Saadurrehmansp 11 Bec 114 D 15 TTT

PRODUCTION OF 2000 m3/hr OF SYN GAS FROM CO-GASIFICATION
USING CO2 SORBENT
SAAD UR REHMAN
CIIT/SP11-BEC-114/LHR
M. RAHIL IFTIKHAR
SAJJAD AHMED
M. FAIZAN RAZZAQ
This report is submitted in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for the award of the degree of
Bachelor of Science in Chemical Engineering
Department of Chemical Engineering

COMSATS Institute of Information Technology
JANUARY 2
iii
To our Parents and Supervisor, Dr. Zakir Khan
xv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Firstly, we would like to thank ALLAH ALMIGHTY for providing us the strength and
the tolerance to successfully complete this project.
Next, we would like to thank our parents for providing us their moral support and
guiding us towards the right direction in approaching our task.
We would like to thank our head of department Dr. Asad U. Khan for providing us the
opportunity to complete this project.
We would like to express our great appreciation to D r . Z a k i r K h a n for his valuable
and constructive suggestions during the planning and development of this project. His
willingness to give his time so generously has been very much appreciated.
We would also like to thank the supportive faculty of the department of chemical
engineering COMSATS Lahore. Finally, we would like to thank our class fellows for
their helpful suggestions during the course of the entire project.
xv
ABSTRACT
Gasification of carbonaceous solid fuels to convert into syngas for application of

power, liquid fuels and chemicals is practiced worldwide. Coal and biomass are major
feedstock for gasification. The concept of blending of coal and biomass will make the
gasification efficient and profitable. In this project mixture of coal and Sugarcane
Bagasse is used. Coal has high fixed carbon and ash content as compared to Sugarcane
Bagasse whereas Sugarcane Bagasse has high volatile matter as compared to coal.
Gasification with in situ carbon dioxide capture has good prospects for the production
of hydrogen enriched Synthesis gas. In this project, the mixture of coal and biomass is
dried and grinded before being fed to the gasifier. After gasification, the resultant gas
is cooled and cleaned by the help of Cyclone Separator and Scrubber. The resultant
gas has a lower heating value of 39630 KJ/Kg of Synthesis gas and consists of 76% of
Hydrogen on volume basis. There exists high potential for gasification production in
Pakistan due to presence of abundant coal sources and agriculture waste. Due to energy
and environmental issues, Synthesis gas has become a more attractive clean fuel.
Furthermore, gasification has become a sustainable technology for the production of
Synthesis gas.
xv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER
TITLE
PAGE
DECLARATION
ii
DEDICATION
iii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
iv
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
vi
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF FIGURES
xi
LIST OF SYMBOLS
xii
LIST OF APPENDICES
xv
LITERATURE REVIEW
1.0 Coal
1.1. Types of coal
1.2. Coal Properties
1.2.1. Heating Value
1.2.2. Caking and Swelling Properties
1.2.3. Hardness
1.2.4. Density
1.3. Coal Reserves in Pakistan
1.4. Biomass
1.4.1. Types of biomass in Pakistan
1.4.2. Biomass Analysis
1.4.3. Production of Crops and their Residue availability in Pakistan
1.4.4. Properties of Feed Stock Suitable for Gasification
1.4.5. Selection of Feed Stock
1.5. Application of Syn Gas
1.5.1. Heat
1.5.2. Electricity
1.5.3. Combined heat and power
1.5.4. Transport fuel
1
1
1
4
4
4
5
5
6
8
8
9
9
10
13
14
14
14
14
15
xv
PROCESS SELECTION
2.1. Methods of Syn Gas Production
2.1.1. Landfill
2.1.2. Gasification
2.1.3. Pyrolysis
2.2. Gasifier Types
2.2.1. Counter-current fixed bed ("Up draft") gasifier
2.2.2. Co-current fixed bed ("down draft") gasifier
2.2.3. Fluidized bed reactor
2.2.4. Entrained Flow Gasifier
2.3. Gasifier Selection
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
3.1. Description of the Process
3.1.1. Feed Treatment
3.1.2. Gasification
3.1.3. Gas Cleaning
3.1.4. Utility Section
3.2. Factors Affecting Gasification
3.2.1. Temperature
3.2.2. Pressure
3.2.3. Fuel Bed Height
3.2.4. Fluidization Velocity
3.2.5. Feed Properties
3.3. Block Diagram
3.4. Process Flow Diagram
MATERIAL BALANCE
4.1. Material Balance on Dryer
4.2. Material Balance on Mill
4.3. Material Balance on Gasifier
4.3.1. Gasification Reactions
4.4. Material Balance on Cyclone Separator
4.5. Material Balance on Scrubber
4.6. Overall Material Balance
ENERGY BALANCE
5.1. Energy Balance on Dryer
5.1.1. Heat Inlet
5.1.2. Heat Outlet
5.2. Energy Balance on Ball Mill
5.3. Energy Balance on Gasifier
5.3.1. Heat Inlet
5.3.2. Heat involved in Chemical Reactions
5.3.3. Heat Outlet
16
16
16
17
18
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
24
25
25
26
27
27
27
27
27
27
28
29
30
31
31
32
32
33
36
37
39
40
40
40
41
42
42
42
43
45
xv
5.3.4. Overall Energy Balance
5.4. Energy Balance on Cyclone Separator
5.5. Energy Balance on Scrubber
5.6. Overall Energy Balance
EQUIPMENT DESIGN
6.1. Dryer Design
6.1.1. Brief Introduction
6.1.2. Classification of Dryers
6.1.3. Selection of dryer
6.1.4. Direct Heat Rotary Dryer
6.1.5. Dryer Design
6.2. Gasifier Design
6.2.1. Fluidized Bed Reactor
6.2.2. Hydro Dynamics
6.2.3. Minimum Fluidization Velocity
6.2.4. Diameter of Reactor
6.2.5. Height of Reactor
6.2.6. Volume of Reactor
6.2.7. Distributor Plate Design
6.2.8. Number of Orifices in the Distributor Plate
6.2.9. Gasifier Specification Sheet
6.2.10. Gasifier Design Data
6.3. Cyclone Separator Design
6.3.1. General design procedure
6.3.2. Number of Cyclones
6.3.3. Inlet Duct area
6.3.4. Dimensions of Cyclone
6.3.5. Calculation of Scaling Factor
6.3.6. Pressure Drop Calculation
6.3.7. Cyclone Separator Specification Sheet
6.3.8. Cyclone Separator Design Data
6.4. Design of Scrubber
6.4.1. Designing Steps
6.4.2. Calculation of Height of Transfer Units (Ondas Method)
6.4.3. Calculation of Liquid Film Mass Transfer Coefficient
6.4.4. Calculation of Gas Film Mass Transfer Coefficient
6.4.5. Calculation of Gas-film Transfer Unit Height
6.4.6. Calculation of Liquid-film Transfer Unit Height
6.4.7. Calculation of Height of Transfer Units
6.4.8. Calculation of Height of Tower
6.4.9. Pressure Drop Calculations
6.4.10. Scrubber Specification Sheet
6.4.11. Scrubber Design Data
45
45
46
48
49
49
49
50
50
51
52
62
62
62
62
65
67
68
68
69
70
70
71
71
71
72
72
73
74
75
75
76
76
81
81
82
82
83
83
83
84
85
85
xv
INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS CONTROL
86
7.1. Instrumentation
7.2. The Concept of Measurement in Automation Application
7.3. Measurement
7.4. Process
7.4.1. Process Control
7.4.2. Objectives of Process Control
7.5. Basic Elements of Process Control
7.6. Basics of Process Control
7.7. Selection of Controller
7.8. Control Loops
7.9. Control Schemes of Gasifier
7.10. Control Schemes of Scrubber
86
86
87
87
87
88
89
90
90
92
94
94
COST ESTIMATION
8.1. Introduction
8.2. Fixed Capital Investment
8.3. Working Capital
8.4. Cost Index
8.5. Purchased Equipment Cost
8.5.1. Estimate of Dryer Cost
8.5.2. Estimate of Ball Mill Cost
8.5.3. Estimate of Gasifier Cost
8.5.4. Estimate of Cyclone Separator Cost
8.5.5. Estimate of Scrubber Cost
8.6. Estimation of Working Capital
8.7. Total Investments
8.8. Production Costs
HAZOP STUDY
9.1. Introduction
9.2. Objectives of Hazop Study
9.3. Keywords used in HAZOP STUDY
9.4. Primary Keywords
9.5. Secondary Keywords
9.6. How to Conduct a Hazop Study
9.7. HAZOP Method Flow Diagram
9.8. Hazop Analysis on Fluidized Bed Reactor
9.9. Hazop Analysis on Dryer:
96
96
97
97
97
98
98
98
99
100
101
104
104
104
107
107
107
108
108
109
109
111
112
113
REFERENCES
114
APPENDICES
117
xv
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
1.1
Particle and Bulk Density
1.2
Ultimate and Proximate Analysis of Biomass
1.3
Production of Crops and their Residue availability in Pakistan
10
3.1
Operating Conditions and Process Parameters in the Gasifier
26
4.1
Proximate analysis of Coal and Biomass (Dry Basis)
33
4.2
Gasification Reaction
34
4.3
Gasifier Material
35
4.4
Product Gas Composition of Gasifier
36
4.5
Composition of Gas at Inlet of Scrubber
37
4.6
Outlet composition of Gases of Scrubber
38
4.7
Material Balance on Gasifier
44
5.1
Composition of Inlet Gas of Scrubber
46
5.2
Composition of Outlet Gases of Scrubber
47
6.1
Temperature of Inlet and Outlet Streams
54
6.1
Bed Material Properties
63
6.2
Fluidizing Gas Properties (at 950K and 1 atm)
63
6.3
Fluidizing Gas Properties (at 523K and 2 atm)
63
6.4
Proximate analysis of Coal and Biomass (Dry Basis)
65
6.5
Scrubber Material Balance
76
6.6
Scrubber Top Composition
77
8.1
Total Purchased Cost of Major Equipments
102
8.2
Typical factors for the estimation of project fixed capital cost
103
8.3
Fixed Capital Cost
103
9.1
Primary Keywords
108
9.2
Secondary Keywords
109
xv
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE NO.
TITLE
PAGE
2.1
Counter-current Fixed bed (Up draft) Gasifier
19
2.2
Co-current Fixed bed (Down draft) Gasifier
20
2.3
Fluidized Bed Reactor
21
2.4
Entrained Flow Gasifier
22
3.1
Block Diagram
29
3.2
Process Flow Diagram
30
4.1
Overall Material Balance
39
5.1
Overall Energy Balance
48
6.1
Direct Heat Rotary Dryer
51
6.2
Hydrodynamics Calculations
62
6.3
High through-put Cyclone
71
7.1
Control Schemes of Gasifier
94
7.2
Control Schemes of Scrubber
95
9.1
HAZOP Method Flow Diagram
111
xv
LIST OF SYMBOLS
F
Feed
LHV
Lower Heating Value
HHV
Higher Heating Value
CGR
Char Gasification Reaction
SMR
Steam Methane Reaction
WGSR
Water Gas Shift Reaction
Humidity
Xa
Inlet moisture content
Xb
Final moisture content
Ar
Archimedes Number
Fluid Density
Density of the Particle
Density of the Bed
Emf
Voidage at minimum Fluidization
Sphericity
Dp
Particle Diameter
Umf
Minimum Fluidization Velocity
Remf
Renold Number at minimum fluidization
S/C
Steam to Carbon Ratio
Qo
Initial Volumatric Flow Rate
Qmf
Volumatric Flow Rate at minimum Fluidization
Dbm
Bubble Diameter
Distributor to bed pressure ratio
pb
Bed pressure drop
pd
Distributor pressure drop
Cd
Drag Coefficient
UOR
Velocity at Orifice
NOR
Number of Holes at Orifice
xv
Dc
Diameter of Cyclone
TH
Total Height
AO
Outlet Area
DO
Outlet Diameter
UT
Terminal Velocity
D2/D1
Scaling Factor
Dc2
Diameter of Cyclone
Dc1
Diameter of Standard Cyclone=0.203 m
Q1
Standard Flow Rate=0.0619 m3/sec
Q2
Volumetric Flow Rate
Standard solid-fluid density =2000 kg/m3
Particle density
Standard viscosity =0.018 Ns/m2
Gas viscosity
FC
Friction factor, taken as 0.005 for gases
AS
Surface area of cyclone exposed to the spinning
AI
Area of inlet Duct
RT
Radius of circle to which the centre line of the inlet
RE
Radius of exit pipe
Pressure Drop
Porosity of packing factor
Surface area of packing (m2/m3)
FLV
Flooding Ratio of Liquid to Vapor
Column Area
VW
Vapor Mass Flow Rate
HOG
Height of Overall Gas-phase transfer units
HG
Individual Film Transfer Units for Gas
NOG
Number of Overall Gas-phase transfer units
HL
Individual Film Transfer Units for Liquid
HOL
Height of Overall Liquid-phase transfer units
xv
NOL
Number of Overall Liquid-phase transfer units
Gm
Molar Gas Flow-Rate per unit cross-sectional area
Lm
Molar Liquid Flow-Rate per unit cross-sectional area
Effective interfacial area of packing per unit volume
Actual area of packing per unit volume
Surface tension of liquid
DL
Diffusivity of liquid
Association factor
xv
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX
TITLE
PAGE
A1
Char Gasification Reaction Equilibrium
117
A2
Equilibrium Methane Conversion at S/C =2
117
A3
CO Conversion in Water Gas Shift Reaction
118
A4
Temperature Pattern in Dryer
118
A5
Cyclone Pressure Drop Factor
119
A6
Standard Cyclone Dimension, High Gas Rate Cyclone
119
A7
Performance Curves, High Gas Rate Cyclone
120
A8
Scaled Performance Curve Cyclone
120
A9
Generalized Pressure Drop Correlation
121
A10
Number of Transfer units NOG as a function of y1/y2
121
A11
Installed Cost of Dryer
122
A12
Columns Plates. Time Base mid-2004
122
CHAPTER 1
LITERATURE REVIEW
1.0.
Coal
Coal is a fossil fuel formed from plants that were buried millions of years
ago. The high-temperature, high-pressure conditions underground transformed the
plants physically and chemically, forming coal. Coal contains energy that the plants
absorbed from the sun millions of years ago. Burning coal releases this energy [1].
1.1.
Types of coal
As geological processes apply pressure to dead biotic material over time,

under suitable conditions it is transformed successively into
Peat
Lignite
Sub-bituminous Coal
Bituminous Coal
Anthracite
All coal has been formed from biomass. Over time this biomass has been
turned into peat. When covered under a layer of overburden, the influence of time,
pressure, and temperature converts this material into brown coal or lignite.
Subsequently, the later material will turn into sub-bituminous coal, then into
bituminous coal, and finally into anthracite. Coal is often classified in terms of its
rank, which increases from brown coal to anthracite. Brown coal, lignite, and subbituminous coals are called low-rank coals, whereas higher-rank coals are often
called hard coals. The terms brown coal and lignite are essentially synonymous,
lignite being used more often in the United States and brown coal in Europe and
Australia.
1.1.1. Peat
Peat, considered to be a precursor of coal, has industrial importance as a
fuel in some regions, for example, Ireland and Finland. In its dehydrated form, peat
is a highly effective absorbent for fuel and oil spills on land and water. It is also
used as a conditioner for soil to make it more able to retain and slowly release
water.
1.1.2. Lignite
Lignite is a brownish-black fossil fuel that is used primarily for electric
power generation. Considered to be a low-ranking type of coal, the fuel is usually
categorized by geologists as a recent fuel. Typically, it fits between peat and subbituminous coal on geological solid fuel ranking scales. Lignite coal is burnable
and may also be referred to as brown coal. Geologically, lignite is believed to be
relatively young in age. Some geologists estimate that it formed roughly 251
million years ago.
1.1.3. Sub-bituminous coal

