,[88] but the men were
bribed by the two tribes of
Khuzaymah who wanted
revenge for
theassassination of Khalid
bin Sufyan by
Muhammad's followers.
[89]
According toWilliam
Montgomery Watt, the
seven men Muhammad
sent may have been spies
for Muhammad and
instructors for Arab tribes.
[90]
Watt's claim that they
were spies and not
missionaries is mentioned
in the Sunni hadith
collection Sahih alBukhari [91]

Khalid ibn
Sufyan
assassinated[83]

8[88] or 10
Muslims killed[3]

, [Quran 3:

[Quran 3:172] [75][76][77][78][Quran 3:173]

174][74]

Kill Khalid bin Sufyan,

because there were reports
he considered an attack on
Madinah and that he was
inciting the people on
Nakhla or Uranah to fight
Muslims[83]

Sahih alBukhari, 4:52:276,Sahih alBukhari, 3:30:108[72]

Musnad Ahmad 3:496[84]

Abu Dawud, book 2
no.1244[85]

Ibn Hisham & Ibn Ishaq[83]

Tabari, Volume 9, The last

years of the Prophet[86][87]

Sahih
Muslim, 4:1442,Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:412[92]

Ibn Hisham & Ibn Ishaq[92]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat
al-kabir, Volume 2 [93]

25

26

27

28

29

The
Mission of
Amr bin
Umayyah
al-Damri

Expedition
of Bir
Maona

Invasion of
Banu Nadir

Expedition
of Dhat alRiqa

Invasion of
Badr

627 [94]

July 625 [100]

August
625[104]

October
625[110] or
627[108]

January
626[3]or
March 625[94]
[113]

Amr bin Umayyah alDamri sent to

assassinate Abu
Sufyan[95] to
avengeKhubyab bin Adi.
[96]
According to the
Muslim scholar Safiur
Rahman Mubarakpuri, the
Quraysh ordered Khubyab
bin Adi to be crucified
by Uqba bin alHarith during
theExpedition of Al
Raji because he had
killedUqba bin al-Harith's
father.[97]
Muhammad sends
Missionaries at request of
some men from the Banu
Amir tribe,[101] but the
Muslims are killed as
revenge for
theassassination of Khalid
bin Sufyan by
Muhammad's followers[89]
Muslim scholars (like
Mubarakpuri) claim, the
Banu Nadir were attacked
because the Angel
Gabriel told Muhammad
that some of the Banu
Nadir wanted to
assassinate him.
[105]
Watt contends it was in
response to the tribes
criticism of Muhammad
and doubts they wanted to
assassinate Muhammad.
He says "it is possible that
the allegation was no more
than an excuse to justify
the attack".[106]

Attack the Banu Ghatafan

tribe, because he received
news that they were
assembling at Dhat alRiqa with a suspicious
purpose[108]

Attack the Quraysh led by

Abu Sufyan, both sides
were preparing to fight
each other again at Badr[114]

3
polytheists
killed by
Muslims[95]

Tabari, Volume 7, The

foundation of the community[99]

1 captured[98]

Muslims:
70 killed[101]
NonMuslims: 2
killed[101]

Unknown

Quran 3:169-173[102]

Ibn Hisham[103]

Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:405,Sahih

Muslim, 4:1433

Quran chapter 59,

and[Quran 2:256][105]

Sunan Abu
Dawood,14:2676[107]

Sahih alBukhari, 3:39:519

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq[108]

Tabari, Volume 9, The last

years of the Prophet[109]

Quran 4:101 and 5:11[112]

Many
women captured
by Muslims[111]

Sahih Muslim, 4:1830

Tabari, Volume 7, The

foundation of the
community[110]

None,
enemy flees[114]

Quran 3:173-176[115]
Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:627

30

31

32

Invasion of
Dumatul
Jandal

Battle of
the Trench

Invasion of
Banu
Qurayza

July 626 [116]

February
627[120]

February
March
627 [126]

Invade Duma, because

Muhammad received
intelligence that some
tribes there were involved
in highway robbery and
preparing to attack Medina
itself[117]
Muhammad orders
Muslims to defend Medina
from attack, after Banu
Nadir and Banu Qaynuqa
tribes form an alliance
with the Quraysh to attack
him as revenge for
expelling them from
Medina.[121][122] The Muslim
scholar Ibn Kathir states:
"The reason why the
Confederates came was
that a group of the leaders
of the Jews of Banu Nadir,
whom the Messenger of
Allah hadexpelled from
Al-Madinah to Khaybar,
including Sallam bin Abu
Al-Huqayq, Sallam bin
Mishkam and Kinanah bin
Ar-Rabi`, went to Makkah
where they met with the
leaders of Quraysh and
incited them to make war
against the Prophet" [123]

Attack Banu Qurayza

because according to
Muslim tradition he had
been ordered to do so by
the angel Gabriel.[76][77][78][127]
[128][129]
Al-Waqidi claims
Muhammad had a treaty
with the tribe which was
torn apart. Stillmanand
Watt deny the authenticity
of al-Waqidi.[130] Al-Waqidi
has been frequently
criticized by Muslim
writers, who claim that he
is unreliable.[131][132]

None,
Ghatafan tribe
flees[117]

Muslims:
light casualties

NonMuslims:
extremely heavy
casualties[124]

Ibn Hisham & Ibn Ishaq[114]

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq [118]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[119]

Quran 33:10-13,[Quran 3:22][125]

Sahih
Bukhari 5:59:435,Sahih
Muslim, 31:4940 and more

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq[125]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[121]

Muslims: 2
killed[127]

NonMuslims:

1. 600-900
beheaded
(Tabari,
Ibn
Hisham)[127]

Sunan Abu
Dawood, 38:4390

Sahih alBukhari, 4:52:68,Sahih alBukhari, 4:57:66and more

Tabari, Volume 8, Victory

of Islam[138]

[128][133]

2. All Males
and 1
woman
beheaded
(Sunni
Hadith)[134]

[Quran 33:26] [128]

[135]

33

Expedition
of

June 627 [139]

Attack Bani Bakr sept for

booty/spoils[140][141][142]

10 killed, 1

Quran33:09 &

33:10[136][137]

Sahih

Muhamma
d ibn
Maslamah

captured by
Muslims[141][142]

Muslim, 19:4361,Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:658

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[143]

34

Expedition
of Ukasha
bin AlMihsan

627 [144]

Attack Banu Assad bin

Qhuzayma tribe to capture
booty/spoils[144][145]

None, Banu
Asad tribe
flees[146]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[145]

35

First Raid
on Banu
Thalabah

August 627[3]

Attack the Banu Thalabah

tribe, because he suspected
they would be tempted to
steal his camels[146]

9 Muslims
killed[146]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[148]

36

Second
Raid on
Banu
Thalabah

August 627

Attack the Banu Thalabah

tribe, as revenge for
the 1st failed raid on them
in which 9 Muslims
died[146]

1 injured
man captured by
Muslims[146]

Tabari, Volume 9, The last

years of the Prophet[149]

September
627 [3][94]

Attack the Banu Lahyan

tribe to get revenge for the
killing of 10 Muslims in
the Expedition of Al
Raji[146]

