History of Mining:The Miner's Contribution to Society

Lesson 1
Objectives:
a) Student will describe the correlation between the development of mining and cultural progress.
b) Student will describe 3 ways mining has continued to benefit societies throughout history.

The contribution of mining has played a big part in the development of civilization, more than is usua
recognized by the average citizen. In fact, products of the mineral industry pervade the lives of all
members of our industrialized society.

The chronological development of mining technology bears an important relation to the history of
civilization. In fact, as one of the earliest of human enterprises, mining and its development correlate
closely with cultural progress. It is no coincidence that the cultural ages of people are associated wi
minerals or their derivatives (i.e., Bronze Age). Today, products of the mineral industry pervade the l
of all people.

Mining began with Paleolithic people, perhaps 300,000 years ago, during the Stone Age, when flint
implements were sought for agricultural and construction purposes. Primitive miners first extracted a
fashioned the stone raw materials that they needed from deposits at the surface, but by the beginnin
the New Stone Age (c. 40,000 BC), they began to mine underground as well.

Although records are nonexistent, human fossils and artifacts substantiate an early record of mining
over the world. Like other aspects of human civilization, mining
originated in Africa. At first, it was done crudely, and then with some
technological sophistication. For example, early miners devised ways
chip and free fragments from the solid, to hoist ores by simple lifts, to
illuminate their workings by torches and lamps, and even to ventilate
underground openings.

Early people relied upon wood, bone, stone, and ceramics to fashion
tools, weapons, and utensils. Civilization was advanced by the Early
people relied upon wood, bone, stone, and ceramics to fashion tools,
weapons, and utensils. Civilization was advanced by the discovery o
abundant supplies of high-quality flint in northern France and in the ch
beds of southern England. Culture after culture occupied the sites

around the Acheuleum communities over a span of 200,000 years. Clay deposits supplied material
storage vessels as agriculture was introduced, and the metallic residues from pigments in the potters
kiln may have provided the first clue to these ancient peoples of the secrets of extraction of metals
through smelting. Likewise, salt was recognized as essential in the human diet and, along with flint
became a prime medium of exchange that dictated early trade routes. During the initial developmen
the use of metallic minerals was in the form of pigments, decorative beads, and native metals that co
be shaped into simple objects by hammering.

Eventually, the first technological breakthrough that significantly advanced mining occurred in the
breakage of rock in place. Fire setting, applying heat to expand, and water to quench, contract, and
crack rock, was discovered by an unknown miner. It was a revolutionary advance in geomechanics
one not surpassed in mining history until the deployment of explosives to break rock in the later Midd
Ages.

Most discoveries of these useful minerals were made by accident along trade route. However, Egypt
which was not well endowed with mineral resources, sent out expeditions exploring for turquoise and
gold as early as 4500 BC, resulting in an era of warfare for the acquisition of metals. The Mycenaean
followed by the Phoenicians broke this cycle of war and became wealthy, exchanging minerals for
goods. These traders/prospectors sought deposits of silver, tin, lead, copper, and gold, acquiring th
by barter rater than by conquest. by 1200 BC They had sea trade routes throughout the Mediterrane
work, acquiring lead and silver from Spain, copper from Cyprus, and tin from Cornwall.

By 100 BC trade routes between China and the West, primarily for silk and spices, were well
established. The roads passed through many countries and disseminated knowledge of "seric" iron
(steel) and metallurgic technology to the known world. By 620, during the T'ang Dynasty, China had
become the most advanced society in the world culturally and technologically. The fact that mining
technology never fully developed in china can probably be attributed to Guatarma (563-483 BC), wh
taught that "suffering is caused by the craving for that which one has not," resulting in governmental
policies that alternately discourages and encouraged mining.

The discovery of copper on Cyprus c. 2700 BC resulted in the fabrication of tools, weapons, and
household utensils made of metal and turned the island into an important trading center. Wealth pou
into the island allowing for luxuries an artistic and religious development.

Work in the mines by the Greeks and Romans, was first done by slaves, either prisoners of war,
criminals, or political prisoners. Easily exploitable deposits were eventually exhausted and mine
economics demanding mining skills. As a result, beginning with the reign of Hadrian (AD 138), the
Roman Empire began to recognize a degree of individual ownership and permitted mining by freedm
in increasing numbers. There was gradual improvement of mining technology through the Roman
Empire tat accompanied replacement of slaves by skilled artisans, though villeinage was still practic

One legacy largely the result of Phoenician trading was to create a system whereby power and
prosperity could thereafter be measured in terms of actual, exchangeable wealth. In this capacity, g
and silver throughout history have been universally accepted coinage. Thus debasement of the Rom
denarius resulted in its loss of credibility as the standard of exchange, contributing to the fall of the
Roman Empire, and by the end of the 6th century, the Latin West reverted to an agrarian economy a

abandoned coinage and trade. The center of culture and

technology shifted to the Byzantine and Islamic empires.

Charlemagne (768-814) recognized the need for metals an

began the mining of lead, silver, and gold at Rothansberg,
Kremnitz, and Schemnitz by enslaved captives. He also
reformed the coinage of his Holy Roman Empire leading to
establishment of new mints during the 10th century. As
Charlemagne's empire gave way to more local kingdoms, a demand for precious metals had been
created that aroused the spirit of enterprise and wakened the interest in the development and use of
metals. Europe saw a birth (or rebirth) of the traditions originally carried by the Celts of nomadic min
expertise. This birth was characterized as "bergbaufreihet," or the rights of the free miner, whereby
poorest villein could become his own master merely by marking his own mining claim and registering
boundaries after making discovery -subject to a tribute or royalty paid to the royal land owner. Thus
miner ceased to be a serf and became a free person. In 1185, the Bishop of Trent initiated a treaty
where miners were invited to explore and mine that region of northern Italy as free men with rights o
discovery. In 1209 various princes in the Germanic empire granted similar rights to miners. Edward
of England in 1288, ordered to memorialize the ancient customs and practices of miners within his
realm. Thus the right of ownership based on discovery by a free miner became the foundation for
mining laws carried by individual miners throughout Europe, then to the Americas, Australia, and Sou
Africa.