Sub-bituminous coal, whose properties range from those of lignite to those
of bituminous coal, is used primarily as fuel for steam-electric power generation
and is an important source of light aromatic hydrocarbons for the chemical
synthesis industry.
1.1.4. Bituminous coal

Bituminous coal or black coal is a relatively soft coal containing a tarlike
substance called bitumen. It is of higher quality than lignite coal but of poorer
quality than anthracite coal. Bituminous coal is an organic sedimentary rock
formed by diagenetic and submetamorphic compression of peat bog material. The
carbon content of bituminous coal is around 60-80%; the rest is composed of water,
air, hydrogen, and sulfur. [2].
1.1.5. Anthracite
Anthracite coal is a form of coal that is almost made entirely of carbon.
Anthracite coal is much harder than other forms of coal such as bituminous, and is
usually found in areas surrounding mountains or deep valleys. Anthracite burns
much cleaner than other forms of coal due to its low pollutant content. In fact,
anthracite may contain 91% to 98% pure carbon, leaving only 2% to 9% of other
elements. Anthracite coal is difficult to ignite and burns with a blue, smokeless
flame [3].
1.2. Coal Properties
1.2.1. Heating Value

The heating value is obtained by combustion of the sample in a calorimeter.
If not available, the heating value can be calculated with, for example, the Dulong
formula [4] from the ultimate analysis:
HHV (Btu/lb) = 14,600 C + 62,000 (H O/8 ) + 4000 S
Where C, H, O, and S are the mass fractions of the elements obtained from
the ultimate analysis. There are other formulae for calculating the heating value
from the ultimate and /or proximate analysis. It is always useful to calculate the
heating value from these analyses, as it is a good cross check on measured values.
If the deviation is more than a few percent, all analyses must be checked.
1.2.2. Caking and Swelling Properties

Another important property of a coal is the swelling index. The swelling
index is determined by heating a defined sample of coal for a specified time and
temperature, and comparing the size and shape taken by the sample with a defined
scale. There are a number of different scales defined in, for example, ASTM D
720-91, BS 1016, or ISO 335. The swelling index is an indicator for the caking
properties of a coal and its expansion on heating. Softening/caking does not occur
at a certain temperature but over a temperature range. It is an important variable
for moving-bed and fluid-bed gasifier. For the gasifier of entrained-flow systems,
the coal softening point has no relevance. However, the softening point may limit
the amount of preheating of the pulverized coal feedstock used in dry coal feed
gasifier.
1.2.3. Hardness
Physical properties are not very relevant for the operation of a gasifier as
such. The hardness of the coal is, for example, mainly important for the milling and
grinding up stream of the gasifier. The hardness of a coal is usually dependant on
the nature and quantity of its ash content, although some coals, such anthracites,
are also hard. High ash content or a very high hardness of the ash in the coal can
make a feedstock unattractive for gasification because of the high cost of milling
and grinding. Ashes with high silica and/or alumina contents have a high hardness.
The hardness is generally characterized by the hard grove grind ability index.
1.2.4. Density
The density is primarily of importance for the transport of the coal. In this
connection, it is important to discriminate between the particle density and the bulk
density of the coal. The bulk density is always lower, as is shown in table 1.1:
Table 1.1: Particle and Bulk Density [5]

Fuel
Particle (True) Density
Bulk (Apparent)
(kg/m3)
Density (kg/m3)
Anthracite
1450-1700
800-930
Bituminous coal
1250-1450
670-910
Lignite
1100-1250
550-630
1.3. Coal Reserves in Pakistan [6]

Coal Reserves of Pakistan and Azad Kashmir (million tons).
Province
Measured
Indicated
Inferred
Hypothetical
Total Reserves
Sindh
Balochistan
3339
79.45
11835
150.45
56646
183.5
113637
45.3
185457
458.7
Punjab
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Azad Kashmir
Grand Total
57
3
1
3479.45
31
5.75
1
12023.20
2
109.24
6.72
56947.26
145
5
113832.30
235
122.99
8.72
186282.41
Coal Reserves of Balochistan Province (million tons). Only Chamalang, Khost-Shahrig-Harnai,
Duki-
anambar, Mach-AbeGum, and Pir Ismail Ziarat-Marwar coalfields are developed so far.
Coalfield Coal Th. M.

Chamala 0.2-2.5m 6
ng
0.5-2.5m 3.9
Kingri
(K)
Kingri- 0.2-2.0m 1
hikar
Narwal- 0.2-2.0m 1
Dab
0.3-2.0m 1.2
Toi
Nala/
0.3-2.3m 20.9
KhostGhoze
Sharig- 0.3-1.3m 9.8
Sor
RangeGhar
Deghar
Harnai
i
0.2-2.3m 22.8
DukiAnam
0.6-1.3m 9
Machbar
Abegum
Pir Ismail 0.4-0.7m 3.6
Johan
Ziarat
Total
Moist.
V.M.
T.
Sulphur
1.14-4.58 7.68-48.17 0.65-50.05 5.35-84.96 3.44-6.93
H.V.; BTU/lb Rank
1.64
2000-10,000
18.4
FixCarbon Ash
25.1
55.2
5.58
1818-13569
Same as Chamalang coalfields
LigC to
hvBb
LigC to
SubC
Same as Chamalang coalfields

1.8-1.9 42.3-42.9 32.1-32.9
22.8-23.1
5.8-6.1
1.7-11.2
9.3-45.3
25.5-43.8
9.3-34.0
3.5-9.5
3.9-18.9
20.7-37.5
41.0-50.8
4.9-17.2
0.6-5.5
3.5.11.5
32.0-50.0
28.0-42.0
5.0-38.0
4.0-6.0
7.1-12.0
34.2-43.0
32.4-41.5
9.6-20.3
3.2-7.4
6.3-13.2
34.6-41.0
19.3-42.5
10.3-37.5
3.2-7.4
9,790-13,000 SubC to
hvBb
9,637-15,499 SubC to
hvCb to
11,245-13,900 SubA
hvBb
10,131-14,164 SubB to
hvAb
11,110-12,937 SubA to
10,131-14,164 hvCb
SubB to
hvAb
0.1-0.3m 0.25 Same as Mach coalfield

79.45
Abbreviations; Coal Th - Cumulative coal thickness, M-measured, Ind-indicated, Hyp-hypothetical, Moist- moisture, T.
sulphur-total sulphur, H.V.-heating value, BTU/lb - British thermal unit/pound, m- metre, lig- lignite, Sub-sub
bituminous, b-bituminous, hv-high volatile.
Coal Reserves of Punjab (million tons). Both coalfields are developed.

Coalfield Coal Th. M. Moist
V.M. FixCarbon Ash
T. Sulphur H.V.; BTU/lb
Makerwal 0.3-2.0m
2.8-6.0
31.5-48.1 34.9-44.9 6.4-30.8
2.8-6.3
10,688-14,029
Salt Range 0.15-1.2m 50 3.2-10.8
21.5-38.8 25.7-44.8 12.3-44.2
2.6-10.7
10,131-14,164
Total
57
Rank
SubA to hvAb
SubC to hvAb
Coal Reserves of Sindh Province (million tons). Only Lakhra and Meting-Jhimpir coalfields are
developed.
Coalfield Coal Th.
M.
Moist.
V.M.
Fix
Carbon
Ash
T.Sulphur
H.V.; BTU/lb
Rank
Lakhra
Meting
SondaThatta
Jhimpi
r
Jherruck
Ongar
Indus
zast
Badin
0.3-3.3m
0.3-1.0m
244 9.7-38.1 18.3-38.6

10 26.6-36.6 25.2-34.0
9.8-38.2
24.1-32.2
4.3-49
8.2-16.8
1.2-14.8
2.9-5.1
5,503-9,158
7,734-8,612
LigB-SubC
LigA-SubC
0.3-1.5m
60
22.6-48.0 16.1-36.9
8.9-31.6
2.7-52.0
0.2-15.0
8,878-13,555
SubC-hvBb
0.3-6.2m
0.3-1.5m
0.3-2.5m
0.5-3.1m
106
18
51
150
9.0-39.5
9.0-39.5
9.0-39.5
9.0-39.5
20.0-44.2
20.0-44.2
20.0-44.2
20.0-44.2
15.0-58.8
15.0-58.8
15.0-58.8
15.0-58.8
5.0-39.0
5.0-39.0
5.0-39.0
5.0-39.0
0.4-7.7
0.4-7.7
0.4-7.7
0.4-7.7
8,800-12,846
5,219-11.172
7,782-8,660
11,415-11,521
SubC-hvCb
LigB-SubA
LigA-SubC
LigB-SubA
Thar
Total
0.2-22.8m 2700 29.6-55.5 23.1-36.6

3339
14.2-34.0
2.9-11.5
0.4-2.9
6,244-11,045
LigB-SubA
Coal Reserves of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Province (million tons).
Hangu/Orakzai, Cherat, Gulakhel
and Dara Adamkhel coalfields are developed so far.
Coalfield Coal Th.
M.
Moist.
V.M.
Fix Carbon
Ash
T.Sulphur H.V.; BTU/lb
Rank
Hangu
0.4-0.6m
0.2-2.5
16.2-33.4
21.8-49.8
5.3-43.3
1.5-9.5
10,500-14,149 SubA- hvAb
Cherat
0.8-1.2m
0.5
0.1-7.1
14.0-31.2
37.0-76.9
6.1-39.0
1.1-3.5
9,386-14,171 SubC- hvAb
Gulakhel
0.3-2.0m
2.8-6.0
31.5-48.1
34.9-44.9
6.4-30.8
2.8-6.3
10,688-14,029 SubA to hvAb
0.1-0.3m
Shirani
0.4-0.6
Dara
Adamkhe
Total
l
0.25 Same as Toi Nala coalfield

0.25 Same as Hangu / Cherat coalfields
3.00
Coal Reserves of Azad Kashmir (million tonnes).

Coalfield Coal
Th.
Kotli coalfield is developed so far.
M.
Moist.
V.M.
Fix Carbon
Ash
T. Sulphur
H.V.; BTU/lb
Rank
0.2-6.0
5.1-32.0
26.3-69.5
3.3-50.0
0.3-4.8
7,336-12,338
LigA-hvCb
Kotli
0.21.0m
Total
0.21.0m
1.4. Biomass
Biomass refers to any organic material derived from plants that use sunlight
to grow. When burned, the energy stored in biomass is released to produce heat or
electricity. Common forms of solid biomass include agricultural crops, crop
residues and forestry products. Using biomass for energy offers potential
advantages:
Biomass is an abundant and renewable source of energy.
Using biomass for energy would diversify the energy supply

and reduce dependency on fossil fuels.
Biomass production may create new jobs for the local

economy.
1.4.1. Types of biomass in Pakistan

Following types of biomass is available in Pakistan.
1. Woody Biomass
2. Crop Residues
I.
Rice Straw
II.
Rice Husk
III.
Rice Stalk
IV.
Cotton Stalk
V.
Cotton Husk
VI.
Wheat Stalk
VII.
Sugarcane Bagasse
VIII.
Maize Cobs
IX.
Maize Stalk
X.
Barley Stalk
3. Animal Dung
I.
Cattle
1.4.2. Biomass Analysis [7]

The Ultimate and proximate analysis of different type of biomass present in
Pakistan is shown in the following table.
Table 1.2: Ultimate and Proximate Analysis of Biomass

Type Of
Biomass
Proximate analysis
Ultimate analysis
CV
Volatile
matter
%
FC
%
Ash
%
Wood [13]
83.0
7.2
9.8
50.5
6.1
43
0.3
0.1
18.7
Rice Straw [8]
65.5
15.8
18.7
38.2
5.20
36.26
0.87
0.18
15.09
Rice Husk [12]
61.81
16.95
21.24
38.50
5.20
34.61
0.45
Rice Stalk [13]
63.52
16.22
20.26
39.77
5.53
53.64
0.82
0.24
17.62
Cotton Stalk [10]
73.10
22
4.9
45.2
4.4
14.5
1.0
0.0
17.7
Cotton Husk [15]
72.8
20.59
6.61
47.03
5.96
38.42
1.8
Wheat Stalk [9]
75.3
17.7
7.0
43.4
6.0
44.5
0.8
0.1
18
Sugarcane
Bagasse [10]
71.9
18.03
10.07
45.58
5.96
45.21
0.15
0.001
18.7
Maize Cobs [12]
87.4
11.5
1.1
49
5.4
44.20
0.4
0.0
16.8
Maize Stalk [12]
73.15
19.2
7.65
44.73
5.87
40.44
0.60
0.07
17.7
Barley Stalk [11]
68.8
20.9
10.3
39.92
5.27
43.81
1.25
16.6
Cattle Dung [16]
71.24
15.4
13.38
42.07
5.60
50.0
1.75
MJ/Kg
14.7
16.9
17.0
1.4.3. Production of Different Crops and their respective Residue

availability in Pakistan [7]
The production of different crops in Pakistan with respect to their residue
availability is shown in the following table.
10
Table 1.3: Production of Different Crops and their respective Residue availability
in Pakistan
Name of the crop
Rice
Cotton
Annual
production
(thousand MT)
6883
3000
Type of
residue
Crop to residue ratio
Husks
0.2
1376.6
Stalks
1.5
10,324.5
Straw
1.5
10,324.5
Husk
1.1
3300
Stalks
3.8a
11,802.8
(residue/kg crop)
Total available
residue (thousand
MT)
Wheat
23,864
Stalks
1.5
35796
Sugarcane
49,373
Bagasse
0.33
16,293.09
Maize
296
Cobs
0.3
88.8
Stalks
592
Barley
82
Stalks
1.3
106.6
Dry chilly
187.7
Stalks
1.5
281.55
1.4.4. Properties of Feed Stock Suitable for Gasification