None, Banu
Lahyan tribe
flees[146]

Sahih Muslim, 20:4672[150]

37

Invasion of
Banu
Lahyan

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[151]

627

Initially no orders given

by Muhammad, Amr ibn
al-Akwa pursues Uyanah
bin Hisn Al-Fazari after
seeing him seize 20 of
Muhammad's camels
while calling for help.
[152]
Muhammad then heard
the calls and sent
reinforcements.[153]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[152]

Tabari, Volume 8, History

of Islam [154]

38

Raid on alGhabah

[94][147]

[94][147]

[152]

[3]

Expedition
of Dhu
Qarad

September
627 [3][94]

To attack a group of men

led by Uyanah bin Hisn
Al-Fazari, who raided the
outskirts of the Medina;
and seized 20 of
Muhammad's milch
camels[155]

40

Expedition
of Zaid ibn
Haritha
(AlJumum)

627 [146]

41

Expedition
of Zaid ibn
Haritha
(Al-Is)

39

42

Third Raid
on Banu

1 Muslim
shepherd killed,
and his wife
captured[152]

Muslims: 4
killed

NonMuslims: 4
Killed[156]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[157]

To raid al-Jumum and

capture booty/spoils[158]

Some
captured by
Muslims[146]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[159]

September
627 [160]

Attack Quraysh caravan

and loot their camels[146][161]

Many
captured by
Muslims[146][161]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[161]

627 [94]

To raid Banu Thalabah

and capture their camels as

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

None, Banu

Sahih Muslim, 19:4450

43

44

45

46

47

48

49

Thalabah

booty[162]

Expedition
of Zaid ibn
Haritha
(Hisma)

October
627[94]

Attack robbers who

attacked Muhammad's
envoy, Dhiyah bin
Khalifah al-Kalbi[164]

Expedition
of Zaid ibn
Haritha
(Wadi alQura)

December
627[166]

Survey the area and to

monitor the movements of
the enemies of
Muhammad[162]

December
627[94]

Attack Banu Mustaliq

because Muhammad
received some rumours
that the Banu Mustaliq
were preparing to attack
him.[168]The Banu Mustaliq
also believed that
Muhammad was preparing
to attack them, both sides
sent spies to confirm the
reports, but the Banu
Mustaliq spy was killed by
Muslims, and then
Muhammad told his
followers to prepare for
war[169]

Invasion of
Banu
Mustaliq

Expedition
of Abdur
Rahman
bin Auf

Expedition
of Fidak

Second
Expedition
of Wadi alQura

Expedition
of Kurz bin
Jabir AlFihri

December
627[94]

700 men sent to get the

Christian king Al-Asbagh
and his people to convert
to Islam within 3 days or
pay Jizyah[172][173]

627 [94]

Attack the Bani Sad bin

Bakr tribe, because
Muhammad received
intelligence they were
planning to help the Jews
of Khaybar[176]

January
628[94]

Raid the inhabitants of

Wadi al-Qura for revenge,
because a number of
Muslims were killed when
they tried to raid the
inhabitants previously, but
failed[178]

February
628[94]

Capture 8 men who came

to him to convert to Islam,
but then killed one Muslim
and drove off with
Muhammad's camels[181]

Thalabah tribe
flees[162]

al-kabir, Volume 2[163]

Heavy
casualties
inflicted, 100
women and boys
captured by
Muslims[164]

Sahih alBukhari, 2:52:191

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[165]

9 Muslims
killed[162][167]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[167]

Muslims: 1
killed
(friendly fire)

Sahih alBukhari, 76:1:422

NonMuslims: 10
killed, 200
families taken
captive[169][170]

None[174]

1 captured
by Muslims, rest
of tribe flees[177]

30
horsemen,[179] and
1 women killed
by Muslims[180]

Many
captured by
Muslims[180]

Muslims: 1
killed

Sahih Muslim, 19:4292

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq [171]

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq [175]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[177]

Sahih Muslim, 19:4345

Tabari, Volume 8, History
of Islam[180]

Quran 5:33-39[181][183]

50

51

52

53

Expedition
of
Abdullah
ibn
Rawaha

February
628[94]

Treaty of
Hudaybiyy
ah

March
628 [189]

March to Mecca to
perform the lesser
pilgrimage (Umrah)[190]

May 628 [192]

To force the Jews of Fidak

to surrender their
properties and wealth
(accepting his terms) or be
attacked[137]

Conquest
of Fidak

Battle of
Khaybar

Kill Al-Yusayr ibn Rizam

because Muhammad heard
that his group was
preparing to attack him[184]

May/June
628[195]

Third
Expedition
of Wadi al
Qura

May 628 [192]

55

Expedition
of Umar
ibn alKhatab

December
628[94]

Attack Banu Hawazin for

booty[202]

56

Expedition
of Abu
Bakr AsSiddiq

December
628[94]

Attack the Banu Kilab

tribe[203]

54

Attack the Jews of Wadi al

Qura to conquer their
land[200]

Sahih alBukhari, 1:4:234,Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:505,Sahih alBukhari, 7:71:623and more

Tirmidhi no. 3923,
Musnad Ahmad ibn
Hanbal2:1966 [187]
[186]

[185]

To attack the Jews of

Khaybar for booty to
distribute to his followers
whose expectations had
recently been disappointed
(according toWatt)[196]

NonMuslims: 8
tortured to
death[181][182]

30 killed by
Muslims[184][185]

None

None

Muslims:
16-18 killed

Jews: 93
killed[197]

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq [188]

[Quran 48:24]

, [Quran 48:18][190]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[191]

[Quran 59:6] [Quran 59:7][193]

Sahih Muslim, 19:2961

Sunan Abu
Dawud, Musnad Ahmad ibn
Hanbal[194]

[Quran 48:15] [Quran 48:20][198]

Sahih Bukhari

Sahih Muslim, 19:4450[199]

Al-Muwatta, 21 13.25

Tabari, Volume 9, The last

years of the Prophet[201]

Muslims: 1
killed[201]

Jews: 11
killed[197]

None, tribe
flees[185]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[202]

Many
killed[203]
(at least 7
families
killed[204]) by
Muslims

Sunan Abu
Dawood, 14:2632

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[205]


57

58

Expedition
of Bashir
Ibn Sad
al-Ansari
(Fadak)

Expedition
of Ghalib
ibn
Abdullah
al-Laithi
(Mayfah)

December
628[206]

Attack for Banu Murrah

tribe to capture booty[207][208]

Attack the Banu Awl

and Banu Thalabah tribes
to capture booty (camels
and flock)[210]

January
629[206]

59

Expedition
of Ghalib
ibn
Abdullah
al-Laithi
(Fadak)

60

Expedition
of Bashir
Ibn Sad
al-Ansari
(Yemen)

61

Expedition
of Ibn Abi
Al-Awja
Al-Sulami

April 629[213]

50 men sent to demand the

allegiance of the Banu
Sualym tribe to Islam[217]

62

Expedition
of Ghalib
ibn
Abdullah
al-Laithi
(Al-Kadid)

May 629

To raid the Banu alMulawwih tribe for

booty[185][215]

May 629

[213]

Attack the Banu Murrah as

revenge for the killing of
Muslims in a failed
raid carried out by
Muslims[214]
Attack a large group of
polytheists who
Muhammad believed
gathered to raid the
outskirts of Madinah[185]

February
629[206]

[213]

Raid on
Banu
Layth

June 629 [126]

Attack Banu Layth,

camels plundered[214]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[208]

Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:568

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[211]

Tabari, Volume 8, History

of Islam[212]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[215]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[216]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[219]

NonMuslims: large
amount killed[185]

Some killed
by Muslims[185]

Everyone
who came into
contact with
Muslims were
killed[214]

1 killed, 2
captured by
Muslims[216]

Muslims:
Most killed[217]

NonMuslims: Most
killed,[213] 2
captured[218]

Large
amount killed,
[185]
and 1
captured by
Muslims[215]

Sunan Abu
Dawood, 14:2672

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[215]

"We killed
the warriors and
took the children
prisoner." No
numbers given,
but the Muslims
were "about ten
men".