As mining extended underground, the free miners found they could do little by themselves, and thus
formed partnerships. As operations grew, more men were required and self-governing associations
were born whose ownership and financial stake were supported by contributions recorded in a "cost
book." The cost-book organization formed the model for company organization before the practice o
issuing stocks. Initially, production was divided among the shareholders, but as treatment and
marketing became more complex, the sale became centralized. When a profit was made, it was div
among the "adventurers," but when losses were experienced the adventurers were required to
contribute in proportion to their holdings or risk loss of their ownership. Rarely was any money set a
as reserve, and consequently, a decline in metal prices or grade generally resulted in mine closure.

Growing demands for capital forced a search for outside capital and gradually operators lost control
investors. The miners became contract workers. Guilds, originally organized by miners for charity a
insurance, assumed objectives of industrial aggression.

During the 18th century, iron metallurgy made great strides and made possible the Industrial
Revolution in Britain. Village craftsmen evolved into the factory system and the "Friendly Societies"
legally took on the function of the trade unions after 1825. When public financing in Britain was mad
possible though the enactment of the Limited Liabilities Act of 1855-1862, British capitalists came to
forefront in financing mineral development worldwide. Goldsmiths assumed a banking function and
issued printed receipts (or notes) payable to any bearer - the forerunner of present paper currency.
Stimulated by the availability of energy and available resources, similar industrial revolutions other
countries (France, United States, Germany, Japan, Russia, Sweden, Canada, Taiwan, and Korea)
transformed into industrial economies.

The machine age, introduced by the Industrial Revolution of the late 18th century, also require
minerals as raw materials and as a source of energy. Industrial power thus became a measure of
political and military power, and the exploration for attainable mineral resources extended to nearly a
parts of the world. Nations' economies became interdependent. In an attempt to control the large-s
international flow of mineral resources, various commercial and political measures have been tried:
monopolies, cartels, tariffs, subsidies, and quotas, to name a few. The final result was that politi
and commercial control over mineral resources and their distribution played a leading role both in the
maintenance and destruction of world peace (Leith et al., 1943).

Since the latter part of the 19th century, Britain, the United States, the Soviet Union, Japan, W
Germany, and France primarily have developed the world's mineral resources. These countries hav
furnished the necessary science, technology and capital and have supplied the markets. With the fi
peace settlement after World War I, Germany lost 68% of its territory, all of its gold, silver, and mercu
deposits, 80% of its coal mines and iron-producing capacity, and entered into a period of depression
and starvation. The German economy managed to recover with imported ores and a high degree of
technical skill and efficient labor. The depression years of the 1930's resulted in economic nationalis
and protective tariffs, and many markets were effectively closed. Since Germany and Japan were b
dependent upon international trade, their standard of living plunged, and hunger, bitterness, and
resentment flared. The Nazis came to power in Germany with promises of work, food, and prestige;
rearmament began in 1933, and Japan followed suit shortly thereafter, leading the world into World W
II (Lovering, 1943).

Local mineral wealth throughout history and social

development has made first one nation rich and powerful, th
another. The Phoenicians established worldwide trade and
gained great wealth by developing and exchanging mineral
all manner of goods. Athens financed its ancient wars and
"Golden Age" with silver from Laurium, Alexander funded hi
early conquests with gold from Macedon, the Romans
expanded their Empire to acquire the silver of Carthage and
the copper of Spain, and the Catholic crown of Spain becam
world power by the exploitation of old and silver from the Ne
World. During the Middle Ages, Germany became the cent
of lead, zinc, and silver production and the leader in mining technology. Britain moved into the forefr
during the Industrial Revolution of the 19th century and was successively the world's leading produc
of tin, copper, lead, and then coal. Bolstered by the resources of a vast empire, Britain became the
wealthiest nation in the world. The greater resources of the United States subsequently supported it
advance to become the richest nation; however, the future is already foreshadowed. Most of the Gre
German, and British high-grade mines are exhausted, and the United States is fast becoming
dependent upon imports and preservation of peaceful world trade. Near East countries have
experienced a rapid rise to great wealth based upon petroleum resources. This has been important
technological developments, but historically of short duration. New discoveries of high-grade metal
deposits are very likely in the Soviet Union and China, but less likely in the United States.
A Pictorial Walk Through the 20th Century :Little Miners

Future Contributions of the Mineral Industry

With few exceptions, no nation can achieve a high level of prosperity without a reliable source of
minerals to supply its manufacturing industry. Through mining, emergent countries can finance grow
progressively by the export of raw mineral resources, then by processing these raw materials prior to
export, and finally by achieving progressive industrial development.

Mineral reserves, upon which the future of the human race depends, occupy less than 0.1% of the
continental areas. Unfortunately, we are not at present sufficiently skilled to determine exactly where
they occur or how large they may be. They remain elusive targets. Therefore, research in mining an
metallurgical technology is essential. A new discovery may locate a mine, but a technological
breakthrough can open up mines all around the world.

The economic evolution of society that began in Neolithic prehistory was based then, as it is now, on
minerals, and has led people into modern times. The 104 elements of the periodic table, all but a fe
which are recovered widely spaced often remote, mineral deposits using a variety of complex mining
and metallurgic techniques, form the foundation of modern society. They provide its light, heat, shel
transportation, communication, and food. The standards of living of the industrialized nations - whic
developing nations are striving to attain - are based upon minerals, and societies could not continue
their material wealth (and contribute to the gross national product) only by being mined. Among the
benefits to the state are an increase in employment levels, and enhanced level of self-sufficiency, an
improved balance of trade. The latter results from fewer imports and greater exports of commodities
mined, a spirited search for more minerals and a build-up of technical manpower levels by in-service
training, attraction of overseas investment capital and creation of national wealth (Gregory, 1980).

References
Gregory, C.E., 1980, A Concise History of Mining, Pergamon, Oxford, 259 pp.
Leith, C.K., Furness, J.W., and Lewis, C., 1943, World Minerals and World Peace, Brookings Inst.,
Washington, DC, 253 pp.
Lovering, T.S., 1943, Minerals in World Affairs, Prentice Hall, NY, 394 pp.

**This article was adapted from Howard L. Hartman, Senior Editor. SME Mining Engineering Handb
2nd Edition, Volume 1. (Littleton, Colorado: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc.,
1992), pp. 19-24.