The composition of different materials varies significantly. Fuel
performance is related to the composition of the material. Important factors include
Moisture, ash, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, oxygen and chloride content.
I. Moisture
Moisture content is the key factor determining the net energy content of
biomass material. Dry biomass has a greater heating value (or net energy potential),
as it uses little of its energy to evaporate any moisture. Increased moisture means
less energy available for the boiler.
Moisture content is usually reported on an as-is or wet basis in which the
water content is given as a fraction of the total weight. All biomass materials
contain some moisture, from as low as 8% for dried straw to over 50% for fresh-
11
cut wood. A high moisture content adversely affects the collection, storage, preprocessing, handling and transportation of biomass. In addition, transporting wet
material costs more.
Moisture content
Increases heat loss, due to evaporation and superheating of vapor
Helps, to a limit, in binding fines.
Aids radiation heat transfer.
The moisture content of raw biomass can be reduced by:

Leaving biomass in the field to dry for several weeks
Storing biomass, sheltered from precipitation
Commercial drying
II. Fixed carbon

Fixed carbon is the solid fuel left in the furnace after volatile matter is
distilled off. It consists mostly of carbon but also contains some hydrogen, oxygen,
sulphur and nitrogen not driven off with the gases. Fixed carbon gives a rough
estimate of heating value of coal.
III. Volatile Matter

Volatile matters are the methane, hydrocarbons, hydrogen and carbon
monoxide, and incombustible gases like carbon dioxide and nitrogen found in coal.
Thus the volatile matter is an index of the gaseous fuels present. Typical range of
volatile matter is 20 to 35%.
Volatile Matter content

Proportionately increases flame length, and helps in easier ignition of coal.
Influences secondary air requirement.
Influences secondary oil support.
12
IV. Ash
The non-combustible content of biomass is referred to as ash. High ash
content leads to fouling problems. Unfortunately biomass fuels, especially
agricultural crops/residues tend to have a high ash with high potassium content. As
a result, the ash melts at lower temperatures, resulting in clinkers that can jam
furnace elements. Alternately, slagging and fouling occur when ash is vaporized
and condensed in the boiler, resulting in the production of hard formations on the
heat transfer surfaces.
Wood has less than 3% ash. Agricultural crops have higher ash content,
from 3% and higher. Some boilers/stoves cannot handle fuels with high ash
content. More ash means more maintenance. [9]
Ash content:
Reduces handling and burning capacity.
Increases handling costs.
Affects combustion efficiency and boiler efficiency
Causes clinkering and slagging.
V. Carbon
The carbon content of biomass is around 40%, while coal contains 60% or
greater (Demirbas, 2007). A higher carbon content leads to a higher heating
value. [9]
VI. Hydrogen
The hydrogen content of biomass is around 6% (Jenkins, 1998). A higher
hydrogen content leads to a higher heating value. [9]
13
VII. Nitrogen
The nitrogen content of biomass varies from 0.2% to more than 1%
(Jenkins, 1998). Fuel bound nitrogen is responsible for most nitrogen oxide (NOx)
emissions produced from biomass combustion. Lower nitrogen content in the fuel
should lead to lower NOx emissions. [9]
VIII. Sulphur
Most biomass fuels have a sulphur content below 0.2%, with a few
exceptions as high as 0.5%0.7%.Coals range from 0.5%7.5% (Demirbas 2007).
Sulphur oxides (SOx) are formed during combustion and contribute significantly to
particulate matter (PM) pollution and acid rain. [9]
Since biomass has negligible sulphur content, its combustion does not
contribute significantly to sulphur emissions. It:
Affects clinkering and slagging tendencies
Corrodes chimney and other equipment such as air heaters and
economizers
Limits exit flue gas temperature.
1.4.5. Selection of Feed Stock

The selection of an appropriate feed stock is the important step at the initial
stage of gasification. The various samples are analyzed and compared in terms of
their costs and compositions. The comparison is generally made by the percentages
of sulfur content, fixed carbon, oxygen, ash and other volatile content. The Thar
coal and Sugarcane bagasse are selected as a feedstock for Gasification because of
i.
High Calorific value
ii.
Low Sulphur content
iii.
High availability in Pakistan
14
1.5. Application of Syn Gas

Syngas can be used for heat production and for generation of mechanical
and electrical power. Like other gaseous fuels, producer gas gives greater control
over power levels when compared to solid fuels, leading to more efficient and
cleaner operation.
1.5.1. Heat
Gasifiers offer a flexible option for thermal applications, as they can be
retrofitted into existing gas fueled devices such as ovens, furnaces, boilers, etc.
where syngas may replace fossil fuels. Heating values of syngas are generally
around 4-10 MJ/m3.
1.5.2. Electricity
Currently Industrial-scale gasification is primarily used to produce
electricity from fossil fuels such as coal, where the syngas is burned in a gas
turbine. Gasification is also used industrially in the production of electricity,
ammonia and liquid fuels (oil) using Integrated Gasification Combined Cycles
(IGCC), with the possibility of producing methane and hydrogen for fuel cells.
IGCC is also a more efficient method of CO2 capture as compared to conventional
technologies. IGCC demonstration plants have been operating since the early
1970s and some of the plants constructed in the 1990s are now entering commercial
service.
1.5.3. Combined heat and power

In small business and building applications, where the wood source is
sustainable, 250-1000 kW and new zero carbon biomass gasification plants have
been installed in Europe that produce tar free syngas from wood and burn it in
reciprocating engines connected to a generator with heat recovery. This type of
plant is often referred to as a wood biomass CHP unit but is a plant with seven
15
different processes: biomass processing, fuel delivery, gasification, gas cleaning,

waste disposal, electricity generation and heat recovery.
1.5.4. Transport fuel

Diesel engines can be operated on dual fuel mode using producer gas. Diesel
substitution of over 80% at high loads and 70-80% under normal load variations
can easily be achieved. Spark ignition engines and fuel cells can operate on 100%
gasification gas. Mechanical energy from the engines may be used for e.g. driving
water pumps for irrigation or for coupling with an alternator for electrical power
generation.
CHAPTER 2
PROCESS SELECTION
2.1. Methods of Syn Gas Production

Different kinds of processes are involved for production of syngas. They
are
Landfill
Gasification
Pyrolysis
2.1.1. Landfill
The placement of solid waste in landfills is the probably the oldest and
definitely the most prevalent form of ultimate garbage disposal. From the outset, it
must be recognized that many landfills are nothing more than open, sometimes
controlled, dumps. The difference between landfills and dumps is the level of
engineering, planning, and administration involved.
17
Open dumps are characterized by the lack of engineering measures, no leach

ate management, no consideration of landfill gas management, and few, if any,
operational measures such as registration of users, control of the number of tipping
fronts or compaction of waste.
2.1.2. Gasification
Gasification is a process that converts organic or fossil based carbonaceous
materials into carbon monoxide, hydrogen and carbon dioxide. This is achieved by
reacting the material at high temperatures, without combustion, with a controlled
amount of oxygen and/or steam. The resulting gas mixture is called syngas (from
synthesis gas or synthetic gas) or producer gas and is itself a fuel.
The power derived from gasification of biomass and combustion of the
resultant gas is considered to be a source of renewable energy; the gasification of
fossil fuel derived materials such as plastic is not considered to be renewable
energy.
Gasification Reactions
Combustion gases can be produced by the reaction of the coal, char or
volatile matter with oxygen, carbon dioxide, hydrogen or stream. The main
reactions are listed below (for simplicity, only reactions with carbon are shown).
Partial combustion reaction:
C + O2
CO
Boudouard reaction:
C+CO2
2CO
Hydro gasification reaction
C + 2H2
CH4
Char Gasification reaction:
C + H2 O
CO + H2
Combustion reaction
C+O2
CO2
Water Gas Shift reaction
CO + H2O
CO2 + H2
18
Methane Reforming Reaction
CH4 + H2O
CO + 3H2
Carbonation Reaction
CaO + CO2
CaCO3
2.1.3. Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is a thermo chemical decomposition of organic material at
elevated temperatures without the participation of oxygen. It involves the
simultaneous change of chemical composition and physical phase, and is
irreversible. The word is coined from the Greek-derived elements pyr "fire" and
lysis "separating".
Pyrolysis is a case of thermolysis, and is most commonly used for organic
materials, being, therefore, one of the processes involved in charring. The pyrolysis
of wood, which starts at 200300 C (390570 F), occurs for example in fires
where solid fuels are burning or when vegetation comes into contact with lava in
volcanic eruptions. In general, pyrolysis of organic substances produces gas and
liquid products and leaves a solid residue richer in carbon content, char. Extreme
pyrolysis, which leaves mostly carbon as the residue, is called carbonization.
2.2. Gasifier Types

Depending upon the gasification medium, gasifiers can be classified into three
groups:
1. Air-blown, where air is the gasification medium
2. Oxygen-blown, where pure oxygen is the gasification medium
3. Steam Blown, where steam is the gasification medium
Air gasification produces a low heating value (5000 to 6000 kJ/kg or 3 to 6

MJ/m3, LHV) gas, which contains about 50% nitrogen and can fuel engines and
furnaces. Oxygen blowing is free from diluents like nitrogen. As a result it produces
higher (15,000 kJ/kg or 10 to 12 MJ/m3, LHV) heating value gas, Steam blown
gasifiers produce Syn gas with high hydrogen content and typically having a
heating value of 50,000 kJ/kg.
19
Depending upon how the gas and fuel contact each other, gasifiers can be
further divided into following types:
2.2.1. Counter-current Fixed bed (Up draft) Gasifier

A fixed bed of carbonaceous fuel (e.g. coal or biomass) through which the
"gasification agent" (steam, oxygen and/or air) flows in counter-current
configuration. The ash is either removed in the dry condition or as a slag. The
slagging gasifiers have a lower ratio of steam to carbon. Achieving temperatures
higher than the ash fusion temperature. The nature of the gasifier means that the
fuel must have high mechanical strength and must ideally be non-caking so that it
will form a permeable bed, although recent developments have reduced these
restrictions to some extent. The throughput for this type of gasifier is relatively low.
Thermal efficiency is high as the temperatures in the gas exit are relatively low.
However, this means that tar and methane production is significant at
typical operation temperatures, so product gas must be extensively cleaned before
use. The tar can be recycled to the reactor
Figure 2.1: Counter-current fixed bed (Up draft) gasifier [17]
20
2.2.2. Co-current Fixed bed (Down draft) Gasifier

Similar to the counter-current type, but the gasification agent gas flows in
co-current configuration with the fuel (downwards, hence the name "down draft
gasifier"). Heat needs to be added to the upper part of the bed, either by combusting
small amounts of the fuel or from external heat sources. The produced gas leaves
the gasifier at a high temperature, and most of this heat is often transferred to the
gasification agent added in the top of the bed, resulting in an energy efficiency on
level with the counter-current type. Since all tars must pass through a hot bed of
char in this configuration, tar levels are much lower than the counter-current type.
Figure 2.2: Co-current fixed bed ("down draft") gasifier [17]
21
2.2.3. Fluidized bed reactor

The fuel is fluidized by oxygen and steam or air. The temperatures are relatively
low in fluidized bed gasifiers, so the fuel must be highly reactive; low-grade coals
are particularly suitable. The agglomerating gasifiers have slightly higher
temperatures, and are suitable for higher rank coals. Fuel throughput is higher
than for the fixed bed, but not as high as for the entrained flow gasifier. The
conversion efficiency is higher than fixed bed. Recycle or subsequent combustion
of solids can be used to increase conversion. Fluidized bed gasifiers offers
improved mass and heat transfer from fuel, higher heating value and higher
efficiency.
The concern for climate change has increased the interest in biomass
gasification for which fluidized bed gasifiers are particularly popular, occupying
nearly 20% of their market. Fluidized bed gasifiers are divided into the following
two major types.
1. Bubbling fluidized bed gasifier
2. Circulating fluidized bed gasifiers
Figure 2.3: Fluidized Bed Reactor [17]
22
2.2.4. Entrained Flow Gasifier

Entrained-flow systems gasify pulverized fuel particles suspended in a
stream of oxygen (or air) and steam. Ash in the coal melts at the high operating
temperature of the gasifier and is removed as liquid slag. A number of
manufacturers
offer
commercial
entrained-bed
gasifiers
for
large-scale
applications, such as Texaco, Shell, and KopperTotzek. These gasifiers typically

operate at pressures up to 35 bar and use oxygen as the gasifier medium (William
et al., 2000). Many IGCC plants utilize entrained bed gasifiers.
Entrained bed gasifiers are available in much larger capacities (.100 MWe)
than other types, but these are more commonly used for fossil fuels like coal,
refinery wastes, etc. Their use for gasification is rather limited, as it requires the
fuel particles to be very fine (in the order of 80 to 100 mm).
In entrained flow gasifiers, Gasification occurs at 1600 C and the product
gas is taken out through collector pipe at 1000-1300 C. Ash is removed from the
bottom in the form of slag.
Figure 2.4: Entrained Flow Gasifier [19]
23
2.3. Gasifier Selection

Fluidized bed gasifier is selected due to its following advantages over other
type of gasifiers.
Short residence time
Uniform temperature distribution and Uniform Particle mixing.
Low char or/and tar contents
High cold gas energy efficiency
Reduced ash-related problems
Low air pollution.
No production of SOx because SO2, SO3 etc. are captured by lime stone.
Higher heating value of Synthesis gas
CHAPTER 3
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
3.1. Description of the Process