Al-Waqidi, Kitab alMaghazi. Translated by Faizer,

R., Ismail, A., & Tayob, A.
(2011). The Life of
Muhammad, pp. 369370.
London & New York:
Routledge.

63

Muslims:
29 killed,
[185]
Bashir
wounded[209]

64

Expedition
of Shuja
ibn Wahb
al-Asadi

65

Expedition
of Kab ibn
'Umair alGhifari

66

67

68

Battle of
Mu'tah

Expedition
of Amr ibn
al-As

Expedition
of Abu
Ubaidah
ibn al
Jarrah

June 629 [213]

Raid the Banu Amir tribe

to plunder camels for
booty[220][221]

June 629 [213]

Attack Banu Qudaa tribe

because Muhammad
received intelligence that
they had gathered a large
number of men to attack
the Muslim positions[218]

August
629[213]

Raid the inhabitants of

Mut'ah, because one of
Muhammad's messenger
was killed by the chief of
Maab or Mutah[224]

September
629 [226]

To subjugate the Banu

Qudah tribe, and incite the
tribes friendly to
Muhammad to attack
them, because of a rumour
that the Banu Qudah were
preparing to attack Medina
and to improve Muslim
prestige[227][228]

October
629[230]

Attack the tribe of

Juhaynah and raid a
caravan[231][232][233]

To kill Rifaah bin Qays,

because Muhammad heard
they were allegedly
enticing the people of Qais
to fight him[235]

Expedition
of Abi
Hadrad alAslami

629 [234][235]

70

Expedition
of Abu
Qatadah
ibn Rab'i
al-Ansari
(Khadirah)

November[239]
or Dec
629[231]

Attack the Ghatafan tribe

because he heard that they
were amassing troops and
were still outside the
"domain of Islam"[240]

71

Expedition
of Abu
Qatadah
ibn Rab'i
al-Ansari
(Batn
Edam)

December
629[239]

To divert the attention

from his intention of
attacking Mecca, he
despatched 8 men to attack
a caravan passing through
Edam[242]

69

Unknown

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[222]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[223]

14 Muslims
killed, 1
wounded[218]

Muslims:
12 killed

NonMuslims:
Unknown[224]

None,
Qudah tribe
flees[229]

Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:565,Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:565

Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:644

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[229]

Sahih alBukhari, 3:44:663,Sahih

Muslim, 21:4757

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[233]

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq [238]

Tabari, Volume 8, History

of Islam[237]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[241]

None,
caravan flees[233]

1 beheaded,
[236]
4 women
captured by
Muslims[237]

Some
killed, some
captured by
Muslims[240]

1 Muslim
killed by
Muslims[243][244]

[Quran 19:71] [225]

[Quran 4:94][245]

Sahih Muslim, 43:7176

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[242]

5 killed by
Muslims:[247]
1. Abdullah b.
Khatal[248]

72

Conquest
of Mecca

December
629[239]

2. Fartana
(slave girl)
[249]

To Conquer Mecca[246]

3. Huwayrith
b.
Nafidh[247]

Quran 12:91-92,[Quran 34:49],

[Quran 49:13][250]

Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:582,Sunan Abu

Dawood,14:2678 and more

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[246]

4. Miqyas b.
Subabah[247]
5. Harith b.
Talatil[247]

73

74

75

76

77

Expedition
of Khalid
ibn alWalid
(Nakhla)

Raid of
Amr ibn
al-As

Raid of
Sa'd ibn
Zaid alAshhali

Expedition
of Khalid
ibn alWalid
(Banu
Jadhimah)

Battle of
Hunayn

December
629[251]

To destroy al-Uzza
because Muhammad
wanted "the submission of
neighbouring
tribes"[252] and wanted to
eliminate "symbols
reminiscent of pre-Islamic
practices"[253]

December
629[251]

To destroy Suwa because

Muhammad wanted "the
submission of
neighbouring
tribes"[252] and wanted to
eliminate "symbols
reminiscent of pre-Islamic
practices"[253]

December
629[251]

To destroy Manat because

Muhammad wanted "the
submission of
neighbouring
tribes"[252] and wanted to
eliminate "symbols
reminiscent of pre-Islamic
practices"[253]

January
630[251]

January
630[251]

Invite the Banu Jadhimah

tribe to Islam[259]

To attack the people of

Hawazin and Thaqif for

1 women
killed by Khalid
ibn Walid[253]

None[253]

1 women
killed by
Muslims[253]

Entire tribe
taken prisoner,
portion
executed[259][260]

Muslims: 5

Al-Sunan al-Sughra[254]

Al-Kalbi, The Book of

Idols[255]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[256]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[257]

Al-Kalbi, The Book of

Idols[258]

Sahih alBukhari,5:59:628[261]

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq [262]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[263]

, [Quran 9:26] [267]

[Quran 9:25]

refusing to surrender to
Muhammad and submit to
Islam because "they
thought that they were too
mighty to admit or
surrender" after
the Conquest of Mecca[264]

78

79

80

81

82

83

Expedition
of AtTufail ibn
'Amr AdDausi

Battle of
Autas

Expedition
of Abu
Amir AlAshari

Expedition
of Abu
Musa AlAshari

Siege of
Ta'if

Expedition
of Uyainah
bin Hisn

January
630[251]

Destroy the idol

Yaguth[268] and to secure the
allegiance of the Banu
Daws tribe to Islam so
they can lend him
catapults to use in
the Siege of Taif[269]

630 [270]

Defend against an attack

by a league of tribes that
formed an alliance to
attack him.Washington
Irving claims that the
tribes were hostile to
Muhammad and wanted to
attack him because he was
spreading Islam by the
sword, and because the
tribes feared Muhammad
would attack them anyway
for vengeance[271]

January
630 [3]

January
630 [3]

January
630[279]

April 630 [282]

Chase the enemies who

fled from the Battle of
Hunayn[275]

Chase the enemies who

fled from the Battle of
Hunayn[275]

Attack enemies who fled

from the Battle of Hunayn
and sought refuge in the
fortress of Taif[266]

Attack the Muslim tribe of

Banu Tamim for refusing
to pay tax (Zakat)[283]

killed[265]

NonMuslims: 70
killed,[264] 6000
women and
children
captured[266]

None[268]