GLOSSARY

Cartel- an international syndicate formed to regulate prices and output in some field of business

Denarius- a silver coin and monetary unit of ancient Rome, first used in the latter part of the 3rd cen
Geomechanics-the science and engineering of soil and rock
Metallurgy- technique or science of separating metals from their ores
Monopoly- exclusive control of a commodity in a particular market
Prospector- a person who systematically explores, searching for a mineral discovery
Quota- a share or proportional part of a fixed total amount or quantity
Smelting- fusing or melting of ore in order to separate out metal
Subsidy- direct aid provided by a government (usually) to a private industrial undertaking
Tariff- duties imposed by a government on imports or exports
Villeinage- the holding of land at the will of a feudal lord

Resources:
Copper in the Middle Ages and Renaissance
A good picture of copper mining, metallurgy, and use in the Middle Ages and Renaissance
http://www.unr.edu/sb204/geology/middleag.html
Copper Recovery in the Middle Ages
.. Europe became a chaotic place with no substantial mining taking place until the
10th century.. By the middle ages the Moors were living in Spain. They had ...
www.rhosybolbach.freeserve.co.uk/midages.htm
Gold Rush Chronicles
This article includes info on history of gold and its uses to the present.
http://comspark.com/chronicles/gold.shtml
Important Dates in the History of Gold
Gold probably was found on the ground and used by prehistoric man as a tool.
Highly sophisticated gold art objects and jewelry discovered by archaeologists in the
Royal Tombs at Ur, in what is now Southern Iraq, date back to around 3000 BC.

Similarly, goldsmiths of the Chavin civilization in Peru were making

ornaments by hammering and embossing gold by 1200 BC.
http://www.exquisite.on.ca/goldhistory.htm

Bronze Age,

period in the development of technology when metals were first used regularly in the manufacture of
tools and weapons.
http://www.encyclopedia.com/articlesnew/01894.html
Ancient Silver and Gold
Background history on silver and gold.
http://www-geology.ucdavis.edu/~GEL115/115ch6.html

Now proceed to the task for this lesson.

Delta Mine Training Center

Copyright 2001 DMTC. All rights reserved..

Maps and Major Regional Discoveries

Lesson 2
Objectives:
a) Student will use longitude and latitude to locate a exact site on a topographic
map.
b) Student will use the world wide web to research several important regional
mines around the world, list major minerals mined and describe the major
obstacles that each had to overcome to become sucessful.
c) Students will calculate the approximate per cent slope, and identify roads on
a map using the scale and key on a map.

Lesson:
In this lesson, you will gain understanding of the information provided on a
topographical map. When prospecting, exploring or applying for permits, a map

is a critical tool. One must give exact locations when filing for a claim or to keep
data of where the samples were collected. Geologists using the direct method
of discovery, use the aerial photography along with topographic and structural
maps to locate ore bodies.
Maps
Maps are one of the most important media used to communicate information in
exploration geology. Maps are a two dimensional representation of the surface
of the earth and its features. Maps are a kind of shorthand language media with
two main purposes: 1) to convey detailed information about a specific area, and
2) to indicate the position of the specific area relative to other parts of the earth.
The first objective is accomplished by recording information in graphic form,
either directly from field observation or indirectly from air photographs or a wide
variety of other sources. The second objective is accomplished by showing
reference marks (or a coordinate system), or by showing a small scale location
map with well known landmarks. A coordinate system is nothing more than a
graphical means of locating any point on the map, with two coordinates for each
point giving positions with respect to the X axis and Y axis.
Most maps have more than just a map area, they often have lots of other
information that is given in the space around the main map area. A complete
map generally has several main components. In addition to the main map area,
a complete map will usually include the following information in various positions
adjacent to the main map area: 1) title, 2) author(s), 3) date, 4) scale, 5)
indication of true and magnetic north, and 5) coordinates or reference points.
Additionally, almost all geologic maps, as well as geophysical and geochemical
maps, contain an explanation. The explanation is where the code for reading
the map is provided. This may include the colors, symbols and all other
abbreviations used on the map.
Geological Terrain Map ( Zambia) below:
Many types of maps are used in exploration
geology. Topographic maps are the most widely
used maps. These depict the surface
morphology by showing lines of equal elevation
(or contour lines). The most basic and
essential type of map used by geologists is the
geologic map. A geologic map shows rock
types (or lithologies) and their geometry.
Geologic maps are very often constructed on a
topographic base map.

Geophysical Map below:

Other types of maps which are used in conjunction with geologic maps include
geophysical maps and geochemical maps. Geophysical maps show readings of
magnetism, gravity, electrical conductivity, radioactivity, or other physical
properties of rocks in an area. Geochemical maps, likewise, show geochemical
values of samples collected in an area. These may be samples of soil, rock,
stream sediments or water. There may be numerous values or readings from
an area, so typically a derivative map will be created from these maps which
summarizes the information or otherwise depicts the data in a fashion such that
it can be more quickly evaluated. Typically this is done by designing a map
which delineates or emphasizes the anomalous (outside normal) readings or
values. One way these derivative maps can highlight anomalous values is by
contouring the data similar to the way elevations are used to create topographic
contours. This method clusters data points with similar high values and shows
the gradient towards lower values just in the way hills and valleys show up on a
topographic map. The other method of creating a derivative map is to create a
thematic map. A thematic map uses colors or symbols to code the values on
the map.