A simplified process has been developed for Synthesis gas production from
biomass and coal using pure steam as gasification agent and CaO as CO2 sorbent.
The block diagram of the process is shown. The whole process is consists of four
sections
1.
Feed treatment
2.
Gasification
3.
Gas cleaning section
4.
Utility section
The detail of each section is described in next headings. The process flow
diagram (PFD) is shown at the end of this chapter
25
3.1.1. Feed Treatment

Pretreatment of feedstock for gasifier is generally consisting of drying and
size reduction. Drying used to remove the moisture from the coal and biomass
either from flue gases or by air. Usually drying removes the moisture contents from
10-15 % in the biomass.
The best condition of feedstock for fluidized bed gasifier is that the
feedstock must well grind as well. So to achieve such best condition for coal and
biomass feed to gasifier a rotary dryer and ball mill used to remove moisture from
the feedstock and fine grinding respectively shown in PFD. [20]
3.1.2. Gasification
The conversion of feedstock to the Synthesis gas takes place in fluidized
bed gasifier through steam gasification process integrated with CO2 capture. There
are few assumptions were considered in flowsheet development modeling for
gasification process are as follows.
1. The gasifier operates under steady state conditions and atmospheric
pressure.
2. The reactions proceed adiabatically and at constant volume.
3. There is no tar formation in this process.
In the modeling framework, it is assumed that four reactions take place
simultaneously including Char gasification, Methane reforming, Water gas shift
and Carbonation. [22]
Char Gasification reaction
C(s) + H2O
CO + H2
Steam Methane Reforming

CH4 + H2O
CO + 3H2
Water Gas shift reaction

CO + H2O
CO2 + H2
26
Carbonation reaction
CaO + CO2
CaCO3
Table 3.1: Operating Conditions and Process Parameters in the Gasifier

Parameter
Value
Reason
Temperature
950 K
High H2/CO ratio [21]
Pressure
1 atm
High H2/CO ratio [20]
Bed Material
CaO
As a CO2 sorbent [20] [21]
Steam/feed ratio
For hydrogen purity. [20]
Sorbent/feed ratio
For both hydrogen purity and

hydrogen yield profiles.[20]
Feed Size
2 mm
For high fluidization [23]
3.1.3. Gas Cleaning

The product gas produced by the gasification process contained hydrogen,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, methane, steam and fly ash. To get pure
hydrogen as end product, there are several steps involved in product gas cleaning
with different units like Cyclone Seprator and scrubber as shown in PFD. Fly ash
was removed from the system by Cyclone and the steam was removed by passing
through scrubber with fresh water. Along with the steam there are also some others
product gases will be also absorbs in water which was calculated by chart of
solubility of gases in water at atmospheric pressure and different temperature. The
scrubber is also used to cool down the product gas and to remove the remaining
amount of the solid particles. [20]
27
3.1.4. Utility Section

I.
Steam Generation
The process design includes a steam generation system that produced steam
by a steam generator/Boiler. Furthermore steam is superheated to 523 K. The steam

is supplied to the gasifier at 2 atm pressure which reduces to 1 atm in the gasifier
due to energy losses. The steam generation system is also shown in PFD.
3.2. Factors Affecting Gasification

The main factors affecting the Gasification are as follows.
3.2.1. Temperature
Increasing the temperature increases the formation of combustible gases, decreases
the yield of char and liquids and leads to more complete conversion of the fuel. The
energy content of the syngas increases steadily up to 700 C then decreases at
higher temperatures.
3.2.2. Pressure
The rate of char gasification increase with increasing pressure, and the impacts are
most significant at high temperatures.
3.2.3. Fuel Bed Height

For a given reactor temperature, higher fuel bed heights increase the time fuels are
available for reactions to occur (residence time), which increases total syngas
yields and increases the concentrations of hydrogen, and carbon monoxide in the
syngas.
3.2.4. Fluidization Velocity

Fluidization velocity (fluidization is the processing technique employing a
suspension of a small solid particle in a vertically rising stream of fluid usually
gas so that fluid and solid come into intimate contact) affects the mixing of
particles within the reactor. Higher velocities increase the temperature of the fuel
bed and lead to the production of lower energy syngas.
28
3.2.5. Feed Properties

Both chemical reaction rates and diffusion rates are dependent on the
properties of the solid materials. The absolute value of the chemical reaction rate
can vary greatly depending on the reactivity of the material.
29
3.3. Block Diagram
Figure 3.1: Block Diagram
30
3.4. Process Flow Diagram
Figure 3.2: Process Flow Diagram
CHAPTER 4
MATERIAL BALANCE
4.1.
Material Balance on Dryer
Total mass entering the dryer = F1 = 1000 kg/hr

Biomass : Coal = 30 : 70
Moisture content in Biomass = 15.3 kg/hr
Moisture content in coal = 333.2 kg/hr
Total moisture content = 348.5 kg/h
Dry Solid leaving dryer = F2 = 683.6 kg/hr
32
(There is only 5% moisture at the outlet of the dryer)

Where outlet of dryer contains
H2O = 32.1 Kg/hr
Coal + Biomass = 651.5 kg/hr
Mass In = Mass Out
Wet Solid In = Dry Solid out + Moisture removed
Moisture removed = 1000-683.6 = 316.4 Kg/hr
4.2. Material Balance on Mill
4.3. Material Balance on Gasifier
33
Table 4.1: Proximate analysis of Coal and Biomass (Dry Basis)

Coal [24]
Biomass [10]
Combined
Fixed Carbon
37.33%
18.03%
31.54%
Volatile matter
47.81%
71.9%
55.04%
Ash
14.86%
10.07%
13.42%
Total feed entering the gasifier = 683.6 kg/hr

Moisture content present in the feed = 32.1 kg/hr
Total Solid feed ( Coal + Biomass ) = 651.5 kg/hr
Assumptions
i.
The gasifier operates under steady state conditions [21].
ii.
Four reactions occur simultaneously in the gasifier including char

gasification, methane reforming, water gas shift and carbonation [22]
iii.
Product gas consist of H2, CO, CO2 and CH4 [21]
iv.
The reactions proceed isothermally and occur at constant volume [21]
v.
Tar and ash formation in the process are negligible. As the calculation of
tar content will lead to an increasing amount of error for final product gas
composition [21]
4.3.1. Gasification Reactions

I.
By balanced chemical equation

Moles of C = 17.12 kmol/hr = 205.44 kg/hr
Moles of H2O = 17.12 kmol/hr = 308.16 kg/hr
Moles of CO = 17.12 kmol/hr = 479.36 kg/hr
Moles of H2 = 17.12 kmol/hr = 34.24 kg/hr
34
II.
Steam Methane Reforming Reaction

Moles of CH4 = 22.41 kmol/hr = 358.56 kg/hr
III.

Moles of CO2 = 39.53 kmol/hr = 1732.32 kg/hr
Amount of steam required = 1423.08 Kg/hr (S/C = 1)

For S:C = 2 (for high Hydrogen yield)
Amount of steam = 2846.16 Kg/hr (S/C = 2)
Table 4.2: Gasification Reaction
Name
Reaction
Conversion %
C(s) + H2O
CO + H2
40 [23]
Methane Reforming Reaction
CH4 + H2O
CO + 3H2
60 [25]
CO + H2O
CO2 + H2
70 [26]
CaO + CO2
CaCO3
85 [20]
35
Table 4.3: Material Balance

Reactant Stream
Products Stream
Unreacted
C
(kmol/hr)
H2 O
(kmol/hr)
CO
(kmol/hr)
H2 (kmol/hr)
C (kmol/hr)
H2 O
(kmol/hr)
17.12
17.12
6.85
6.85
10.27
10.27
CH4
(kmol/hr)
H2 O
(kmol/hr)
CO
(kmol/hr)
H2 (kmol/hr)
CH4
(kmol/hr)
H2 O
(kmol/hr)
22.41
22.41
13.45
40.35
8.96
8.96
CO
(kmol/hr)
H2 O
(kmol/hr)
CO2
(kmol/hr)
H2 (kmol/hr)
CO
(kmol/hr)
H2 O
(kmol/hr)
20.3
20.3
14.21
14.21
6.09
6.09
CaO
(kmol/hr)
CO2
(kmol/hr)
CaCO3
(kmol/hr)
CaO
(kmol/hr)
CO2
(kmol/hr)
12.21
12.21
10.38
1.83
3.84
Total CaO fed = 683.6 kg/hr

Total CaCO3 at outlet = 1038 kg/hr
Unreacted CaO = 102.48 kg/hr
CO2 absorbed = 456.72 kg/hr
36
Table 4.4: Product Gas Composition of Gasifier

Component
Molar flow rate (kmol /

hr)
Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr)
CH4
8.96
143.36
CO
6.09
170.52
CO2
3.84
168.96
H2
61.41
122.82
H2O
125.39
2256.55
Ash
87.43
Unreacted C
10.27
123.24
Mass In = Mass Out

683.6 + 2846.16 + 683.6 = 1038 + 102.48 + 143.36 + 170.52 + 168.96 + 122.82
+ 2256.55 + 87.43 + 123.24
4213.36 = 4213.36
4.4. Material Balance on Cyclone Separator
Solid particles are coming in gas stream at the rate of 210.67 kg/hr. Particle Size
is reduced due to attrition. Assuming average particle size of particles in the Inlet
is 50 m. From the graph the efficiency is 99%.
F6 = 2100.99 = 208.56 kg/hr
F4 = F5 + F6
3072.88 = F5 + 208.56
Syn gas Out = F5 = 2864.32 Kg/hr
37
4.5. Material Balance on Scrubber
Table 4.5: Composition of Gas at Inlet of Scrubber

Component
Molar flow rate (kmol

/ hr)
Mass Flow Rate

(kg/hr)
CH4
8.96
143.36
CO
6.09
170.52
CO2
3.84
168.96
H2
61.41
122.82
H2O
125.36
2256.55
Solids
2.107
38
Water required = 33,400 kg/hr = 9.28 kg/s

Inlet temperature of water = 25 C = 298 K
Outlet temperature of water = 89 C = 362 K
Average Temperature of the Column = 61.4 C = 334.4 K
Assuming only CO2 is absorbed in water, because solubility of other gases in
water is very less.
CO2 absorbed in water (At 61.4 C) = 0.6 g CO2/Kg of water [27]
Total CO2 absorbed in water = 18 Kg/hr
Table 4.6: Outlet composition of Gases of Scrubber

Component
Molar flow rate (kmol

/ hr)
Mass Flow Rate

(kg/hr)
CH4
8.96
143.36
CO
6.09
170.52
CO2
3.43
150.96
H2
61.41
122.82
H2O
0.49
8.82
Solids Removed = 2.107 kg/hr

Steam Removed = 2247.73 kg/hr
Total Outlet from the bottom = 33400+2247.73+18+2.107 = 35667.74 kg/hr
Total Gas Out from top = 596.48 kg/hr
Density of gas = 0.2953 kg/m3 [28]
Volumetric flow rate of the gas = 2020 m3/hr
39
4.6. Overall Material Balance
Figure 4.1: Overall Material Balance
CHAPTER 5
ENERGY BALANCE
5.1. Energy Balance on Dryer
5.1.1. Heat Inlet

Air inlet temperature = 385 K
Feed inlet temperature = 305 K
Air In
Air contains 0.01 kg water per kg of air
Q = mCpT
Heat Capacity of Air = 1.008 KJ/Kg K
Heat Capacity of Water Vapor = 1.869 KJ/Kg K
Q = 661.19 KW
41
Feed Inlet = Q = mCPT

Heat Capacity of Feed Solids = 1.104 KJ/Kg K
Heat Capacity of Water = 4.18 KJ/Kg K
Q = 19.36 KW
Total Heat In = Heat of Air at inlet + Heat of Feed at inlet

Total Heat In = 680.55 KW
5.1.2. Heat Outlet

Air outlet temperature = 327.5 K
Feed outlet temperature = 330 K
Feed Out
Q = mCpT
Q = 13.54 KW
Water evaporated = 0.008 Kg/s
Assuming evaporation takes place at 311 K
Latent heat of water vapour () = 2410.8 KJ/Kg
Heat in water vapor = mCPT + m
= 228.834 KW
Heat in air = mCPT
= 321.74 KW
Heat losses = 116.43 KW
Total Heat Out = 564.12 KW
42
5.2. Energy Balance on Ball Mill

Energy In = Energy Out
Energy Out = 14.02 KW
5.3. Energy Balance on Gasifier
5.3.1. Heat Inlet

Solid In
Q = mCpT
Cp of feed = 1.1047 KJ/Kg. K
Cp of CaO = 0.7563 KJ/Kg. K
Q = 14.02+ 3.59 = 17.67 KW
Steam Inlet (At 523K and 2 atm)
Q = mCpT + m
Cp of Steam = 1.92 KJ/Kg. K
Cp of Water = 4.189 KJ/Kg. K
= 2200 KJ/Kg
At 2 atm, Steam boils at 393.57 K (120.57 C)
= (248.51+2200+505.18)*2846.16/3600
Q = 2335.19 KW
Total Heat In = Heat of Solid inlet + Heat Steam inlet

Total Heat In = 2352.86 KW
43
5.3.2. Heat involved in Chemical Reactions
I.
C + H2O CO + H2
HR = +131.5 KJ/mol
H = HR + CP (T-TR)
CP = 2.276 KJ/Kmol .K
H = 133040.85 KJ/Kmol
II. Methane Reforming Reaction
CH4 + H2O CO + 3H2
HR = +206 KJ/mol
H = HR + CP (T-TR)
H = 214389.4 KJ/Kmol
III.
CO + H2O CO2 + H2
HR = -41 KJ/mol
H = HR + CP (T-TR)
H = -34414.14 KJ/Kmol
IV.
CO2 + CaO CaCO3

HR = -178.3 KJ/mol K
H = HR + CP (T-TR)
44
H = -162451.43 KJ/Kmol
Table 4.7: Material Balance on Gasifier