Sahih alBukhari, 4:53:370,AlMuwatta, 21 10.19[267]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[268]

Enemy
defeated, many
killed by
Muslims[268][272]

[Quran 4:24][273][274]

Sahih
Muslim, 8:3432,Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:612and more

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[268]

Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:612,Sahih

Muslim, 3:6092

Tabari, Volume 9, The last

years of the Prophet[277]

Muslims: 1
Killed

NonMuslims: 9
Killed[276]

At least 1
killed,[277] men,
women and
children taken
captives by
Muslims[278]

Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:612

Tabari, Volume 9, The last

years of the Prophet[277]

Muslims:
12 killed[280]

Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:615,Sahih alBukhari, 9:93:572and more

NonMuslims:
Unknown

Ibn Hisham & Ibn

Ishaq[281]

11 men, 21
women and 30
boys, captured

[Quran 49:1][285][286]

by Muslims[284]

Muslims:
many wounded,
some killed

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[287]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[289]

Sunan Abu
Dawood, 14:2639

Expedition
of Qutbah
ibn Amir

May 630 [288]

85

Expedition
of Dahhak
al-Kilabi

June 630 [290]

To call the Banu Kilab

tribe to embrace Islam[284]

1 killed by
Muslims[284]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[291]

86

Expedition
of
Alqammah
bin
Mujazziz

July 630 [292]

Attack a group of
Abyssinians (Ethiopians)
who Muhammad
suspected were pirates[284]

None,
Ethiopians
flee[293]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[293]

87

Third
Expedition
of Dhu
Qarad

July 630

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[296]

88

Expedition
of Ali ibn
Abi Talib

July 630 [297]

Musnad Ahmad ibn

Hanbal[298]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[300]

Expedition
of Ukasha
bin AlMihsan
(Udhrah
and Baliy)

July 630 [301]

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[302]

Battle of
Tabouk

October
630[301]

[Quran 9:49] [Quran 9:29]

,
,Quran 9:4248,[306][Quran 9:81] [307]

Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:702,Sahih alBukhari, 6:60:199and more

84

89

90

Attack the Banu Khatham

tribe to capture booty[284][289]

[293][294]

[293]

Muhammad sent him to

take revenge for the killing
of the son of Abu Dhar
Ghifari at al-Ghaba[293][295]

Destroy al-Qullus, an idol

worshipped by pagans[298]

Attack the tribes of

Udhrah and Baliy, no
further details[301][302]
Attack the Byzantine
empire. Mubarakpuri
claims, reason was
revenge for the killing of 1
of Muhammad's
ambassadors by a
Christian chief of alBalaqa, which led to
theBattle of Mutah.
Mubrakpuri claims this
was the reason for the
Battle of Tabouk also, and
that there was a
rumour Heraclius was
preparing an attack on
Muslims.[303] William

NonMuslims: many
wounded, some
killed, some
women
captured[284]

None[293]

Many men,
women and
children taken
captive by
Muslims[298][299]

Unknown

None, no
enemies met[303]

Muir claims Heraclius

wanted to prevent the
recurrence of Muslim
attacks such as
theExpedition of Ukasha
bin Al-Mihsan against the
Banu Udrah tribe.[304] A
tribe that was aligned to
the Byzantine Empire[305]
Expedition
of Khalid
ibn alWalid
(Dumatul
Jandal)

October
630[301]

Expedition
of Abu
Sufyan ibn
Harb

630 [311]

Demolition
of Masjid
al-Dirar

630 [314]

94

Expedition
of Khalid
ibn alWalid (2nd
Dumatul
Jandal)

April 631

95

Expedition
of Surad
ibn
Abdullah

April 631

91

92

93

Attack the Christian prince

of Duma.[308]

To demolish the idol alLat[312]

Demolish a mosque for

promoting opposition[308]

[318]

[319]

[323]

[324]

Demolish an idol called

Wadd,[319][320]worshipped by
the Banu Kilab tribe[321]

Ordered Surad ibn

Abdullah (new convert) to
war against the nonMuslim tribes in his
neighbourhood[323]

1 killed, 2
taken captive[309]

Sunan Abu
Dawud 19:3031

Ibn Sa'd, Kitab al-tabaqat

al-kabir, Volume 2[310]

Unknown

None
(speculation that
people may have
been burnt[315])

Banu AbdWadd and Banu

Amir al-Ajdar
tribe members
killed by
Muslims[318][319]
Heavy
casualties,
people of Jurash
killed[325]

96

97

Expedition
of Ali ibn
Abi Talib
(Mudhij)

June 631 [301]

December
631[301]

Call on the people of

Najran to embrace Islam
or fight the Muslims[326]

Attack the Banu Nakhla

tribe to reduce them to
submission[330]

Tabari, Volume 9, The last

years of the Prophet[313]

[Quran 9:107][316]

Tabari, Volume 9, The last

years of the Prophet[317]

Al-Kalbi, The Book of

Idols[322]

Tabari, Volume 9, The last

years of the Prophet[325]

Expedition
of Khalid
ibn alWalid
(Najran)

[Quran 17:73]

[Quran 3:61][327]

None, Banu
Harith tribe
surrenders and
converts to
Islam[326]

Tabari, Volume 9, The last

years of the Prophet[328]

Hamidullah, Majmu'ah
(Original letters of
Muhammad)[329]

20 killed by
Muslims.[330]

Sahih alBukhari, 2:24:573

Tabari, Volume 9, The last

years of the Prophet[331]

98

99

Expedition
of Ali ibn
Abi Talib
(Hamdan)

Demolition
of Dhul
Khalasa

631 [301]

To call the people of

Hamdan to embrace
Islam[332]

April 632 [323]

Demolish the Temple of

Dhul Khalasa worshipped
by the Bajila and Khatham
tribes[334]

10
0

Expedition
of Usama
bin Zayd

May 632 [337]

Invade Palestine and

attack Moab andDarum[338]

None[332]

Tabari, Volume 9, The last

years of the Prophet[333]

Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:641,Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:642,Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:643and more

Al-Kalbi, The Book of

Idols[336]

Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:744,Sahih alBukhari, 5:59:745and more

Tabari, Volume 9, The last

years of the Prophet[339]

Tabari, Volume 10,

Conquest of Arabia[340]

300 killed
by Muslims[334][335]

Local
population
"slaughtered" by
Muslims,
"destroying,
burning and
taking as many
captives as they
could" according
to Moshe Gil
of Cambridge
University[338]

Notes[edit]

Life of Mahomet by William Muir maybe used on Wikipedia according to opinion of Admin on
RSN

Ibn Hisham edited the biography of Muhammad written by Ibn Ishaq. Ibn Ishaq's work is
lost and is now only known in the recensions of Ibn Hisham and al-Tabari. Therefore when Ibn
Hisham is mentioned as a primary source, so is Ibn Ishaq
[341]

[342]

References[edit]
1.

2.
3.