COORDINATE SYSTEMS
There are many, many types of coordinate systems used for maps, but relatively
few are in common usage in exploration geology. These include latitudelongitude, UTM, metes and bounds and local grids. As stated, the map is a two
dimensional representation of an irregular surface forming a portion of a sphere
of the earth (also called a geoid). Problems arise when trying to fit a flat piece
of paper onto a rounded object. The result is a flat map which contains
distortion, particularly in the corner areas. This distortion is accommodated by
using a projection, which is a mathematical or geometric means of minimizing
the problem.
Latitude-longitude has historically been the most frequently used coordinate

system for both navigation purposes as well as for conducting exploration

geology. In this system the coordinates consist of degrees, minutes and
seconds. The latitude, which represents the Y value, is the angular distance
north of the equator, which ranges from 0 degrees at the equator to 90 degrees
at the poles. The longitude, which represents the X value, is the angular
distance westward from the 0 degree meridian, also known as the prime
meridian.
The UTM (Universal Transverse Mercator) coordinate system is rapidly
becoming the coordinate system of choice in creating maps for exploration
geology. The major advantage to this system is that it is based on the metric
system, using meters (or kilometers) for distance units. This greatly simplifies
mathematical calculations concerning scale and distance measuring. The UTM
system is based on a series of geographic zones, each containing a rectangular
grid. The Y value of the grid system is referred to as the Northing and increases
towards the north. The X value of the grid system is referred to as the Easting
and increases towards the east.
Another coordinate system used in exploration geology, more for legal
descriptions of land than for navigation purposes, is the system of metes and
bounds. This system is referenced to a known meridians (north-south and eastwest lines), which is stated on the USGS topographic map of the area. The
largest subdivision is the township, which consists of 36 square miles. The
township is six miles in length per side. Each township is defined by a township
number, which refers to the Y coordinate, and by Range number, which refers to
the X coordinate. For example, Township 3 North, Range 4 E refers to the thirty
six square mile area extending from 18 to 24 miles in an easterly direction from
the meridian, and from 12 to 18 miles in a northerly direction from the specified
meridian. The sections (one square mile each) are numbered in a standard
pattern, starting in the upper right corner of the township with Section 1 and
increasing to the west to Section 6. The pattern begins with Section 7 assigned
below Section 6, and across to the east to Section 12. Sec. 13 is below Sec.
12, etc... The next level of subdivision is the the quarter section, which, as the
name implies, is one fourth of the Section. The quarter sections are labeled
with the quadrant direction specified as NE, NW, SE, and SW. The last
subdivision is the quarter of the quarter section, again labeled as to the
quadrant direction.
LAND STATUS RESEARCH
Research of the land status for a project area involves obtaining the land status
records at the nearest state or federal office, whichever applies. Many states
have land status information available on-line now.

GEOLOGIC MAPS
Geologic maps are central to almost any geological exploration projects. First,
all previous geologic maps and data for an area needs to be sought after. Once
the previous geologic maps have been assessed, there may be need for
additional geologic mapping to be completed at a smaller scale to show more
detail. Geologic maps may be created at different scales to show different
levels of detail. For example, a reconnaissance geologic map will generally
have less detail than an underground mine map. When trench or underground
mapping requires the illustration of great detail, so must be made at a larger
size.
Rocks can be exposed at the surface in three main ways. They can be present
in outcrop, which is a direct observation of bedrock. They can be present in the
form of rubble, which is loose rock having no obvious connection with bedrock.
Rubble is generally pretty consistent, and thus may frequently be used to
represent bedrock. Float is defined as loose rock material which has no
obvious origin. Float generally is less consistent, ice, there is more variability in
composition. The type of rock exposure observed in the field should be noted
as outcrop, rubble or float. The map should eventually document what type of
rock exposure is being used to provide the basis for the interpretation of the
geology shown on the map. Outcrop maps are more reliable to predict the
subsurface geology.
There are several different types of outcrop geologic maps commonly made at
an early stage in the exploration of a prospect or area. The decision as to which
lithologies to show is a matter of mappers opinion. Each lithology can be made
into a separate map unit, or lithologies can be combined into one map unit. The
amount of detail needs to fit the map scale chosen, such that it will fit within the
map units and be legible. Within each outcrop, the various contacts between
differing map units and structural features are shown.

GEOLOGIC MAPPING METHODS

The aim of geologic mapping is to create a map which summarizes the geologic
data gathered in the field Every place that an observation is made, a sample is
gathered, or any type of data collection takes place, it is positioned on the map
at the appropriate X Y coordinates. Conventionally, reconnaissance geologic
maps are created with true north toward the top edge of the map. The map can
be small scale and show much detail, or be large scale and generalized. At
each point, sometimes called a station, two essential pieces of information need
to be recorded, including the lithology and the geometry (or structure), which are
defined using color, shading, patterning, and symbology Generally the key to
the graphics are shown in an explanation near one edge of the map. The
information shown graphically on the map is generally also recorded in writing in

a field notebook.
As each contact between lithologies is traced on the map, the type of contact
needs to be defined. The possible types of contacts including different types of
sedimentary contacts, intrusive contacts, and fault contacts. Sedimentary
contacts may be either normal, which is called a conformable contact, or show
an erosional surface as the contact, which is called an unconformable contact.
Intrusive contacts are often sharp, but can be gradational over a large zone.
This could be illustrated graphically using dashed or stipple lines.
The structure data which should be recorded include the geometry of the
bedding in the case of sedimentary or volcanic rocks. It would include the
foliation in the case of a metamorphic rock. In some cases, layering within
plutonic igneous rocks can also be measured. Jointing in igneous rocks can
also be an important type of structural data to collect. Where faults are present,
the surface must also be measured for its orientation. Fault traces on maps are
often shown as heavy, dashed or squiqqly lines. There may be lineations, such
as streaks on fault surfaces or alignment of elongate minerals, which can be
measured if they are present at the location. These are shown graphically as a
small arrow in the direction of the lineation. As mentioned, it is important to not
only show the information graphically on the map.
The geometry of many types of planar features are shown using the strike and
dip symbol. The strike is the bearing of a horizontal line in the plane of the
feature. It is measured with a compass and plotted on the map. The direction
of inclination of the same plane is called the dip, and is measured, using an
inclinometer, in a direction perpendicular to the strike. The inclination direction
is shown by the small mark on the side of the strike line, and the measurement
is placed next to it.
The methodology of determining lithology and structure for map units is the
same for reconnaissance, trench or underground mapping. However, the
normal convention of north at the top edge of the map is not always the case for
trench or underground maps, or any other type of geologic map where a lot of
detail is desired.