Reactant Stream
Products Stream
Unreacted
C
(kmol/hr)
H2O
(kmol/hr)
CO
(kmol/hr)
H2 (kmol/hr)
C (kmol/hr)
H2O (kmol/hr)
17.12
17.12
6.85
6.85
10.27
10.27
CH4
(kmol/hr)
H2O
(kmol/hr)
CO
(kmol/hr)
H2 (kmol/hr)
CH4 (kmol/hr)
H2O (kmol/hr)
22.41
22.41
13.45
40.35
8.96
8.96
CO
(kmol/hr)
H2O
(kmol/hr)
CO2
(kmol/hr)
H2 (kmol/hr)
CO (kmol/hr)
H2O (kmol/hr)
20.3
20.3
14.21
14.21
6.09
6.09
CaO
(kmol/hr)
CO2
(kmol/hr)
CaCO3
(kmol/hr)
CaO (kmol/hr)
CO2 (kmol/hr)
12.21
12.21
10.38
1.83
3.84
QR = nH
=253.14 + 800.98 -135.84 468.40
= 449.88 KW
45
5.3.3. Heat Outlet

Total Heat Out = Qout = Qout (Gas) + Qout (Solids)
Heat Outlet by Gaseous stream = Qout (Gas) = m<Cp>T + m
= 2257 KJ/Kg (At 1 atm)
Mean Cp of Outlet Gaseous stream = 2.417 KJ/Kg K
Qout (Gas) = 2811.44 KW
Heat Outlet by Solids = Qout (Solids) = m<Cp>T

Mean Cp of Solids = 1.247 KJ/Kg K
Qout (Solids) = 267.45 KW
Total Heat Out = Qout = 3078.89 KW
5.3.4. Overall Energy Balance

Qin = Qout
QSteam + Qfeed + Qgeneration Qconsumption + Qheater = Qout
Qheater = 1175.91 KW
Therefore Electric jacketed type heater containing electric wires is used to
maintain the temperature of the reactor.
5.4. Energy Balance on Cyclone Separator:

Energy In = 2811.44 KW
Energy Out = Qgas + Qsolid
Qsolid = m<Cp>T
Mean Cp of Solids = 1.252 KJ/Kg K
46
= 49.10 KW
Qgas = m<Cp>T
Mean Cp of Outlet Gaseous stream = 2.502 KJ/Kg K
Qgas = 2762.077 KW
Heat Inlet = Heat Outlet
2811.44 = 49.10 + 2762.077
5.5. Energy Balance on Scrubber:

Inlet temperature of gas = 677 C
Inlet temperature of water = 25 C
Table 5.1: Composition of Inlet Gas of Scrubber

Component
Molar flow rate (kmol / hr)
CH4
8.96
143.36
CO
6.09
170.52
CO2
3.84
168.96
H2
61.41
122.82
H2O
125.39
2256.55
Solids
2.107
Heat inlet by gas = Qgas= m<Cp>T = 2762.077 KW

Heat inlet by water = QWin = m<Cp>T
= 978.8 KW
Total Heat Inlet = 3740.88 KW
47
Table 5.2: Composition of Outlet Gases of Scrubber

Component
Molar flow rate (kmol / hr)
CH4
8.96
143.36
CO
6.09
170.52
CO2
3.43
150.96
H2
61.41
122.82
H2O
0.49
8.82
Total
80.38
596.48
Heat out by gas = m<Cp>T = 23.44 KW

(Assuming that the scrubber cools the gas to 35 C)
Assuming no heat losses
Total Heat Out = 3740.88 KW
Heat Out from bottom = 3717.44 KW
Water required = Q = m<Cp>T
Assuming the outlet temperature of water = 95 C
Water required = 33381.85 kg/hr
Actual flow rate of the water at top of column = 33,400 kg/hr
Outlet temperature of the water = m<Cp>T = 89 C
Mass LHV of gas (KJ/Kg) = 3.963E+04 [28]
LHV of gas (KJ/Kgmol) = 2.959 E+05 [28]
48
5.6. Overall Energy Balance
Figure 5.1: Overall Energy balance
CHAPTER 6
EQUIPMENT DESIGN
6.1. Dryer Design

It includes the following steps:
Brief Introduction
Classification of dryers
Selection of dryer
Brief description of selected dryer
Design considerations
6.1.1. Brief Introduction

In general, drying a solid means the removal of relatively small amounts of
water or other liquid from the solid material to reduce the content of residual liquid
to an acceptably low value. Drying is usually the final step in a series of operations,
and the product from a dryer is often ready for final packaging. In a dryer, Water
or other liquids are removed from solids thermally by vaporization.
50
6.1.2. Classification of Dryers

Drying equipment may be classified in several ways. The two most useful
classifications are based on
1. The method of transferring heat to the wet solids.
2. The handling characteristics and physical properties of the wet material.
The first method of classification reveals differences in dryer operation and
design i.e.; it classifies dryers as direct or indirect, with subclasses of continuous
or batch wise operation. While the second method is most useful in the selection of
a dryer or group of dryers for a given drying problem.
6.1.3. Selection of dryer

From Classification No. 1
A.
Direct Heat Dryers are selected, because
1.
There is no limitation of reduced pressure in our drying problem.
2.
Dusting problem is not serious.
3.
The material to be handled is not heat sensitive around 100-150C.
B.
Continuous Dryers are selected, because
1.
For throughputs greater than 10,000 Kg/day, continuous dryers are used.
So Direct Heat Continuous Dryer is selected.
From Classification No. 2

C.
Rotary Dryer is selected, because

1. Suitable for granular solids.
2. Used for High capacity/High production rate
3. Thermal Efficiency Range is 5575%
4. Low operating Cost
5. Most Economical in Construction
51
6. Known as Workhorse of Process Industry

7. Low maintenance cost
So Direct Heat Rotary Dryer Is Selected.
6.1.4. Direct Heat Rotary Dryer

1. It consists of a cylinder, rotated upon suitable bearings and usually slightly
inclined to the horizontal.
2. Wet feed enters one end of the cylinder progress through it by virtue of
rotation and slope of the cylinder and discharge as finished product at the
other end.
3. In this dryer solids are directly exposed to hot gas usually air.
Figure 6.1: Direct Heat Rotary Dryer
A, dryer shell; B, shell-supporting rolls; C, drive gear; D, air-discharge hood; E,

discharge fan; F, feed chute; G ,lifting flights; H, product discharge; J air heater
52
6.1.5. Dryer Design [29]

Total mass entering the dryer = F1 = 1000 kg/hr
Biomass: Coal = 30:70
Moisture content in Biomass = 15.3 kg/hr
Moisture content in coal = 333.2 kg/hr
Total moisture content = 348.5 kg/hr
Solid feed rate leaving dryer = F2 = 684.07 kg/hr
(There is only 5% moisture at the outlet of the dryer)
Where outlet of dryer contains
H2O = 32.575 Kg/hr
Coal + Biomass = 651.5 kg/hr
Water removed =F3= 348.5 - 32.575
= 315.93 Kg/hr
Design Considerations
General design considerations for direct heat Rotary dryer are:
1. Solid Feed Rate and Moisture Content
2. Drum Diameter and Length
3. Drum Slope
4. Rotational Speed
5. Lifting Flights
6. Outlet Humidity
1. Solid Feed Rate and Moisture Content

Solid feed rate
F1=1000 kg/hr
Moisture Contents
Moisture contents=Mass of water/Mass of dry solid
Initial moisture content=348.5/651.5
Xa= 0.5349= 53.5 %
53
Final moisture content= 32.575/651.5

Xb= 0.05 = 5 %
Temperature Selection & Calculations

Temperature of air
1. Inlet air temperature (Ta )
1. Hot air is used for drying purpose and air inlet temperature varies from
100 to 150 oC
2. The higher the temperature of inlet air stream, the higher the
efficiency of the dryer in general.
--- (a)
3. So take inlet air temperature= Ta = 112 C = 385K
Humidity of Inlet air (H1)

Inlet humidity of air is found with the help of dry bulb temperature
(Room temp) of air and wet bulb temperature of entering air from
Humidity chart.
i.e.; At Tdb = 32oC = 305K
Twb = 21oC = 294K
Humidity of air=H1= 0.01 kg of water/kg of dry air
Now this air is heated from 32oC to 112oC (dry bulb temperature of heated
air) and the wet bulb temperature of heated air is found with the help of dry bulb
& humidity of heated air entering the dryer from humidity chart.
i.e.; At
Tdb = 385K
H1= 0.01 kg of water/kg of dry air
Twb = 311K
Outlet air temperature (Tb)

The proper outlet gas temperature is a matter of economics,
54
It is estimated from
Ta TWb
N t Ln
T TWb
Where
Nt =No. of transfer units
---------------- (1)
(1.52.5 for rotary dryers)
Ta = 385K
TWb = 311K
Take Nt =1.5, putting the values in Eq. (1)
Air outlet temperature =Tb = 327.5K
Temperature of Feed
a) Inlet feed temperature (Tsa)
Feed enters the dryer at Tsa = 305K
b) Outlet Feed temperature (Tsb)
Feed leaves the dryer at Tsb = 330K
Temperature pattern in continuous countercurrent adiabatic dryer:
Feed inlet temperature should be less than gas outlet temperature and it should
also less than wet bulb temperature of air, therefore selected feed inlet
temperature is correct.
Outlet temperature of feed is slightly greater than gas outlet temperature,

therefore selected solid outlet temperature is correct.
Table 6.1: Temperature of Inlet and Outlet Streams
Inlet
Outlet
Temperature K
Temperature K
Feed
305
330
Air
385
327.5
Material
55
2.
Drum Diameter
To calculate diameter of the rotary dryer, following steps must be performed.

i. Calculate heat duty on dryer (qt)
ii.
Calculate mass flow rate of air entering (mg )
iii.
Choose the air mass velocity (G)
iv.
Find the dryer area (A)
i.
Calculation of heat load on dryer (qt)

Heat must be supplied to a dryer to accomplish the following
A.
Heat the feed (solid & liquid) to the vaporization (wet bulb) temperature
B.
Vaporize the liquid.
C.
Heat the solids to their final temperature.
D.
Heat the vapor to its final temperature.
In general, rate of heat transfer per unit mass can be calculated as follows
qt
Cps ( Tsb Tsa ) XaCpL ( Twb Tsa )
ms
( Xa Xb ) ( Xa Xb ) Cpv ( Tb Twb )
XbCpl ( Tsb Twb )
----------------- (2)
Where
qt =Rate of heat transfer
ms =1000 kg/hr
Tsa = 305K
Tsb =330K
Ta =385K
Tb =327.5K
TWb = 311K
Xa = 0.5349 = 53.5%
Xb= 0.05= 5 %
56
From steam tables, latent heat of vaporization () =2410.8 KJ/kg (At 311K)
Heat capacity of feed stock = 0.3 Cp bagasse + 0.7 Cp coal
Heat capacity of bagasse [30] = 0.46KJ/kg K
Heat capacity of coal [31] = 1.381KJ/kg K
Heat capacity of solid feed stock = Cps = 1.104KJ/kg K
Heat capacity of water [32] = CpL = 4.178 KJ/kg K
[At T= (311+305)/2]
Heat capacity of water vapors [33] = Cpv = 1.869 KJ/kg K
[At T= (311+327.5)/2]
Putting these values in Eq. (2),

qt /ms = 1230.41 KJ/kg
qt = 1228.41*0.2777 KJ/s =341.38KW
ii.
Calculation for air flow rate (mg)
Mass flow rate of air entering is found from given formula
mg
qt
Csb (Tb Ta )(1 H 1)
------ (3)
Where
Csb=Humid Heat = 1.005 + 1.82H KJ/kg K = 1.0232 KJ/kg K
H1=Inlet humidity
Putting the values in Eq. (3),
mg = 5.74 Kg/s
iii.
Air mass velocity (G)
The allowable mass velocity of air in direct contact rotary dryer ranges from 2000
to 25000 kg/m2 hr.
Take G = 12000 kg/m2 hr = 3.4 kg/m2 s
57
iv.
Area of dryer (A)

It can be found as
Area of dryer = Air mass flow rate = 1.724 m2
Air mass velocity
v.
Drum Diameter
Diameter is calculated by equation
4* A
D
0.5
D=1.483 m
vi.
Drum Length
To calculate Length we have to go through the following procedure

i.
Calculate the Volumetric heat transfer coefficient (Ua)
ii.
Calculate log mean of drying gas wet bulb depression at inlet & exit end of
dryer (Tm)
iii.
vii.
Calculate the volume of dryer (V)
Volumetric heat transfer coefficient (Ua)
Volumetric heat transfer Coefficient is found from given formula
Ua
0.5 G ^ 0.67
D
Ua =0.756 KW/m3 K
58
viii.
Calculation for log mean of drying gas wet bulb depression at inlet
& exit end of dryer (Tm)
Log mean depression Of Wet bulb (Tm) is found from the following formula
(Tb Twb)(Ta Twb)

Tm
Ln[(Tb Twb) /(Ta Twb )]
Tm= 38.32K
ix.
Volume of dryer (V)
Volume of dryer is found from the given formula
Qt
V
Ua*Tm
V=11.78 m3
x.
Length of dryer
Length of dryer is calculated as

L = volume of dryer / area of dryer
L = 11.78 / 1.72 = 6.83 m
L/D ratio
L/D= 6.83/1.72
= 4.6
As L/D ratio for rotary dryer varies from 1 --- 10, therefore the above values can
be accepted.
59
2.
Slope of drum
Slope of drum should be kept from 0 to 8 cm/m or 0 to 5, more the slope of the
drying drum more will be forward driving force but product abrasion will also
increase. The slope is taken as 5 cm/m=3
3.
Rotational Speed
Assume the peripheral speed of rotation to be 06 m/min

Revolutions per minute = Peripheral Speed/Diameter
RPM = 6/1.48 = 4.04
= 4.04
The revolution of a drier varies between 2 5
Therefore the above value can be accepted.
4.
Lifting Flights
No. of Flights
The standard no. of flights is 2 to 4 times the diameter

No. of Flights=3*D
=4.5 5
Radial height of the flight
The flight heights in direct rotary dryer will range from 1/12 to 1/8th of dryer
diameter.
Flight heights= 1/8*Diameter
=0.185 m
60
Shape of Flights
The shape of the flights depends upon the handling

characteristics of the solids. For free flowing materials, a radial
flight with a 900 lip is employed. So the flights are of radial
type.
5.
Outlet Humidity
The air outlet humidity is found from given formula
ms ( Xa Xb )
H 2 H1
mg
Where
H2= Outlet Humidity
H1= Inlet Humidity
=0.01 kg of water/ kg of dry air
ms = 1000 kg/hr
mg =20700 kg/hr
Xa = 0.535
Xb= 0.05
Putting the values in above equation, we get
H2=0.0334 Kg of water/Kg of dry air
61
6.1.6. Dryer Specification Sheet