^ Jump up to:a b c Watt, W. Montgomery (1956). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford University Press. p. 2. ISBN 9780195773071. In the first two or three expeditions the numbers involved are given as from 20 to 80. In those of the later
part of 623 (ii-vi/2), however, when Muhammad himself took part, they are said to have ranged up to 200. (free online)
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 127. (online)
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k Hawarey, Dr. Mosab (2010). The Journey of Prophecy; Days of Peace and War
(Arabic). Islamic Book Trust. ISBN 9789957051648.Note: Book contains a list of battles of Muhammad in Arabic, English
translation availablehere

4.

^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhb, Mukhtasar zd al-mad, p. 345.

5.

^ Jump up to:a b Richard A. Gabriel, Muhammad, Islam's first great general, p. 73.

6.

^ Jump up to:a b c Muhammad Ibn Abd al-Wahhb, Mukhtasar zd al-mad, p. 346.

7.

^ Jump up to:a b Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
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8.

^ Jump up to:a b c Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 4. ASIN B0007JAWMK. august 623 Then occurred the sariyyah of Sa'd Ibn Abi Waqqa towards al-Kharar in Dhu alQa'dah (MayJune 623 AC)

9.

Jump up^ Tabari, Al (2008), The foundation of the community, State University of New York Press,
p. 12, ISBN 978-0887063442, In Safar (which began August 4, 623), nearly twelve months after his arrival in Medina on
the twelfth of Rabi' al- Awwal, he went out on a raid as far as Waddan

10.

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12.

Jump up^ Tabari, Al (2008), The foundation of the community, State University of New York Press,
p. 13, ISBN 978-0887063442, Expeditions Led by Muhammad Then the Messenger of God led an expedition in Rabi' alAkhir (which began October 2, 623) in search of Quraysh. He went as far as Buwat

13.

^ Jump up to:a b c d Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 128. (online)

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17.

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Ish q's Srat rasl Allh. Oxford University Press. p. 286.

18.
19.

20.

^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, pp.128-131. (online)

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Darussalam Publications, p. 246, ISBN 978-9960899558
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21.

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Darussalam Publications, p. 247, ISBN 978-9960899558 See footnote 1, page 247

22.

Jump up^ Tabari, Al (2008), The foundation of the community, State University of New York Press,
p. 12, ISBN 978-0887063442, Some say the Battle of Badr took place on 19 Ramadan (March 15, 624).

23.
24.

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28.

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^ Jump up to:a b Ibn Hisham , Ibn Ishaq, Alfred Guillaume (translator) (1998). The life of Muhammad: a
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29.

Jump up^ William Muir (1861), The life of Mahomet, Smith, Elder and co, p. 130

30.

^ Jump up to:a b Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 35. ASIN B0007JAWMK. SARIYYAH OF `UMAYR IBN `ADI. Then (occurred) the sariyyah of `Umayr ibn `Adi Ibn
Kharashah al-Khatmi against `Asma' Bint Marwan, of Banu Umayyah Ibn Zayd, when five nights had remained from the
month of Ramadan, in the beginning of the nineteenth month from the hijrah of the apostle of Allah.

31.

^ Jump up to:a b c Ibn Hisham , Ibn Ishaq, Alfred Guillaume (translator) (1998). The life of Muhammad: a
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32.

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33.

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34.

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p. 31. ASIN B0007JAWMK. "Then occurred the "sariyyah" of Salim Ibn Umayr al-Amri against Abu Afak, the Jew, in [the
month of] Shawwal in the beginning of the twentieth month from the hijrah

35.

Jump up^ Tabari, Al (2008), The foundation of the community, State University of New York Press,
p. xiii, ISBN 978-0887063442

36.

^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, pp.150-151. (online)

37.

Jump up^ Ibn Hisham , Ibn Ishaq, Alfred Guillaume (translator) (1998). The life of Muhammad: a translation of
Ish q's Srat rasl Allh. Oxford University Press. p. 361. Raid called al-Sawiq

38.

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34. ASIN B0007JAWMK.

39.

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Publications, p. 254.

40.

Jump up^ Watt (1956), Muhammad at Medina, p. 209.

41.

^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, pp.149-150. (online)

42.

Jump up^ Szmn-i Tablght-i Islm (1987), Al-Tawh d 5, Tehran, Iran: Islamic Propagation Organization,
International Relations Dept, p. 86

43.

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48.

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49.

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50.

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51.

^ Jump up to:a b Tabari, Al (2008), The foundation of the community, State University of New York Press,
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52.

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55.

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56.

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^ Jump up to:a b c d e Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 153. (online)

59.

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61.
62.

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63.

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64.

^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 204. (online)

65.

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66.

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67.

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69.

^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 181. (online)

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71.

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72.

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73.

74.

^ Jump up to:a b Watt, W. Montgomery (1956). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford University Press. p. 34. ISBN 9780195773071. The expeditions to Hamra' al-Asad and Qatan (March and June 625) (free online)
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75.

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^ Jump up to:a b Peters, Muhammad and the Origins of Islam, p. 222-224.

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^ Jump up to:a b Stillman, The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book, pp. 137-141.

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81.
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83.

^ Jump up to:a b c d Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, pp. 186-187. (online)

84.

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85.

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89.

^ Jump up to:a b Watt, W. Montgomery (1956). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford University Press. p. 33. ISBN 9780195773071. The common version, however, is that B. Lihyan wanted to avenge the assassination of their chief at
Muhammad's instigation, and bribed two clans of the tribe of Khuzaymah to say they wanted to become Muslims and ask
Muhammad to send instructors. (online)

90.

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^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 187-188. (online)

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94.

95.

^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p Ab Khall, Shawq (2003). Atlas of the Quran. Dar-us-Salam.

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^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 211.

96.

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p. 147, ISBN 978-0-88706-344-2

97.

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98.

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150, ISBN 978-0-88706-344-2

99.

Jump up^ Tabari, Al (2008), The foundation of the community, State University of New York Press,
p. 147, ISBN 978-0887063442

100.

Jump up^ Tabari, Al (2008), The foundation of the community, State University of New York Press,
p. 151, ISBN 978-0887063442, Then in Safar (which began July 13, 625), four months after Uhud, he sent out the men of
Bi'r Ma'unah

101.

^ Jump up to:a b c Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 188. (online)

102.

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103.

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104.

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p. 161, ISBN 978-0887063442, The Messenger of God remained in Medina after the expedition against the Banu alNadir for the two months of Rabi' and part of the month of Jumada (from August 1 1 to late October, 625)

105.

^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 189. (online)

106.

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p. xxxv, ISBN 978-0887063442, The main underlying reason for the expulsion of the clan of al-Nadir was the same as in
the case of Quaynuqa, namely, that Jewish criticisms endangered the ordinary Muslim's belief in Muhammad's
prophethood and in the Quran as revelation from God.

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110.

^ Jump up to:a b Tabari, Al (2008), The foundation of the community, State University of New York Press,
p. 161, ISBN 978-0887063442

111.

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112.

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113.

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114.

^ Jump up to:a b c Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 193. (online)

115.

Jump up^ Muir, William (1861), The life of Mahomet, Smith, Elder & Co, p. 222 See footnote

116.

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117.

^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, pp. 193-194. (online)

118.

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Ish q's Srat rasl Allh. Oxford University Press. p. 657.

119.

Jump up^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 76.ASIN B0007JAWMK. Ghazwah of the Apostle of Allah, may Allah bless him, to Dumat Al-Jandal

120.