FIELD DATA COLLECTION

Field data collection, done in conjunction with field mapping, is frequently done
in one of two ways. The first way is to record information chronologically in a
field notebook. The notebook represents a daily log of the field activities which
were completed. Each day should begin with a header consisting of the date.
Then it is customary to summarize the general location. Then a systematic list

of stations, observations, sample numbers, etc... should follow. The second

method of collecting field data is to use a standard data collection form which is
designed for the project. This method requires a separate form for each station
or sample location.
When scanning the globe, looking at major current operating mines, one will
find the same company names many times. Many small companies seek
funding from major mining companies after the prospecting stage is completed
and it becomes a good prospect or discovery. An example would be Placer
Dome, one of North America's largest gold mining companies.. Placer Dome
Mining Co. operates fifteen mines in Australia, Canada, Chile, Papua New
Guinea, South Africa and the United States. You will also discover companies
names such as Outokumpu Lead and Zinc Mining Company, Rio Tinto Copper
Mines, De Beers Diamond Mines, and Newmont Gold Mines operating in many
parts of the globe.

Glossary
Direct method of discovery- They use the aerial photography along with
topographic and structural maps to locate orebodies.
Ore bodies- A continuous, well-defined mass of material of sufficient ore
content to make extraction economically feasible.
Topographic-Topographic maps show the location and shape of mountains,
valleys, plains, the networks of streams and rivers, and the principal works of
man.
Lithogies The rock types in the earth's crust and part of the upper mantle.

Resources
This site has great information on important mines around the world.
http://www.mining-technology.com/projects/index.html
This site has major mines around the world listed by country. It also has a job
and resume bank so one can get a feel for the enormity of the mining industry

job market.
http://mininglife.com/minesbycountry.htm
TopographyGlossary of map terms, how maps are made, and describes information found
on a map.
http://www.indiana.edu/~libgm/readmap.hmtl
Topographic map resource
http://www.topozone.com
This presents the information that is displayed on a topographic map.
http://www.ghosttowns.com/topotmaps.html
A list of all the different types of USGS maps available
http://mac.usgs.gov/mac/isb/pubs/booklets/usgsmaps/usgsmaps.html#Geologic
Glossary of geologic terms- a good resource to bookmark for on going use.
How to read a map- Glossary of map related terms.
http://www.indiana.edu/~libgm/glossary.html
Mapping Information
http://mcmcweb.er.usgs.gov/sdts/news.html
Delta Mine Training Center
Copyright 2001 DMTC. All rights reserved..

Mining Planning and Design

and
Dredging and Placer Mining Part 2
Lesson 9

Objectives:
a) Student will plan a trip to do some prospecting in
Alaska.
b) Student will explain how ecology of an Alaskan river is
affected by dredging.

Surface Mining

As with any mining project, the planning process for strip mining is
based on data collected and the prospect of making a profit. The
variables that are involved in the economic analysis may include
consideration of various mining methods/equipment combinations, mine
size/equipment combination, mining method/pit layout combinations,
etc. Problems could arise in areas such as geology, engineering,
environmental sciences, and economics. The correct mine plan will
optimize the economic return using many individuals with diverse
backgrounds and training.
Jones (1977), SME Mining Engineering Handbook, has outlined 10
major steps involved in planning and developing a surface coalmine.
These steps can take up to 10 years and require millions of dollars of
expenditure exclusive of that for actual mine preparation and equipment
purchase.
Salient Factors Requiring Consideration in Mine Planning and
Feasibility Studies
I. Information On Deposit
A. Geology: Overburden
a. Stratigraphy
b. Geologic structure
c. Physical properties (highwall and spoil characteristics,
degree of consolidation)

Delta Mine Training Center

Copyright 2001 DMTC. All rights reserved.

Underground Mining
Lesson 10
Objectives:
a) Students will examine the baseline plan for a
POGO mine in Alaska.
b) Students will summmarize the mine planning
process.

Underground Mine Planning

The planning process will, in general move through
four steps, irrespective of the design phase: baseline
assessment, reserve determination, premine
planning, and subsystem design.
BASELINE ASSESSMENT
Baseline assessment of all available data precedes
any planning efforts. It is a comprehensive initial
review of all available information on the potential
reserve or mine from geographic, geologic,
environmental, technical, and economic standpoints.
An example: the geologic location of a resource
would have a great influence on the economics and
may dictate the mining method due to the equipment
and power availability, labor availability, and skills
level, supplies transport, etc. Negative aspects of the
location of a mine may be overcome by the value of
the resource but many problems such as permitting,
environmental, or geographic issues may need to be
overcome before it can become a profitable mine.
Geologic Factors
The geologic model is only an interpretation of the

actual conditions based on the skill of geologists and

the economic backing available to do thorough
testing . Constant testing and drilling is done as the
project moves through the design phases. The data
collected dictates the changes that effect the
geologic model.
Two approaches can be used to handle the
uncertainty in the geologic model in mine planning
efforts based on risk:
1) accept the geology and develop the plan
accordingly
2) acknowledge the uncertainty in the geologic model
and direct the planning effort to assure sufficient
subsystem flexibility to accommodate any potential
impact.
Environmental Factors
Today designing a mine requires planning for
environmental protection and reclamation from the
very beginning. Potential negative impacts can be
minimized by including in the planning:
1) cost of environmental protection rather than trying
to find a remedy for reclamation.
2) good community relations as negative publicity
may have severe economic consequences
The planning process requires at least a minimum of
baseline environmental data.
1) overburden analysis
2) soil surveys identifying topsoil and subsoil
3) hydrolic studies
4) determination of characteristics of surface and
ground water

5) vegetation and existing land use surveys

6) air quality analyses
7) wildlife surveys
8) archeological surveys
**********More About EIS in Chapter 11************
Geographic and Economic Factors
There are a number of geographic and economic
factors to be considered in the baseline assessment.
The location of a reserve with respect to
transportation for equipment and shipment of the
products, climate, labor force availability and skills,
and power availability.
Other factors may influence the method of mining:
1) high labor costs
2) skill level
3) equipment availability
Economic factors that influence plan design are:
1) political and tax environment
2) stability of the present government
3) availability of replacement equipment and supplies

RESERVE DETERMINATION
The characteristics of a reserve are as crucial as the
reserve magnitude or grade: the depth, inclination,
geometry, type and properties of host and deposit
rocks, quality, etc. and play a key role in the design.