Equipment
Dryer
Function
To reduce the Water contents
Operation
Continuous
Type
Direct heated Rotary dryer
6.1.7. Dryer Design Data

Flow rate of Solid entering
1000 Kg/hr
Inlet moisture content
53.5%
Outlet moisture content
5%
Mass flow rate of Air
20700 kg/hr
Total heat requirement
341.38 KW
Air mass velocity
3.33 Kg/s-m2
Area of dryer
1.723 m2
Diameter of dryer
1.48 m
Length of dryer
6.83 m
Volume of dryer
11.78 m3
L/D ratio
4.6
62
6.2.
Gasifier Design
6.2.1. Fluidized Bed Reactor [22]

The designing of fluidized bed reactor consists of following steps.
1.
Calculation of minimum fluidization velocity (Umf)
2.
Calculation of Steam flow rate (Qo)
3.
Calculation of Reactor Diameter, height and volume
4.
Distributor plate design
6.2.2. Hydro Dynamics
Figure 6.2: Hydrodynamics Calculations [22]
6.2.3. Minimum Fluidization Velocity

Minimum fluidization velocity is calculated from the hydrodynamic study
based on physical properties of bed particles and fluidizing gas particles (Table 6.1
and Table 6.2). Bed particles consists of coal, sugarcane bagasse and CaO, whereas
CaO is used as CO2 sorbent in the bed. CaO is the heaviest among the bed particles
and considered as single bed particle in reactor dimensions evaluation. Moreover,
CaO mean particle diameter is initially taken as a single diameter in the gasifier.
63
Table 6.1: Bed Material Properties [22]

Bed material
CaO
Mean particle diameter (dp)
2 mm
Particle density (s)
2551kg/m3
Bulk density ()
1089kg/m3
Bed voidage (Emf)
0.57
Sphericity (s)
0.43
Table 6.2: Fluidizing Gas Properties (at 950K and 1 atm)

Fluidizing Gas
Density (f)
Viscosity ()
Steam
0.2312kg/m3
0.0000356kg/m.s
At inlet the steam pressure must be 2 atm to maintain 1 atm pressure inside the
reactor (Assume that temperature of steam at the inlet is equal to the temperature
of the steam inside the reactor)
Table 6.3: Fluidizing Gas Properties (at 523K and 2 atm)
Fluidizing Gas
Density (f)
Viscosity ()
Steam
0.8449kg/m3
0.00001818kg/m.s
Minimum fluidization velocity can be calculated from the following equation.
U mf
Re mf
dp f
------------- (1)
Whereas Reynolds number at minimum fluidization is calculated from Erguns

(1952) equation.
Ar
1501 mf
s2 mf3
Re mf
1.75 2
Re mf
3
s mf
------------- (2)
Where Ar is Archimedes number and can be calculated as:
64
Ar
d 3p f s f g
------------- (3)
Where
Remf = Reynolds number at minimum fluidization
g = Gravitational acceleration
By putting the values in Eq. (3)

Ar = 511093
By putting the values in Eq. (2)

Ar = 150(1 Emf)Remf/s2Emf3 + 1.75 Remf2/sEmf3
511093 = [150(1 0.57)Remf / (0.43)2(0.57)3] + [1.75Remf2 / (0.43)(0.57)3]
511093 = 21.976 Remf2 + 1883.64 Remf
0 = Remf2 + 85.714 Remf 23256.87
By using Quadratic formula
Remf = (-85.714+316.82)/2
Remf =(-85.714-316.82)/2
Remf = 115.55
Remf = -201.27 (not possible)
Using the value of Reynolds number in Eq. (1)

Umf = 1.24 m/s
65
6.2.4. Diameter of Reactor
Reaction based steam Calculations
C(s) + H2O
CO + H2
------------- (4)
(Char Gasification reaction)

CH4 + H2O
CO + 3 H2
------------- (5)
(Steam Methane Reforming)

CO + H2O
CO2 + H2
------------- (6)
(Water Gas shift reaction)
Table 6.4: Proximate analysis of Coal and Biomass (Dry Basis)

Coal [24]
Biomass [10]
Combined
Fixed Carbon
37.33%
18.03%
31.54%
Volatile matter
47.81%
71.9%
55.04%
Ash
14.86%
10.07%
13.42%
Total feed entering the gasifier = 683.6 kg/hr

Moisture content present in the feed = 32.1 kg/hr
Total Solid feed ( Coal + Biomass ) = 651.5 kg/hr
In 651 kg of feed
C=205.5 kg = 17.12 kmol
CH4 = 358.6 kg = 22.41 kmol (For steam calculations, assume that all VM = CH4)
Ash = 87.43 kg
66

Moles of C = 17.12 kmol/hr = 205.44 kg/hr
Steam Methane Reforming Reaction

Moles of CH4 = 22.41 kmol/hr = 358.56 kg/hr

Moles of CO2 = 39.53 kmol/hr = 1732.32 kg/hr
Amount of steam required = 1423.08 Kg/hr (S/C = 1)
For S:C = 2
Amount of steam = 2846.16 Kg/hr
Density of steam = 0.2312 Kg/hr
67
Volumetric flow rate of steam = Qo = 12310.38 m3/hr 12310 m3/hr

= 3.42 m3/s
Uo = 4 m/s (Uo = 35 Umf)
Q
Re actor ID 2 0
U o
Reactor ID = 1.043 m 1.04 m
6.2.5. Height of Reactor

Height of the reactor is calculated as
Total Height = Bed height + TDH
For stable operation
Bed Height = Bed Diameter
Bed Height = 1.04m
Total disengaging Height (TDH)
TDH = 4.47 [Dbm]0.5
Dbm = 0.652 [At (U Umf)]2/5
Uo = 4 m/s (Uo = 35 Umf)
=
2
4
= 0.85 2
= 0.652 [ 0.85 (4 1.24)]2/5
= 0.917
= 4.47 [ ] 0.5
TDH = 4.281 m 4.28 m
68
Total Height = 1.04 + 4.28 = 5.32 m 5.3 m
6.2.6. Volume of Reactor

Volume = *r2*L
= 4.5 m3
6.2.7. Distributor Plate Design [34]
=0.01+0.2[1 0.5/ ]
R c =0.01+0.2[1 0.50.9/0.9 ]
R c=0.089
Pb =H (1-) (s-f)
Pb = 5.3 (1-0.57)(2551-0.8449)
kg
Pb= 5811.80 m2 = 56955.67 Pa
kg
Pd= Rc Pb = 0.089 x 5811.80 = = 517.25 m2 = 5069.70 Pa
69
6.2.8. Number of Orifices in the Distributor Plate [35]

Vessel Reynolds number can be calculated by the following formula.
Re =
fxdxUo
= 0.2312 * 1.04 * 4 / 0.0000356 = 27016.63

Re
100
300
500
1000
2000
>3000
CdOR
0.68
0.70
0.68
0.64
0.61
0.60
From the table CdOR = 0.6

UOR=Cdor(
2 0.5
)
= 0.6 (
25069.7 0.5
)
0.8449
UOR = 65.73 m/s

=
Whereas
=
=
4
65.73
NOR = 0.06/ AOR

Dia of orifice = 2 mm
Area of orifice = 3.1416 E-6
NOR = 19108
70
6.1.9. Gasifier Specification Sheet

Equipment
Gasifier
Function
To Convert Solid fuel into Gaseous Product
Operation
Continuous
Type
Fluidized Bed Gasifier
6.2.10. Gasifier Design Data

Minimum Fluidizing Velocity
1.24 m/s
Volumetric flow rate of steam
3.42 m3/s
Reactor ID
1.04 m
Bed Height
1.04 m
TDH
4.28 m
Total Height
5.3 m
Volume of Reactor
4.5 m3
Diameter of Orifice
2 mm
Area of Orifice
3.1416 E-6
NOR
19108
71
6.3.
Cyclone Separator Design [36]
6.3.1. General design procedure

1. Select either the high-efficiency or high-throughput design, depending on
the performance required.
2. Estimate the number of cyclones needed in parallel.
3. Calculate the cyclone diameter for an inlet velocity of 9-27 m/s. Scale the
other cyclone dimensions from Figure.
4. Calculate the scale-up factor.
5. Calculate the cyclone performance and overall efficiency (recovery of
solids). If unsatisfactory try a smaller diameter.
6. Calculate the cyclone pressure drop and, if required, select a suitable blower
6.3.2. Number of Cyclones

Flow rate of the gas entering = 3072.88 kg/hr
Density = 0.1922 [28]
Volumetric flow rate = mass/density
= 15980 m3/hr
= 4.44 m3/s (High throughput design is selected)
Standard velocity taken in cyclone is = u = 9-27 m/s
Figure 5.3: High through-put Cyclone
72
6.3.3. Inlet Duct area

Area= Volumetric Flow rate / Velocity
Area of inlet duct at 20 m/s =4.44/20
Area = 0.2219 m2
DC:
From the Figure
Duct area= 0.75Dc 0.375 Dc
0.2219 = 0.28125 c2
Dc= 0.888 m
Dc = 0.203 m
0.888/0.203 = 4.37
4 cyclones should be used in parallel.

Flow rate per cyclone = 3995 m3/h
6.3.4. Dimensions of Cyclone

Total Height:
0.888/2=0.444m =Dc
From the figure.
Total height = 1.5c + 2.5c
= 40.444= 1.776m
Outlet Duct Area:
From the figure
Do = 0.75c
= 0.750.444
= 0.333 m
Ao = (0.333/2)2
= 0.087 m2
73
Dust Exit Diameter:
From the Figure

Dust exit diameter = 0.375 Dc
= 0.375 0.444
= 0.166 m
6.3.5. Calculation of Scaling Factor
d2/d1 = [(/)(/)(/ )(/)].

dc2 = Diameter of cyclone=0.444 m
dc1 = Diameter of standard cyclone=0.203 m
Q1 = Standard flow rate= 669 m3/h
Q2 = Volumetric flow rate=3995 m3/h
= standard solid-fluid =2000 kg/m3
2 = particle density=1642 kg/m3
1 =standard viscosity =0.018 mNs/m2 (cp)
=gas viscosity = 0.02638 cp (mNs/m2)
By putting these values.

d2/d1 = [(0.444/0.203)(669/3995)(2000/ 1642 )(0.02638/0.018)].
d2/d1 = 1.75
Therefore it has 99% efficiency when the particle size at the outlet is 0.05 mm
74
6.3.6. Pressure Drop Calculation
P = (
) { [ + ((
) )] + ( )}
P=Cyclone pressure drop, millibars

f = Gas Density = 0.1790 kg/m3
u1 = 20 m/s
u2 = Volumetric Flow rate / Area of exit pipe = 1.11/0.087 = 12.75 m/s
rt = Radius of the circle to which the center line of the inlet is tangential
= [.444-(.166/2)]/2
= 0.18036 m
= 180.36 mm
re = Radius of the exit pipe = .16648m = 166.48 mm
= (fc AS)/Ai
fc=0.005 for gases
Surface area of cyclone = As = Dc
=0.4441.7763.14
=2.47 m2
Ai=0.75 Dc* 0.375 Dc
= 0.051 m2
= 0.24
From the graph

= 1.1
P = (
) {() [ + (. ) (. )] + ((. ) )}
P = 1.63 millibar = 16.72 mm H2O

Pressure drop is reasonable.
75
6.3.7. Cyclone Separator Specification Sheet

Equipment
Cyclone Separator
Function
To separate undesired particles
Operation
Continuous
Type
High Throughput Design Separator
6.3.8. Cyclone Separator Design Data

Flow rate of Entering gas
3072.88 kg/hr
Inlet Velocity
20 m/s
Inlet Duct Area
0.222 m2
Diameter of cyclone
0.444 m
Number of Cyclones
Flow Rate of each Cyclone
3995 m3/h
Total Height
1.77 m
Outlet duct Area
0.087 m2
Dust Exit Diameter
0.166 m
Gas Density
0.1790 kg/m3
Radius of Exit Pipe, re
166.48 mm
Pressure Drop
1.63 millibar
76
6.4.
Design of Scrubber
6.4.1. Designing Steps
1. Selection of column.
2. Selection of packing and material
3. Calculating the size of packing
4. Determining the no. of transfer units (NOG)
5. Calculating the diameter of column
6. Determining the height of packing
7. Determining the height of the column
8. Determining the Column Pressure drop
Table 6.5: Scrubber Material Balance

Feed composition
Components
Molar flow rate

(kmol / hr)
Mass Flow Rate

(kg/hr)
Mole Fraction
CH4
8.96
143.36
0.0436
CO
6.09
170.52
0.0296
CO2
3.84
168.96
0.0187
H2
61.41
122.82
0.2986
H2O
125.36
2256.55
0.6095
Solids
2.107
Total
205.66
2864.317
77
Table 6.6: Scrubber Top Composition

Top Composition
Component
Molar flow rate

(kmol / hr)
Mass Flow Rate

(kg/hr)
CH4
8.96
143.36
0.1115
CO
6.09
170.52
0.0757
CO2
3.43
150.96
0.0427
H2
61.41
122.82
0.7640
H2O
0.49
8.82
0.0061
Total
80.38
596.48
Gm(y1 y2) = Lm(x1 x2) [37]
Gm=flow rate of gas entering (Kg/hr)

Lm = flow rate of solvent entering (Kg/ hr)
Y1=Mole fraction of Steam in entering stream of gas

Y2= Mole fraction of Steam in leaving stream of gas
X1= Mole fraction of Steam in leaving solvent stream
X2= Mole fraction of Steam in entering solvent stream
2864.317(Y-0.0061) = 33400(X-0)
Y= 11.66X +0.0061 (1)
Equation (1) is the operating line equations.