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Publications, p. 216.

121.

^ Jump up to:a b Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir 2. Pakistan Historical Society. pp. 82
84. ASIN B0007JAWMK.

122.
123.

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2nd Edition, p. 122, MSA Publication Limited, 2009, ISBN 1861797338. (online)

124.

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125.

^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, pp. 196-198.

126.

^ Jump up to:a b William Muir (2003), The life of Mahomet, Kessinger Publishing, p. 317,ISBN 9780766177413

127.

^ Jump up to:a b c Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, pp. 201-205. (online)

128.

^ Jump up to:a b c Ibn Kathir, Saed Abdul-Rahman (2009), Tafsir Ibn Kathir Juz'21, MSA Publication Limited,
p. 213, ISBN 9781861796110(online)

129.

Jump up^ Subhash C. Inamdar (2001), Muhammad and the Rise of Islam: The Creation of Group Identity,
Psychosocial Press, p. 166 (footnotes), ISBN 1887841288

130.

Jump up^ Stillman, The Jews of Arab Lands: A History and Source Book, pp. 14-16.

131.

Jump up^ Encyclopedia of Islam, section on "Muhammad"

132.

Jump up^ Watt, Encyclopaedia of Islam, Section on "Kurayza, Banu".

133.

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York Press, pp. 3536, ISBN 9780791431504

134.

Jump up^ Sunan Abu Dawood, 14:2665

135.

Jump up^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 4:52:280

136.

137.

Jump up^ Ibn Kathir, Saed Abdul-Rahman (2009), Tafsir Ibn Kathir Juz'21, MSA Publication Limited,
p. 213, ISBN 9781861796110(online)
^ Jump up to:a b Muhammad Husayn Haykal, The Life of Muhammad, p. 338.

138.

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York Press, pp. 3536, ISBN 9780791431504

139.

Jump up^ Muhammad Yasin Mahzar Siddiqi, Role of Booty in the economy during the prophets time, Vol. 1,
King Abdul Aziz University , p.11. (archive), "In the sixth year of the hijrah (June, 627-May, 628A.D.) there were three
ghazawa t but no booty was obtained from them. Of the 18 saraya, during this year only seven yielded any monetary or
material benefits to the Muslims The very first expedition of the year i.e. Muhammad b. Maslamah's expedition..."

140.
141.

142.
143.

144.
145.

146.

Jump up^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 204. (online)

^ Jump up to:a b Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 96. ASIN B0007JAWMK.
^ Jump up to:a b Al-Waqidi, Kitab al-Tarikh wa al-Maghazi, p. 534-535.
Jump up^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 96. ASIN B0007JAWMK. SARIYYAH OF MUHAMMAD IBN MASLAMAH AGAINST AL-QURATA
^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 205. (online)
^ Jump up to:a b Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 104. ASIN B0007JAWMK. Then occurred the sariyyah of 'Ukkashah Ibn Mihsan al-Asadl on al-Ghamr.
^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 205. (online)

147.

^ Jump up to:a b Tabari, Al (2008), The foundation of the community, State University of New York Press,
p. 119, ISBN 978-0887063442

148.

Jump up^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 105. ASIN B0007JAWMK. despatched Muhammad Ibn Maslamah with ten men towards Bana Tha'labah and Bana
'Uwal, a branch of Bana Tia'labah who were...

149.

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University of New York Press, p. 123, ISBN 978-0887066917(online)

150.

Jump up^ Yahiya ibn Sharaf al-Nawawi (2005), Riyad-us Saliheen, Islamic Books See no. 1309

151.

Jump up^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 97. ASIN B0007JAWMK.

152.

^ Jump up to:a b c d Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 99. ASIN B0007JAWMK.

153.
154.

155.

Jump up^ Muhammad Husayn Haykal, The Life of Muhammad, p. 351, Islamic Book Trust
Jump up^ Tabari, The History of Al-Tabari Vol. 8: The Victory of Islam: Muhammad at Medina A, p. 43, SUNY
Press, 1997, ISBN 0791431509
Jump up^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 231. (online)

156.

Jump up^ Watt, W. Montgomery (1956). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford University Press. p. 42. ISBN 9780195773071. Then there was the raid on Muhammad's private herd of camels by 'Uyaynah b. Hisn al-Fazari, who was
doubtless annoyed because Muhammad had broken off negotiations with him over the withdrawal of Ghatafan. The raid
was a small affair. Only 40 enemy horsemen were involved, and the booty was only 20 milking camels; 8 Muslims
pursued on horseback, recovered half the camels, and killed 4 of the raiders for the loss of i of their own number. (free
online)

157.

Jump up^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 100. ASIN B0007JAWMK.

158.

Jump up^ Uri Rubin (1998), The Life of Muh ammad, Ashgate, p. 223,ISBN 9780860787037, Haritha on the
raid to al-Jamum and Zayd obtained goats and sheep and captured a group of unbelievers...

159.

Jump up^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 106. ASIN B0007JAWMK.

160.

Jump up^ Watt, W. Montgomery (1956). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford University Press. p. 96. ISBN 9780195773071. One was a little-known expedition about September 627 (free online)

161.

^ Jump up to:a b c Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 107. ASIN B0007JAWMK.

162.
163.

164.
165.

166.

^ Jump up to:a b c d Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 206. (online)

Jump up^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 107. ASIN B0007JAWMK. Sariyyah of Zayd ibn Haritha towards al-Taraf
^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 226. (online)
Jump up^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 108. ASIN B0007JAWMK. Sariyyah of Zayd ibn Haritha against Hisma
Jump up^ William Muir, The life of Mahomet and history of Islam to the era of the Hegira, Volume 4, pp. 12-13.

167.

^ Jump up to:a b Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 109. ASIN B0007JAWMK. Sariyyah of Zayd ibn Haritha towards Wadi al-Qura

168.

Jump up^ Sir William Muir (1861), The life of Mahomet and history of Islam to the era of the Hegira: with
introductory chapters on the original sources for the biography of Mahomet and on the pre-Islamite history of Arabia,
Volume 3, Smith, Elder & Co, p. 237 (abridged version)

169.

^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, pp. 207-209. (online)

170.

Jump up^ William Muir (2003), The life of Mahomet, Kessinger Publishing,
p. 310,ISBN 9780766177413 (original)

171.

Jump up^ Ibn Hisham , Ibn Ishaq, Alfred Guillaume (translator) (1998). The life of Muhammad: a translation of
Ish q's Srat rasl Allh. Oxford University Press. p. 490.

172.
173.

174.
175.

176.
177.

Jump up^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 211. (online)

Jump up^ Ibn Hisham , Ibn Ishaq, Alfred Guillaume (translator) (1998). The life of Muhammad: a translation of
Ish q's Srat rasl Allh. Oxford University Press. p. 672.
Jump up^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 211. (online)
Jump up^ Ibn Hisham , Ibn Ishaq, Alfred Guillaume (translator) (1998). The life of Muhammad: a translation of
Ish q's Srat rasl Allh. Oxford University Press. p. 672.
Jump up^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 211. (online)
^ Jump up to:a b Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 110. ASIN B0007JAWMK. SARIYYAH OF 'ALI IBN ABl TALIB AGAINST BANU SA'D IBN BAKR AT FADAK

178.