Criteria
A mineral deposit or resource can only be classified
as an ore body only when it can be mined at a profit.
The planning and design attempts to identify the
method to make this possible. Demand of the ore
body and mining technology can affect the future of a
project. As more knowledge is gained about the
resource, the plan must include provisions for
revisions such as:
1) technological advances
2) market or demand
3) depletion
4) new geographic factors
Data Presentation
Data is usually presented in a matrix form with one
side presenting the degree of certainty of existence
or an ore or mineral and the other side indicates the
recovery viability. The use of computers offers huge
masses of summary that often is overwhelming when
trying to present data. The effective graphics of
computers though, can often create a visual
presentation that is easier to present data than a
matrix.
Mathematical Methods
To estimate the reserve involves taking point data
and transferring the data to block or grids for
calculation purposes. Mapping involves using the
determination of the of sample point coordinates to
determine boundaries. Block size in terms of length
and width may be defined on the basis of geologic
structure, deposit variability, and data spacing or
quality forecasting requirements. Mapping the block
data is critical to the planning and design.
PREMISE PLANNING

The mine plan constantly evolves as the mine

process changes physical characteristics.
Engineering science and technology are constantly
evolving while the mine is locked into the physical
framework. An interesting fact is that equipment
changes with time but the basic design of the mine
remains the same. This is most obvious in comparing
existing and newer mines.
The only way to obtain accurate cost forecasts for the
project is to develop a life-of-the-mine plan for the
reserve block. This must include the reclamation and
final land use plan. There are limitless factors that go
into mine planning.
Following is a list of concerns for underground
mining:
1) Regulatory and Legal Factors
Permits and approvals may be at the federal, state,
local, or regional level. These are subject to continual
revision or reinterpretation requiring ongoing review
of the mine plan. Review leases to insure that the
mineral and surface rights are available.
Compliance plans include:
1) mine layout with projections
2) strata/roof control plan
3) ventilation plan
4) fan stoppage plan
5) dust control plan
6) medical / emergency evacuation plan
7) fire control/mine evacuation plan
8) escapee map/plan.

2) Geologic/ Geotechnical Factors

Depending on the mining methods under
consideration, many geologic and geotechnical
factors must be considered. The economics usually
favor extraction of the best grade materials or the
lowest mining cost areas to maximize the return on
investments and shorten payback period. While the
immediate extraction of the best grade materials
enhances immediate finances it can compromise
designs.
3) Environmental Factors
The impact on the environment must be considered
from the beginning of the plan design. The impacts to
the environments can include; noise, aesthetics, air
quality, water discharge and run off. The environment
must remain within regulation during the initial data
gathering to the reclamation process.
Reclamation plans include; drainage control,
segregation of waste material, erosion and sediment
control, solid waste disposal, regrading and
restoration of waste and mine areas. The plan must
include the effects of the mine subsidence, vibration (
induced by transportation, mining, processing or
subsidence) and impact on surface water. The
environmental items often dictate the economics and
viability of the mine.
4) Technical Factors
The technical areas of the plan are the most
extensive. It takes into consideration the regulations,
geologic, and and environmental factors to develop
each part of the plan. The layout of the mine is
determined by the size and shape of the reserve.
After the ore deposit is mapped, access development
for the reserve area is figured into the plan. The size
of the reserves determines the kinds of access and
the number of access portals needed. Access can be
vertical shafts, inclined slopes, and drifts or horizontal
entries. The larger the reserve, the more complicated

the plan becomes.

Surface Facilities
The productivity and the reserve size determine the
size and placement of facilities. Consideration must
be made for access, extraction, removal, and storage
of the ore, the physical needs of the work force, and
the operational needs of the facility. Land acquisition
for disposal areas, dust, noise, safety, and layout are
other design considerations.
Physical Factors
Isopach mapping is used to determine the reserve
depth and develop the best mine layout. The plan
lays out the number of benches and designates the
portion of the reserve that will best meet the needs of
the market. Economics drive the design to gain the
most profit from the mine while still maintaining plans
for reclamation.
The sequence of the extraction can be important to
maximize the the reserve recovery. The mine may
have multiple seams being extracted at once or only
a single vein. The plan will take this into
consideration and plan for the most efficient method
of recovery. Poor mining conditions must be factored
into the analysis to account for changes in
productivity rates and mine costs.
Equipment
The equipment needed is determined by the
dimensions and the hardness of the mineral deposit.
Other factors that need to be considered are
production rates, seam or working height, and
property extent. Ventilation, size constraints,
regulations, and floor pressures may impact the
choice of diesel-or electric-powered equipment. The
floor condition plays a a big part in the equipment
needed.
Desired product size also determines the equipment
selection. Some equipment is for fine-particle

generation and some is for a courser product.

Schedules for equipment overhaul should be
developed to assure productivity rates. New
equipment purchase should consider the
incorporation of new technology as it becomes
available.
Support Systems/ Infrastructure
As the development of the mine progresses the mine
entries, drifts, and levels become part of the
infrastructure. All parts of the system must be
evaluated for capacity and availability . The systems
are built in a series so that if one of the systems fails
the whole system is halted until systems are
corrected. A series system design is usually used to
keep costs low as many systems are parallel or
redundant. They are designed to be as maintenance
free as possible.
Transportation
Transportation encompasses provisions
for the movement of materials,
personnel and equipment into and out
of the mine. Supplies, workers,
equipment must be transported in a
timely manner to maintain the planned
production. One of the main
transportation plans include moving the
mined material from the face to the
processing facility. A successful mine
design will have a smooth
transportation flow.
Manpower
Staffing of the system is a function of
the required production level. Typically
the manpower level is inversely related
to the relative level of capital spending
but related to the reserve size.
Adequate personnel must be provided
to allow the system to function properly.
Personnel includes the supervisory
work force as well.
Consideration must be made for

support staff levels such as

administration, engineering, financial
staff. The centralization of the the
support personnel may be more
effective if centrally located depending
on particular circumstances. The
physical location of the mine must be
considered also.
Mine Power
The electrical power needs of the mine
depends on the mine productive
capacity and the mineral processing
requirements. The availability of
necessary power in the area will
determine if the mine will produce it's
own power. The power distribution
system needs to be adequate to
provide support for the life of the mine.
It must be easily maintained and
reliable.
Safeguards must be in place and
adequate backup capacity must be
available when needed.
In many mine areas, backup systems
are being designed where different
forms of power are being utilized,
including solar. radio transmitters,
methane power generation and
hydroelectric power.
Communications can be wired or
wireless and include data and voice
transmissions. Backup systems for
communication are also very important
to consider. Timely and accurate
documentation of the mining system
status can be delivered all over the
world to provide for efficient mine
production.
Water
Various mine systems need the water
for cooling , dust suppression, fire
fighting,, processing, and personnel
needs. If adequate local water supply is
not available, the plan design must