Equation for Equilibrium Curve:
Mole fraction
1.00
78
Y1= Mole fraction of Steam in entering stream of gas = 0.61

Y2= Mole fraction of Steam in leaving stream of gas = 0.0061
At Y1= 0.61, using Equation (1) X1= 0.052
Using the figure the equation for equilibrium curve is;
ye= 7.5x (2)
At X1= 0.052 using equation (2), ye1= 0.39
m
m
y1
y2
Gm
Lm
Gm
Lm
ye1
y1 y2
0.39
0.610.0061
= 0.646
0.61
0.0061
= 100
From figure 12.23 [39]

At
y1
y2
= 100 and m
Gm
Lm
= 0.646
NOG= 10.1
6.4.2. Calculation of Diameter of Column [36]

Flow rate of entering gases = G = 2864.32 Kg/hr =
Flow rate of entering solvent = L = 33400 Kg/hr =
2864.32
3600
33400
3600
= 0.796 Kg/sec
= 9.28 Kg/sec
Temperature of entering gas = Tg = 677 C = 950K

Temperature of entering Solvent = TL= 25 C = 298K
Average column temperature = Tavg = TDG +
Tavg = 61.4 C
Operating pressure of Scrubber = P = 1 atm
()+(1)
+
79
Average molecular weight of entering gases = 13.96 Kg

Density of gas mixture = g = 1.033 Kg/m3 [28]
Density of liquid solvent = L = 0.9793 g/cm3 = 979.3 Kg/m3
Viscosity of liquid solvent = L =0.4534 cp = 4.534 104 Ns/m2 [28]
Viscosity of Gaseous mixture = g = 0.0174 cp = 1.74 105 Ns/m2 [28]
Now
Abscissa of fig 11.44 [36]
Lw
Gw
9.28
1.033
= 0.796 979.3 = 0.378

L
For pressure drop 40 mm of H2O /m of packing

From fig 11.44 [36]
K4 = 0.7 at 40mm H2O

And
K4 = 1.5 at flooding
% Flooding =
0.7
1.5
100 = 68.31 % (Satisfactory)
80
Packing Specifications
Packing Type = Ceramic Intallox Saddles
Packing Size =0 38 mm
Bulk density = 625 kg/m3
Surface area = a = 194m2/m3
Packing factor = Fp = 170 m-1
From equation 11.118

0.5
Vm
= [
K4 v (L v )
0.1
13.1 FP ( L )
0.5
Vm
= [
0.71.033(979.3 1.033)
0.1
4.534104
)
979.3
13.1170(
Vm
= 1.336 Kg/m2.s
As
Column Area required = A =
Diameter of column =D =
G
Vm
0.796
1.336
4A
Diameter of column= 0.9 m

Actual Area of column = 0.636 m2
%age flooding (at 0.9m dia) = 73.02 %
m2 = .595 m2
81
6.4.2. Calculation of Height of Transfer Units (Ondas Method)

Equation for calculation of effective interfacial area is given as.
aw
1 exp 1.45 c
a
0.75
Lw
a L
0.1
Lw 2 a
2
g
L
0.05
Lw 2
a
L
L
0.2
Where
aw = effective interfacial area of packing per unit volume m2/m3
Lw = liquid mass velocity kg/m2s = 14.59 kg/m2s
a = actual area of packing per unit volume m2/m3 = 194 m2/m3
c = critical surface tension for metal packing material = 61 x 10-3 N/m
L = liquid surface tension N/m = 65.71 dyne/cm = 65.71 x 10-3 N/m
L= 4.534 104 Ns/m2
L = 979.3 Kg /m3
By putting these values
aw = 142.71 m2/m3
6.4.3. Calculation of Liquid Film Mass Transfer Coefficient

K L L
L g
1
3
L
0.0051 w
aw L
KL = liquid film coefficient m/s

dp = packing size =38x 10-3 m
DL = diffusivity of liquid = 6.4 x 10-9 m2/s
Then, by substituting the values,
KL = 8.16 x 10-4 m/s
3 L

L DL
1
2
ad
0.4
82
6.4.4. Calculation of Gas Film Mass Transfer Coefficient
K G RTg
aDg
V
K5 w
a
g
0.7
D
g g
3
ad p 2
Where KG = Gas film coefficient, kmol/m2s.bar

VW = Gas mass velocity = 1.25 Kg/m2.s
K5= 5.23 (For packing size above 15mm, Coulson & Richardson)
Dv =Diffusivity of gas = 5.43 x 10-5 m2/s
Then, by substituting the values,
KG = 1.85 x 10-3 kmol/m2s.bar
6.4.5. Calculation of Gas-film Transfer Unit Height
HG
Gm
K G aW P
Where,
HG = Gas-film transfer unit height
Gm = 1.25/13.96 = 0.089 Kmol/m2.sec
Then,
HG =
0.089
1.85 x 103 142.711.013
HG = 0.333 m
83
6.4.6. Calculation of Liquid-film Transfer Unit Height
HL
Where
Lm
K L aW Ct
HL= Liquid-film transfer unit height

Lm= 14.59/18 = 0.81 Kmol/m2.s
Ct = Concentration of solvent = 979.3/18 = 54.4 Kmol/m3
Then,
HL =
0.81
8.16x 104 142.7154.4
HL = 0.128 m
6.4.7. Calculation of Height of Transfer Units

As,
H oG H G
mGm
Lm
HL
HG = 0.333 m
HL =
0.128 m
So,
Height of transfer units=HOG = 0.333 + 0.646 0.128
HOG = 0.42 m
6.4.8. Calculation of Height of Tower

Total height of packing = Z = NOG HOG
Z = 10.1 0.42 = 4.242 m = 4.25 m
Allowances for liquid distribution = 1m
Allowances for liquid Re-distribution =1m
Total height of tower = 4.25 + 1 + 1
84
Total height of tower
Zt = 6.25
6.4.9. Pressure Drop Calculations

Pressure drop in a gas absorber is a function of superficial gas velocity and
properties of the packing used. The Scrubber may be designed for a specific
pressure drop or pressure drop may be estimated using Levas correlation.
P = c(10 ) (( )2 /v)
P: Pressure drop in inches water/foot packing

Gv: Superficial gas velocity = 0.256 lb/hr-s2
v: Gas density in lb/ft3 = 0.064 lb/ft3
L: Liquid superficial velocity = 2.99 lb/hr-s2
L: Liquid density in lb/ft3 = 61.13 lb/ft3
c = 0.14
j = 0.14
P = 0.2 inch of H2O/ft of packing
85
6.4.10. Scrubber Specification Sheet

Equipment
Scrubber
Function
Removal of Steam
Operation
Continuous
Type
Packed Column
Packing Type
Ceramic Intallox Saddles
6.4.11. Scrubber Design Data

Flow rate of Entering gas
2864.32 kg/hr
NOG
10.1
Diameter of Column
0.9 m
Percentage Flooding
73.02
Effective Packing Interfacial Area
142.71 m2/m3
Liquid Film Mass Transfer Coefficient
8.16 E-4 m/s
Gas Film Mass Transfer Coefficient
1.85 E-3 kmol/m2 s.bar
HG
0.333 m
HL
0.128 m
HOG
0.42 m
Height of Packing
4.25 m
Height of Column
6.25 m
0.2 inch H2O/ft of packing
86
CHAPTER 7
INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS CONTROL
7.1.
Instrumentation
Measurement is a fundamental requisite to process control. Either the

control can be affected automatically, semi-automatically or manually. The quality
of control obtainable also bears a relationship to the accuracy, re-product ability
and reliability of the measurement methods, which are employed. Therefore,
selection of the most effective means of measurements is an important first step in
the design and formulation of any process control system.
7.2.
The Concept of Measurement in Automation Application
Measurement is defined as the extraction from physical and chemical

systems or processes of signals, which represent parameters or variable. The
performance of an automation system can never surpass that the associated
measuring devices. A basic example is a human being. The output of a measuring
instrument that has its output compared to an arbitrarily chosen reference of
suitable magnitudes which is normally assumed to be unvarying. Transducer or
Sensor is a general term for a sensing device.
87
7.3.
Measurement
Instrumentation can be used to measure certain field parameters (physical

values). These measured values include:
1. Pressure
2. Flow
3. Temperature
4. Level
5. Density
6. Viscosity
7. Radiation
8. Frequency
9. Current
10. Voltage
7.4.
Process
A process is broadly defined as an operation that uses resources to transform

inputs into outputs. It is the resource that provides the energy into the process for
the transformation to occur.
7.4.1. Process Control

Process control is the act of controlling a final control element to change the
manipulated variable to maintain the process variable at a desired Set Point.
88
7.4.2. Objectives of Process Control

Effective process control objective is to maintain safe operations, quality
products, and business viability.
I.
Safety
The primary purpose of a Process Control system is safety: personnel safety,
environmental safety and equipment safety. The safety of plant personnel and the
community is the highest priority in any operation. An example of safety in a
common heat exchanger process is the installation of a pressure relief valve in the
steam supply.
II.
Quality
In addition to safety, process control systems are central to maintaining
product quality. In blending and batching operations, control systems maintain the
proper ratio of ingredients to deliver a consistent product. They tightly regulate
temperatures to deliver consistent solids in cooking systems. Without this type of
control, products would vary and undermine quality.
III.
Business Viability
When safety and quality concerns are met, process control objectives can
be focused on profit. All processes experience variations and product quality

demands that we operate within constraints. A batch system may require +- 0.5%
tolerance on each ingredient addition to maintain quality. A cook system may
require +- 0.5 degrees on the exit temperature to maintain quality. Profits will be
maximized the closer the process is operated to these constraints. The real
challenge in process control is to do so safely without compromising product
quality.
89
7.5.
Basic Elements of Process Control
Controlling a process requires knowledge of four basic elements, the

process itself, the sensor that measures the process value, the final control element
that changes the manipulated variable, and the controller.
I.
Process
It represents the material equipment together with physical or chemical
operation that occurs.
II.
Sensors
Sensors measure the value of the process output that we wish to effect. This
measurement is called the Process Variable or PV. Typical Process Variables that
we measure are temperature, pressure, mass, flow and level.
III.
Final Control Element

A Final Control Element is the physical device that receives commands
from the controller to manipulate the resource. Typical Final Control Elements
used in these processes are valves and pumps.
IV.
The Controller
This is the hardware element that has intelligence. It receives the
information from the measuring device and decides what action must be carried
out. The older controllers were of limited intelligence, could perform very limited
and simple operations and could implement very simple control laws. The use of
digital computers in this field has increased the use of complicated control laws.
90
7.6.
Basics of Process Control
1. Open Loop Control

2. Closed Loop Control
I.
Open Loop Control

In open loop control we are not concerned that a particular Set Point be
maintained, the controller output is fixed at a value until it is changed by an

operator. Many processes are stable in an open loop control mode and will maintain
the process variable at a value in the absence of a disturbance.
II.
Closed Loop Control

In closed loop control the controller output is determined by difference
between the process variable and the Set Point. Closed loop control is also called
feedback or regulatory control.
7.7.
Selection of Controller
Actually in industry, only P, PI and PID control modes are the usual
practice. The selection of most appropriate type of controller for any particular
environment is a very systematic procedure. There are many ways and means that
how a particular type of system may be controlled through which type of controller.
Usually type of controller is selected using only quantitative considerations
stemming from the analysis of the system and ending at the properties of that
particular controller and the control objective. Proportional, Integral and Derivative
control modes also affect the response of the system. Following is the summarized
criterion to select that appropriate controller for any process depending upon the
detailed study of the controller and control variable along with process severity.
91
If Possible Use a Simple Proportional Controller

Simple P-controller can be used if we can achieve acceptable off-set with
not too high values of gain. So for gas pressure and liquid level control, usually a
simple proportional controller may be used.
If a Simple P-Controller is not Suitable, Use PI-Controller

A steady-state error always remains for proportional controller so in
systems where this off-set is to be minimized, a PI-controller is incorporated. So in
flow control applications, usually PI-controller is found.
Use PID-Controller to Increase the Speed of the Closed Loop Response

The anticipatory characteristics of the derivative control enables to use
somewhat higher values of proportional gains so that off-set is minimized with
lesser derivations and good response of the system. Also it adds the stability to the
system. So this type of control is used for sluggish multi-capacity processes like to
control temperature and composition.
92
7.8.
Control Loops
For instrumentation and control of different sections and equipments of

plants, following control loops are most often used.
I.
II.
Feed backward control loop

Feed forward control loop
III.
Ratio control loop
IV.
Auctioneering control loop
V.
VI.
I.
Split range control loop

Cascade control loop
Feed Backward Control Loop

Feedback control is a control mechanism that uses information from
measurements to manipulate a variable to achieve the desired result.
II.
Feed Forward Control Loop

Feed-forward control, also called anticipative control, is a control
mechanism that predicts the effects of measured disturbances and takes corrective
action to achieve the desired result.
III.
Ratio Control Loop

Ratio control loop is used to maintain the flow rate of one (dependent
controlled feed) stream in a process at a defined or specified proportion relative to

that of another (independent wild feed stream) in order to control the composition
of a resultant mixture.
93
IV.
Auctioneering Control Loop

Auctioneering is the process of choosing one output signal from a set of
multiple input signals. In order to use auctioneering in your control process, you
will first need to have multiple signals all measuring the same variable. The signals
will then all be sent to a set of selectors aligned in series. For each selector, there
will be two inputs. For the first selector, the two inputs will be the first two signals
from the device being controlled. For each subsequent selector, one signal will be
the output signal from the previous selector, while the other input signal will be the
next signal from the device.
V.
Split Range Control Loop

In this loop controller is per set with different values corresponding to
different action to be taken at different conditions. The advantage of this loop is to

maintain the proper conditions and avoid abnormalities at very different levels.
VI.
Cascade Control Loop