Jump up^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 211. (online)

179.

Jump up^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 211. (online)

180.

^ Jump up to:a b c Al Tabari, Michael Fishbein (translator) (1997), Volume 8, Victory of Islam, State University of
New York Press, pp. 9597, ISBN 9780791431504

181.

^ Jump up to:a b c William Muir, The life of Mahomet and history of Islam to the era of the Hegira, Volume 4, pp.
18-19.

182.
183.

Jump up^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 1:4:234

Jump up^ Tafsir ibn Kathir, Surai Madiah 5:39, "The Punishment of those who cause mischief in the Land",
and Tafsir ibn Kathir, 5:39, Text version

184.

^ Jump up to:a b William Muir, The life of Mahomet and history of Islam to the era of the Hegira, Volume 4, p. 17

185.

^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 241. (online)

186.

Jump up^ Tirmidhi (Partial translation), see no. 3923, p. 182.

187.

Jump up^ Nasiruddin Khattab, English Translation of Musnad Imam Ahmad Bin Hanbal, Darussalam,
2012, ISBN 6035001076 (online txt) (onlinde pdf)

188.

Jump up^ Ibn Hisham , Ibn Ishaq, Alfred Guillaume (translator) (1998). The life of Muhammad: a translation of
Ish q's Srat rasl Allh. Oxford University Press. p. 665. Abdullah b. Rawaha's raid to kill al-Yusayr b. Rizam

189.

Jump up^ Emory C. Bogle (1998), Islam: origin and belief, University of Texas Press, p. 19.

190.

^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, pp. 214-215.

191.

Jump up^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 211. ASIN B0007JAWMK.

192.

^ Jump up to:a b Abu Khalil, Shawqi (1 March 2004). Atlas of the Prophet's biography: places, nations,
landmarks. Dar-us-Salam. p. 180. ISBN 978-9960897714.(online)

193.

Jump up^ Tafsir ibn Kathir (abridged), Pg 554, By Ibn Kathir, Translation by Saifur Rahman al Mubarakpuri,
also see Tafsir ibn Kathir 59:7, Text Version

194.

Jump up^ Ibn Kathir, Saifur Rahman al-Mubarakpuri (translator), Tafsir ibn Kathir (abridged), p. 555 (footnote 1
& 2).

195.

Jump up^ Watt, W. Montgomery (1956). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford University Press. p. 2. ISBN 9780195773071. Muhammad had thus a straightforward reason for attacking Khaybar. The moment he chose for the attack
May /June 628 (i/y) shortly after his return from the expedition of al-Hudaybiyah was one when it was also convenient for
him to have booty to distribute to his followers whose expectations had recently been disappointed. (free online)

196.

Jump up^ Watt, W. Montgomery (1956). Muhammad at Medina. Oxford University Press. p. 2. ISBN 9780195773071. Muhammad had thus a straightforward reason for attacking Khaybar. The moment he chose for the attack
May /June 628 (i/y) shortly after his return from the expedition of al-Hudaybiyah was one when it was also convenient for
him to have booty to distribute to his followers whose expectations had recently been disappointed. (free online)

197.

^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 238. (online)

198.

Jump up^ Mubarakpuri, The sealed nectar: biography of the Noble Prophet , p. 432.

199.

Jump up^ Mubarakpuri, The sealed nectar: biography of the Noble Prophet , pp. 433-434.

200.

Jump up^ William Muir, The Life of Mahomet (2003), p. 394.

201.

^ Jump up to:a b Tabari, Al (25 Sep 1990), The last years of the Prophet (translated by Ismail Qurban Husayn),
State University of New York Press, enumerating with them the expedition of Wadi al-Qura. He stated that he fought there
with his slave Mid'am

202.

^ Jump up to:a b Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 146. ASIN B0007JAWMK. The Sariyyah of 'Umar Ibn al-Khattab, may Allah show him mercy, on Turabah

203.

^ Jump up to:a b William Muir, The life of Mahomet and history of Islam to the era of the Hegira, Volume 4, p. 83
(footnote 2).

204.

Jump up^ Sunan Abu Dawood, 14:2632

205.

Jump up^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 146. ASIN B0007JAWMK. The Sariyyah of Abu Bakr al-Siddiq, may Allah be pleased with him, on Banu Kilab at Najd

206.

^ Jump up to:a b c Abu Khalil, Shawqi (1 March 2004). Atlas of the Prophet's biography: places, nations,
landmarks. Dar-us-Salam. p. 205. ISBN 978-9960897714.

207.

Jump up^ William Muir, The life of Mahomet and history of Islam to the era of the Hegira, Volume 4, p. 83
(footnote 3).

208.

^ Jump up to:a b Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 148. ASIN B0007JAWMK.

209.

Jump up^ William Muir, The life of Mahomet and history of Islam to the era of the Hegira, Volume 4, p. 83
(footnote 3).

210.

Jump up^ William Muir, The life of Mahomet and history of Islam to the era of the Hegira, Volume 4, p. 84.

211.

Jump up^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 149. ASIN B0007JAWMK.

212.

Jump up^ Al Tabari, Michael Fishbein (translator) (1997), Volume 8, Victory of Islam, State University of New
York Press, p. 132, ISBN 9780791431504

213.

^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g Abu Khalil, Shawqi (1 March 2004). Atlas of the Prophet's biography: places, nations,
landmarks. Dar-us-Salam. p. 212. ISBN 978-9960897714.

214.

^ Jump up to:a b c William Muir, The life of Mahomet and history of Islam to the era of the Hegira, Volume 4, p.
94.

215.

^ Jump up to:a b c d Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 156. ASIN B0007JAWMK.

216.

^ Jump up to:a b Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 149. ASIN B0007JAWMK. THE SARIYYAH OF BASHIR IBN SA'D AL-ANSARI TOWARDS YAMAN AND JAMAR

217.

^ Jump up to:a b William Muir, The life of Mahomet and history of Islam to the era of the Hegira, Volume 4, p. 93.

218.

^ Jump up to:a b c Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 244. (online)

219.

Jump up^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 153. ASIN B0007JAWMK. THE SARIYYAH OF IBN ABI AL-'AWJA AL-SULAMI AGAINST BAND SULAYM

220.

Jump up^ William Muir, The life of Mahomet and history of Islam to the era of the Hegira, Volume 4, p. 93
(footnote).

221.

Jump up^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 244. (online)

222.

Jump up^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 157. ASIN B0007JAWMK. THE SARIYYAH OF SHUJA' IBN WAHB AL-ASADl AGAINST BANU AMIR AT AL-SIYYI

223.

Jump up^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 158. ASIN B0007JAWMK. THE SARIYYAH OF KA'B IBN 'UMAYR AL-GHIFARl TOWARDS DHAT ATLAH BEYOND
WADI AL-QURA. Then (occurred) the sariyyah of Ka'b Ibn 'Umayr al-Ghifar? towards Dhat Atlah which lies beyond Wadi
al-Qura in the month of Rabi' al-Awwal of the eighth...

224.

^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 246. (online)

225.

Jump up^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 245. (online)

226.