include a water system to meet all the

potable and process water. Wells may
have to be drilled.
Ventilation
After most of the other factors are laid
out the ventilation is designed to
provide the mine's life support system.
The first consideration is providing
clean respirable air to the workers. The
dilution of contaminants is next. In other
cases air can used to cool also.
Mine layout is dramatically impacted by
the ventilation system. Proper airflow
requires proper sizing , location and
numbers of airways. Minimum and
maximum velocities, and quantities are
often specified by regulations and mine
condition.
5) Mine Closing and Reclamation
After the deposit has been completely mined, the
mine area must be cleaned up and returned to
approximately it 's original condition. Permits require
bonds to be set for protection against not completing
this reclamation. Funds are allocated to cover this
process from the onset of the mine. Much of the
reclamation process begin with the first breaking of
the ground. Openings are sealed, pits filled and
revegetated, and the structures removed. We will
cover more on the reclamation process in Chapter
15.

References**This article was adapted from George W.Luxbacher

and Richard T. Kline. SME Mining Engineering Handbook, 2nd
Edition, Volume 2. (Littleton, Colorado: Society for Mining,
Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc., 1992), pp. 1543-1549.
Mine Plant Layout
Mine planning layout is a general term for describing the process
of configuring a complex and often expensive portion of an
underground mine. This encompasses the placement of all

development facilities such as buildings and structures, machinery,

pipelines, power lines, equipment, cables ponds, roads, rails and
other auxiliary works needed to support any underground mine
activities. Mine plan layout is the design for integrating all
structures, systems or activities, required to support the mine for
economic gain.
The decisions are influenced by a number of major factors namely,
depth of cover, location with respect to the reserve perimeter or ore
body, surface topography, proximity to contract services, power
and water, locations of railroads and market destinations,
geological structure, proximity to population centers, regulatory
and environmental constraints, and ease of of access by
personnel.
Mine plant layout is divided into three major subcategories:
surface, shaft and underground plant. The surface plant
commenced at the entrance to the property to the mine opening
site.This is generally seen in the form of roads, fencing, drainage,
and runoff ditches, lighting/power lines, and other items needed to
provide the site with materials and services.
The shaft plant subcategory begins at the shaft of the collar and
consists of the airways and pumps, piping, water collection
structures, communication and power lines, transportation systems
and the components between the surface and the underground
workings. This is generally seen in the form of roads, fencing,
drainage, and runoff ditches, lighting/power lines, and other items
needed to provide the site with materials and services. The shaft
plant layout encompasses all of the equipment, buildings, yards
and controls needed to service the mine.
The underground mine plant would include, but not be limited to,
ventilation, drainage, transportation, supply and materials
handling, mine power and communications.
There is a difference between designing the plants for large and
small mines. The three basic parameters are duration of the
underground facility, the profit expected from the mine, and the
needs of the mine for auxiliary services. As a rule of thumb, the
mines with a life longer than ten years need a more detailed plan
and thorough mine plant engineering. Smaller mines that have a
life of 3-5 years need a portable surface plant, little or no shaft
plant, and a very basic underground plant layout.
Guidelines for Basic Plant Layout

1. Primary mine and preparation facilities should be designed to

last the life of the mine unless other circumstances (economics,
safety, regulations, etc.) dictate a change.
2. Size of the stockpile areas, mine supply yard capacity,
bathhouse space, and throughout of the facilities should reflect the
expected maximum design of the mining operations. Limitations to
this guideline include space, topography, and climate.
3. Primary design components such as power, water, and access
routes should reflect the most recent available technologies. Mine
power 20 years ago was thought to be adequate at 440 V for
primary machinery. Today the new trend is 950 V .
4. The shaft plan design should reflect sufficient flexibility in the
placement of piping, cables, machinery, and wires to allow
individual repair or replacement without significantly impacting any
other component.
5. Shaft plant systems should be designed for the life of the mine
unless circumstances dictate otherwise.
Secondary guidelines are concerned with the interdependence of
the mine plant stems. Secondary guidelines are used during the
second stages mine plant layout after the initial design is
determined. There are three secondary design guidelines:
1. Competing uses for primary resources such as power and water
should be designed to compliment each other. An example is
where a thermal dryer fan motor comes on in the plant the lights
should not dim or production machinery slow down.
2. The layout of any system should consider built in safety systems
so that it can function without problems and that any failure won't
cause other separate system failures.
3. The plan layout should, to the greatest extent possible, minimize
any waste or inefficiency in repetitive operations between systems.
The final set, tertiary guidelines, is directed toward the layout of
systems when competing regulatory agencies, outside
oraganizations, and other unforeseen circumstances compel a
change in the design. These instances generally occur when
competing uses for natural resources are regulated by
governmental actions based on law. They are set apart from other

guidelines because they do not impact the design layout until the
design itself is under review by external authorities such as state,
federal , environmental or safety agencies, and the general public.
These guidelines are summarized as follows:
1. To the greatest extent possible, input from the agencies or
outside organizations should be gathered early in the design
process. The environmental permit may not be submitted until the
end of the design process but as much input as possible needs to
be gathered from the outside agencies and general public in the
beginning of the process. Public comment sessions are a
necessary ingredient to good public relations and acceptance of
the mine plan layout.
2. In public debates or public meetings over technical design
issues, "facts speak louder than words". For the mining engineer,
this means being prepared with correct and completed data, and
the facts should be stressed against emotional arguments. To be
effective with the "facts", the engineer must be able to break the
number down to clear charts, graphs and tables.
3. Acceptable alternative solutions should be developed for those
items within the design layout that may represent points of
contention between various groups. These alternatives may serve
to avoid costly delays or redesign problems later in the project
design or construction phases.
4. Keep design parameters conforming to known standards to aid
in maintaining effective project design. For example, in the US,
electrical installations should reflect current National Electrical
Code Standards as well as local utility construction standards, if
necessary. Mine materials should conform to US Bureau of Mine
published standards as ASTM standards or any other
governmental agencies. Health and occupation standards need to
be met at the onset to avoid costly design changes or expensive
construction changes after completion.
References:
**This article was adapted from Scott G Britton, Mine Plant
Layout. SME Mining Engineering Handbook, 2nd Edition, Volume
2. (Littleton, Colorado: Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and
Exploration, Inc., 1992), pp. 1572-1579.

Environmental Health and Safety

Lesson 12

Objectives:
a)Students will list 5 possible health hazards to miners today.
b)Students will write a paragraph explaining the history of the use of
canaries in the mines.

This lesson will emphasize personnel health and safety aspects and engineering
design and control practices to ensure the productive health and safety
environment. This lesson will cover the health and safety of the individual miners
as well as the safety of the working environment.
Health and Safety IssuesAmong possible threats to the health of miners are the following: exposure to toxic
gases and dusts, exposure to excessive heat and humidity, inadequate
illumination, noise and vibration problems, and oxygen-deficient

Jobs and Tools

Lesson 13
Objectives:
a. Student will locate mining jobs of interest on the web to
locate what training is required and the average pay scale.
b. Students will list various heavy equipment that may be used
in an underground mine.

Employment
08 AAC 05.070. All Occupations in Connection With Mining
All occupations in connection with mining are considered
dangerous and prohibited to minors, except the following:
(1) work in offices, in the warehouse or supply house, in the
change house, in the laboratory, and in repair or maintenance
shops not located underground;
(2) work in the operation and maintenance of living quarters;
(3) work outside the mine in surveying, in the repair and
maintenance of roads, and in general cleanup about the mine
property such as clearing brush and digging drainage ditches

Sample: TECK-POGO Preliminary Staffing List

Mine Department

Mill/Process
Department

Mine Department
Mine Superintendent
Salaried
Mine Foreman
Salaried
Operating Supervisor
Salaried
Technical Supervisor
Salaried
Chief Engineer
Salaried
Chief Geologist
Salaried
Engineer/ Geologist
Salaried
Senior Technician
Salaried
Technician
Salaried

Environmental
/External Affairs

1
1
6
1
1
1
6
3
6

Delta Mine Training Center

Copyright 2001 DMTC. All rights reserved.

Reclamation
Lesson 15
Objectives:
a)
b)
Reclamation technology has expanded from its original agricultural roots to embrace
hydrology, wildlife and compliance. Reclamation science has responded to legal
requirements, reconstruction of endangered habitats, revitalization of damaged
environmental systems, and establishment of wetlands. Reclamation methods are
used to minimize the impact of human development from surface mining, as well as
in housing subdivisions, on ski slopes, and in highway reconstruction.
This chapter presents economical and successful reclamation techniques that have
survived the test of practical application.
Many of the techniques are a cumulation of
scientific studies and practical experience.

Preserving the Environment

Public concern about the quality of the
environment has intensified in recent years
and has brought some beneficial reforms.
Today, for example, detailed reclamation
plans must be approved by government
officials and local permitting groups even
before mining begins.
Mining operations, including smelting and
refining, can be pursued while meeting
necessary standards for the protection of

human health. Still, some temporary environmental disturbance is inevitable if there

is to be minerals production.
Another question of public concern is the effect of surface mining on the land. Today
surface mining is practiced in all 50 states and provides over 60 percent of the coal
we use and more than 95 percent of the domestic output of phosphate rock, clays,
copper, uranium, iron, crushed stone and gravel. Yet, there is another astounding fact:
Despite extensive exploration, during the entire history in U.S. well over 99 percent
of the land surface never has been touched by mining.
In earlier times, technologies were primitive and, unfortunately, so were the attitudes
of some operators, who left the landscape scarred. Today, such irresponsible
approaches are prohibited by law. Through extensive environmental planning, for
instance, coal producers now return all mined land to the same or better condition
than existed before the mining took place. Other mineral producers also spend
millions of dollars reclaiming mine sites.
Underground mining does not disturb the land in the same way as surface mining, but
the mining companies take great care to protect the water and wildlife surrounding
their operations, too.
Industry also is cleaning up
the air by reducing sulfur
dioxide emissions from coalburning utility plants by nearly
30 percent since 1973, even
though coal use has increased
by about 85 percent.
New improvements are being
made with the use of clean
coal technologies, which have
been developed and tested in
laboratories and plants around the country and are now ready for commercial use.
America has enough coal to provide its energy for centuries to come, and these new
processes to remove coal's impurities will help protect the environment for future
generations.
Pictures are of Quartz Creek Reclamation Project-During the 1970's a dozer trail was
used to access gold mining claims on Champion Creek, Little Champion Creek,
Quartz Creek and upper Bear Creek. This route, which has been dubbed the Quartz
Creek Trail, may have been developed as early as the 1950's. The Quartz Creek Trail
is located approximately 50 miles north of Fairbanks, Alaska, within the White
Mountains National Recreation Area (WMNRA).

Resources
Kinross has a committment to reclamation. Read about current Alaska projects.
http://www.kinross.com/corp/hse/enviro/index.html
Kinross brochure for reclamation.
http://www.kinross.com/corp/hse/enviro/reclamation_brochure.PDF
Mining glossary
http://www.kinross.com/misc/glo.htm
Video of Reclamamtionof Cow Creek-Sullivan Mine, Canada
http://www.teckcominco.com/articles/environment/cowcreek.htm
Changing Times in Kimberly- The transition of Kimberley from a mining town to a
tourism/recreation destination and retirement community is well underway.
http://www.teckcominco.com/articles/operations/ki-changingtimes.htm
Pictures of Successful Reclamation Projects
http://66.113.204.26/mining/coalrec.htm
Pictures of Successful Reclamation Projectsin Canada
http://spans.gscc.nrcan.gc.ca/~ren/coal/reclaim.html
McClaren River Mine Alaska-Reclamation pictures of the project with current
expenditures.
http://www.ak.blm.gov/amines/maclaren/slideshowM.html

Delta Mine Training Center

Copyright 2001 DMTC. All rights reserved.