Jump up^ Abu Khalil, Shawqi (1 March 2004). Atlas of the Prophet's biography: places, nations, landmarks.
Dar-us-Salam. p. 218. ISBN 978-9960897714. Note: 6th Month, 8AH = September 629

227.

Jump up^ William Muir, The life of Mahomet and history of Islam to the era of the Hegira, Volume 4, p. 104.

228.

Jump up^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 247.

229.

^ Jump up to:a b Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 162. ASIN B0007JAWMK. The Sariyyah of 'Amr Ibn al-'As towards DMt al-Salasil which is beyond Wadi al-Qura

230.

Jump up^ Abu Khalil, Shawqi (1 March 2004). Atlas of the Prophet's biography: places, nations, landmarks.
Dar-us-Salam. p. 218. ISBN 978-9960897714. Note: Rajab, 8AH = October 629

231.

^ Jump up to:a b William Muir, The life of Mahomet and history of Islam to the era of the Hegira, Volume 4, p.
106.

232.

Jump up^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 206. (online)

233.

^ Jump up to:a b c Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 163. ASIN B0007JAWMK.

234.

Jump up^ Al Tabari, Isma'il Qurban Husayn (translator) (25 Sep 1990), The last years of the Prophet, State
University of New York Press, p. 123, ISBN 978-0887066917(online)

235.

^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 242. (online)

236.

Jump up^ Ibn Hisham , Ibn Ishaq, Alfred Guillaume (translator) (1998). The life of Muhammad: a translation of
Ish q's Srat rasl Allh. Oxford University Press. pp. 671672.

237.

^ Jump up to:a b Al Tabari, Michael Fishbein (translator) (1997), Volume 8, Victory of Islam, State University of
New York Press, p. 151, ISBN 9780791431504

238.

Jump up^ Ibn Hisham , Ibn Ishaq, Alfred Guillaume (translator) (1998). The life of Muhammad: a translation of
Ish q's Srat rasl Allh. Oxford University Press. pp. 671672.

239.

^ Jump up to:a b c Abu Khalil, Shawqi (1 March 2004). Atlas of the Prophet's biography: places, nations,
landmarks. Dar-us-Salam. p. 218. ISBN 978-9960897714.

240.

^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 247. (online)

241.

Jump up^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 164. ASIN B0007JAWMK.

242.

^ Jump up to:a b Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 164. ASIN B0007JAWMK. THE SARIYYAH OF ABO QATADAH IBN RIB'I AL- ANSARl TOWORDS BATN IDAM.

243.

Jump up^ Sahih Muslim, 43:7176

244.

Jump up^ Ibn Kathir, Muhammad Saed Abdul-Rahman (translator). Tafsir Ibn Kathir Juz' 5 (Part 5): An-Nisaa
24 to An-Nisaa 147 2nd Edition. p. 94.

245.

Jump up^ Ibn Kathir, Muhammad Saed Abdul-Rahman (translator). Tafsir Ibn Kathir Juz' 5 (Part 5): An-Nisaa
24 to An-Nisaa 147 2nd Edition. p. 94.

246.

^ Jump up to:a b Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
pp. 165174. ASIN B0007JAWMK.

247.

^ Jump up to:a b c d Wahid Khan, Maulana (2002), Muhammad: a prophet for all humanity, Goodword, pp. 327
333

248.

Jump up^ Sahih al-Bukhari, 5:59:582

249.

Jump up^ Sunan Abu Dawood, 14:2678

250.

Jump up^ Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, pp. 251-253.

251.

^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Abu Khalil, Shawqi (1 March 2004). Atlas of the Prophet's biography: places, nations,
landmarks. Dar-us-Salam. p. 226. ISBN 978-9960897714.

252.

^ Jump up to:a b c William Muir, The life of Mahomet and history of Islam to the era of the Hegira, Volume 4, p.
134.

253.

^ Jump up to:a b c d e f Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 256. (online)

254.

Jump up^ Ibn Kathir, Saf al-Rahmn Mubrakfr (translator). Tafsir Ibn Kathir (Volume 9), Volume 9.
p. 320. (online)

255.

Jump up^ Ibn al Kalbi, Hisham (1952). The book of idols: being a translation from the Arabic of the Kitb alasnm. Princeton University Press. p. 25.ASIN B002G9N1NQ. (online)

256.

Jump up^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 181. ASIN B0007JAWMK. THE SARIYYAH OF 'AMR IBN AL-'AS AGAINST SUWA'

257.

Jump up^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 181. ASIN B0007JAWMK.

258.

Jump up^ Ibn al Kalbi, Hisham (1952). The book of idols: being a translation from the Arabic of the Kitb alasnm. Princeton University Press. pp. 1314.ASIN B002G9N1NQ. (online)

259.

^ Jump up to:a b William Muir, The life of Mahomet and history of Islam to the era of the Hegira, Volume 4, p.
135.

260.

Jump up^ Ibn Hisham , Ibn Ishaq, Alfred Guillaume (translator) (1998). The life of Muhammad: a translation of
Ish q's Srat rasl Allh. Oxford University Press. p. 561.

261.

Jump up^ Muhsin Khan, The translation of the meanings of Sahih AL-Bukhari, Arabic-English, Volume 5, p.
440.

262.

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Ish q's Srat rasl Allh. Oxford University Press. p. 561.

263.

Jump up^ Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 183. ASIN B0007JAWMK.

264.

^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, p. 261. (online)

265.

Jump up^ William Muir, The life of Mahomet and history of Islam to the era of the Hegira, Volume 4, p. 143.

266.

^ Jump up to:a b William Muir, The life of Mahomet and history of Islam to the era of the Hegira, Volume 4, p.
142.

267.
268.

269.

^ Jump up to:a b Mubarakpuri, The Sealed Nectar, pp. 261-262. (online)

^ Jump up to:a b c d e Sa'd, Ibn (1967). Kitab al-tabaqat al-kabir,By Ibn Sa'd,Volume 2. Pakistan Historical Society.
p. 194. ASIN B0007JAWMK.
Jump up^ William Muir, The life of Mahomet and history of Islam to the era of the Hegira, Volume 4, p. 145.

270.

Jump up^ Tabari, Ella Landau-Tasseron (translator) Biographies of the Prophet's companions and their
successors, State University of New York (SUNY) Press, 1998, p. 101, ISBN 0791428192, Part of the events of Hunayn
in the year 8/630

271.

Jump up^ Irving, Washington (February 21, 2008), Lives of Mahomet and his successors, Kessinger
Publishing, LLC, pp. 111113, ISBN 978-0548883037. Note: A Full version of this book is available free on Google books

272.

Jump up^ Ashraf, Shahid (15 Jun 2005), Encyclopaedia Of Holy Prophet And Companion (Set Of 15 Vols.),
Anmol Publications Pvt Ltd, p. 31, ISBN 978-8126119400

273.

Jump up^ Ahmad ibn Muhammad Ibn Hanbal, Susan Ann Spectorsky (translator), Ishq ibn Ibrhm Ibn
Rhwayh (1993). Chapters on marriage and divorce: responses of Ibn Hanbal and Ibn Rhwayh. University of Texas
Press. p. 38.ISBN 9780292776722.

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332.

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