This is a control in which two or more control loops are arranged so that the
output of, one controlling element adjusts the point of another controlling element.
This control loop is used where proper and quick control is difficult by simple feed
forward or feed backward control. Normally first loop is a feed control loop. We
have selected a cascade control loop for our heat exchanger in order to get quick
on proper control.
94
7.9.
Control Schemes of Gasifier
The gasifiers of the past were crude, inconvenient devices. Today's gasifiers
are evolving toward safer, automated processes that make use of a wide range of
present-day instruments and controls.
Thermocouples (such as chromel-alumel type K) should be used to measure
various gasifier temperatures, especially below the grate, as a check for normal or
abnormal operation. Temperatures at the grate should not exceed 950 0K higher
temperatures indicate abnormal function. Consequently, the signal from the
thermocouple can be used by a control system or an alarm system.
For gasification reaction, gasification agent steam is required which must
be enter into gasifier at specific temperature and pressure. Therefore temperature
and pressure of steam must be controlled by the used of thermocouple and pressure
gauge respectively.
Figure 7.1: Control Schemes of Gasifier
95
7.10. Control Schemes of Scrubber
Pressure of entering streams will be sensed by the differential pressure sensor

and temperature of entering streams and exits stream must be noticed by the used
of thermocouple as well as for maximum efficiency of scrubber flow rate of the
water entering the scrubber must be control by the used of flow rate meter and
temperature is controlled by thermocouple.
Figure 7.2: Control Schemes of Scrubber
CHAPTER 8
COST ESTIMATION
8.1.
Introduction
Before the plant to be operated, specified money must be supplied to

purchase and install the equipment. The capital needed to supply the necessary
plant facilities is called fixed capital investment while that for the operation of the
plant is called the working capital and sum of two capitals is called total capital
investment.
It is essential that chemical engineer be aware of the many different types
of cost involved in manufacturing processes. Capital must be allocated for direct
plant expenses; such as those for raw materials, labor, and equipment. Besides
direct expenses, many other indirect expenses are incurred, and these must be
included if a complete analysis of the total cost is to be obtained.
97
8.2.
Fixed Capital Investment
Manufacturing fixed capital investment represents the capital necessary for

the installed process equipment. With all auxiliaries that are needed for the
complete process operation. Expenses for piping, instruments, installation, and
foundation and site preparation are typical examples of cost included in the
manufacturing fixed capital investment. Fixed capital required for the construction
overhead and for all plant components that are not directly related to the process
operation is designed as the non-manufacturing fixed capital investment.
8.3.
Working Capital
The working capital for an industrial plant consists of the total amount of
the money invested in:
Raw material and supplies carried in stock.
Finished products in stock and semi-finished products in the process of
being manufactured.
Accounts receivable.
Cash kept on hand for monthly payments of operating expenses, such as
salaries, wages and raw material purchases.
Accounts payable
Taxes payable
8.4.
Cost Index
Is an index value for a given point in time showing the cost at that time
relative to certain base time. If the cost at any time in past is known, the equivalent
cost at the present time can be determined by multiplying the original cost by the
ratio of present of index value to the index value applicable when the original cost
was obtained.
Present cost = Original cost cost index value at present time/cost index value
at past.
98
8.5.
Purchased Equipment Cost

8.5.1. Estimate of Dryer Cost [38]
Surface area of dryer = 2r (r + h) = 35.2 m2 = 378.86 ft2

From figure 16.29 [41]
Cost of Rotary dryer = $ 55000
CE Plant Cost Index= 356, January 1990

CE Plant Cost Index = 576.2, June 2014
Total Cost of Dryer in 1990 = $ 55000
Total Cost of Dryer in 2014 = (55000)(576.2/356)

Total Cost of Dryer in 2014 = $ 89019.66
8.5.2. Estimate of Ball Mill Cost [39]
Ball mill: C = 50.0 W 0.69, 1 < W< 30 tons/hr

W = 0.6836 ton/hr
For 2 ton / hr
C = 80664.17 $
By Six-tenths-factor rule (Slope 0.6) [38]
Cost of Ball mill (for the required capacity) = 42358.82 $
99
CE Plant Cost Index= 325, Middle 1985

Total Cost of Ball mill in 2014 = (42358.82)(576.2/325)

Total Cost of Ball Mill in 2014 = $ 75098.94
8.5.3. Estimate of Gasifier Cost [38]
Thickness =
0.6
P = Max allowable internal pressure = 1.2 atm = (20% Design pressure)

Ri = Inner radius= 0.52 m = 1.71 ft
Ej = Efficiency of joint = 0.85
S = Max allowable working stress = 12000 psi = 816.55 atm
Cc = Corrosion allowance = 0.125 in
By putting the values

Thickness = 0.5 in
Weight of Shell = *ID*H*Thickness*Density
Density = 490.06 lb/ft3

Weight of Shell = 3804.04 lb
Weight of two heads = 2[(D/2)^2]*Thickness * Density
= 373.22 lb
Total weight including 20% increase = 5012.712 lb
100
Cost = 80W-0.34
= 22137.98 $
Cost factor of stainless steel = 2.5
Total cost = 55344.95 $ (January 1990)
CE Plant Cost Index= 356, Jan 1990
Present cost = $ 89546.89

Cost of distributor plate (2004) = 544 $ [36]
Present cost of distributor plate = 777.79 $
Total Cost of Gasifier in 2014 = $ 90324.69
8.5.4. Estimate of Cyclone Separator Cost [39]

Standard duty Cyclone: C = O.65Q0.91, 2 < Q < 40 KSCFM
Q = 2.351 K SCFM
Cost of Cyclone (for the required capacity) = 1414.9 $

Total Cost of Cyclone in 2014 = (1414.9)(576.2/325)
101
Total Cost of Cyclone in 2014 = $ 2508.67
8.5.5. Estimate of Scrubber Cost [39]

For Packed Towers;
C = f1Cb + VpCp + Cp1
Pressure = 1.013 bar
The design pressure of the vessel should be 10% above the operating pressure
Column Diameter (Di) = 0.9 m
Vessel Length (L) = 6.25 m
Height of packing = 4.25 m
Shell Thickness = 10mm
Column Diameter (Do) = 0.92 m
Density of Stainless Steel (ss) = 7850 kg/m3
Mass of Top and Bottom Heads = 147 kg each
= ((2 2 )/4)()( ) + ( ) +
( )
Mass of Column = 1696.62 kg = 3732.57 lb
Cb = exp[6.629+ 0.1826(1n W) + 0.02297(ln W)2]

Cb = $ 16465.13
Cp1 = 246.4D0.7396L0.7068
Cp1 = $ 4639.66
F1 = 1.7 (For stainless steel)
Vp (packing volume) = Area x Height
Vp (packing volume) = 95.48 ft3
Cp = 16.6 $/ft3 (for 1.5 in Ceramic Intalox Saddles)
C = f1Cb + VpCp + Cp1
102
C = $ 34215.35

Total Cost Scrubber in 1985 = $ 34215.35

Total Cost Scrubber in 2014 = (34215.35)(576.2/325)
Total Cost Scrubber in 2014 = $ 60661.18
Table 8.1: Total Purchased Cost of Major Equipments

Equipment
Purchased cost $
Dryer
89019.66
Ball Mill
75098.94
Gasifier
90325.69
Cyclone Separator
10034.68
Scrubber
60661.18
Total
$ 325140.15
103
Estimation of Fixed Capital [36]
Table 8.2: Typical factors for the estimation of project fixed capital cost
Items
Factors
Equipment erection
F1
0 .45
Piping
F2
0.45
Instrumentation
F3
0.15
Electrical
F4
0.10
Buildings, process
F5
0.10
Utilities
F6
0.45
Storage
F7
0.20
Site development
F8
0.05
Ancillary buildings
F9
0.20
Physical Plant cost PPC= PCE* (1+f1+f2+.f9)

= 325140.15 (1+0.45+0.45+0.15+0.10+0.10+0.45+0.20+0.05+0.20)
PPC = $1,024,191.473
Table 8.3: Fixed Capital Cost
Items
Factors
Design and Engineering
F10
0 .25
Contractors fee
F11
0.05
Contingency
F12
0.10
Fixed capital cost
=PPC*(1+F10+F11+F12)
Fixed capital cost
= $1,024,191.473 (1+0.25+0.05+0.10)
Fixed capital cost
= $1,433,868.06
104
8.6.
Estimation of Working Capital
Working capital = 10% of fixed capital to cover the cost of the fixed capital used
= $1,433,868.06*0.1
= $ 143,386.81
8.7.
Total Investments
Total investments required = Fixed capital + Working capital

= $1,433,868.06 + $ 143,386.81
= $ 1577254.87
8.8.
I.
Production Costs [36]
Variable costs
1. Raw materials
= $ 716335.4 /year
2. Miscellaneous materials
= 10 % of maintenance cost
= $ 14338.68 /year
3. Utilities
= 5% of maintenance cost
= $ 7169.34 /year
Total Variable Cost = $ 737843.42
105
II.
Fixed costs
Maintenance Cost
= 10 % of fixed capital
= $ 143,386.81
Operating labor
= 15 % of the total operating cost.
= $ 236,588.23
Laboratory costs
= 20 % of Operating Labor
= $ 47,317.65
Supervision
= $ 47,317.65
Plant overheads
= $ 118,294.11
Capital charges
= 10 % of the fixed capital
= $ 143,386
Insurance 1 per cent of the fixed capital

= $ 14,338.6
12. Local taxes 2 per cent of the fixed capital

= $ 28,677.2
106
13. Royalties 1 per cent of the fixed capital

= $ 14,338.6
Total Fixed Cost = $ 793,644.85

Direct production costs = $ 1,531,488.27
Sales expense + General overheads

= 20% of the direct production cost
= $ 306297.65
Annual production cost = $ 1,837,785.92

Production cost $/kg =
= 0.35 $/Kg
CHAPTER 9
HAZOP STUDY
9.2.
Introduction
The Hazard and Operability Study (or HAZOP Study) is a standard hazard
analysis technique used in the preliminary safety assessment of new systems or
modifications to existing ones. The HAZOP study is a detailed examination, by a
group of specialists, of components within a system to determine what would
happen if that component were to operate outside its normal design mode. The
effects of such behavior is then assessed and noted down on study forms. The
categories of information entered on these forms can vary from industry to industry
and from company to company.
9.3.
Objectives of HAZOP Study
To identify the potential risks

To identify and study features of the design that influence the probability of
a hazardous incident occurring.
To familiarize the study team with the design information available.
108
To ensure that a systematic study is made of the areas of significant hazard

potential.
9.4.
Keywords used in HAZOP STUDY
Keywords are used to focus the attention of the team upon deviations and
their possible causes. These keywords are divided into two sub-sets:
Primary Keywords which focus attention upon a particular aspect of the

design intent or an associated process condition or parameter.
Secondary Keywords which, when combined with a primary keyword,

suggest possible deviations.
9.5.
Primary Keywords
These reflect both the process design intent and operational aspects of the
plant being studied. Typical process oriented words might be as follows. The list
below is purely illustrative, as the words employed in a review will depend upon
the plant being studied.
Table 2: Primary Keywords
Flow
Temperature
Pressure
Level
Separate (settle, filter, centrifuge)
Composition
React
Mix
Reduce (grind, crush, etc.)
Absorb
Corrode
Erode
109
9.6.
Secondary Keywords
Secondary keywords when applied in conjunction with a Primary Keyword,

these suggest potential deviations or problems. They tend to be a standard set as
listed below:
Table 3: Secondary Keywords
Guide Words
9.7.
Meaning
No
Negation of design intent
Less
Quantitative decrease
More
Quantitative increase
Part of
Qualitative decrease
As well as
Qualitative Increase
Reverse
Logical opposite of the intent
Other than
Complete substitution
How to Conduct a Hazop Study
HAZOP study is conducted in following steps:

1. Specify the purpose, objective, and scope of the study. The purpose may be
the analysis of a new plant or a review of the risk of unexisting unit. Given
the purpose and the circumstances of the study, the objectives listed above
can more specific.
Select the HAZOP study team. The team who will conduct the Hazop study
should consist of personnel with a good understanding of the process and
plant to be reviewed. The group should ideally contain about six members,
with perhaps an absolute upper limit being set at nine. In a study in which
both contractor and client are participating, it is desirable to maintain a
balance between the two in terms of team membership so that neither side
feels outnumbered.
2. Make a preparatory work. It is most important that, before a study
commences, work that can be conveniently done beforehand is carried
110
out. This is not only essential in some respects for the proper structuring of
the study and the team, but will also greatly increase the efficiency of the
Hazop and thus retain the interest and enthusiasm of the participants.
3. This preparatory work will be the responsibility of the Chairman, and the
requirements can be summarized as follows:
Assemble the data
Understand the subject
Subdivide the plant and plan the sequence
Mark-up the drawings
Devise a list of appropriate Keywords
Prepare Node Headings and an Agenda
Prepare a timetable.
Select the team.
111
9.8.
HAZOP Method Flow Diagram
Figure 9.1: HAZOP Method Flow Diagram
112
9.9.
Hazop Analysis on Fluidized Bed Reactor
Node: Fluidized Bed Reactor

Parameter: Temperature of bed
Hazards and Operability Study Worksheet

HAZARD AND OPERABILITY STUDY
NODE: FLUIDIZED BED REACTOR
PROCESS PARAMETER: FLOW OF STEAM
No.
Guide
Word
Cause
Consequences Actions
1.
No
Boiler is not
working.
Gasifier will not

work.
Boiler should
work
properly.
2.
Less
Less water flow

rate inside the
boiler / Boiler
Inefficiency
Gasifier will not

work properly.
Flow rate of
steam must
be
maintained.
(Incomplete
reaction)
3.
More
Steam flow rate Product not

is not controlled. obtained in desired
form.
Steam inlet
flow rate
must be
controlled
4.
Other than
Minerals present
in water.
Water must
be treated
properly
Formation of
undesired products
113

NODE: FLUIDIZED BED REACTOR
PROCESS PARAMETER: TEMPERATURE OF BED
No.
Guide
Word
Cause
Consequences Safeguards
1.
Less
Inefficiency of
boiler.
Gasifier will not

work properly.
Boiler should
work properly.
2.
More
Poor
temperature
control system.
Desired yield is
not obtained.
Temperature
of steam must
be maintained.
9.10. Hazop Analysis on Dryer:

Node: Dryer
Parameter: Temperature of Inlet air
NODE: DRYER
PROCESS PARAMETER: TEMPERATURE OF INLET AIR
No.
Guide
Word
Cause
Consequences Safeguards
1.
Less
Air heater is not

working
properly
Proper drying will

not take place.
Steam heater
must be
repaired.
2.
More
Temperature of
air is not
controlled
Combustion of
Coal and
Sugarcane
bagasse.
Air inlet
temperature
must be
controlled
114
REFERENCES
1. Fossil fuels (2011). Retrieved from:

http://www.edfenergy.com/energyfuture/coal
2. Types of Coal. Retrieved from
http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Bituminous_coal.ht
ml
3. Anthracite Coal. Retrieved from:
http://www.tech-faq.com/what-is-anthracite-coal.html
4. GutenbergInstitute (Ohio, United States), Properties of particles (June 05, 2007)
5. Anval data about particle properties, USA Preston press 2007.
6. M. Sadiq Malkani A review of Coal and Water resources of Pakistan
7. Abdul Waheed Bhutto, Aqeel Ahmed Bazmib, Gholam reza Zahedi Greener
energy: Issues and challenges for PakistanBiomass energy prospective
8. B.M. Jenkins, L.L. Baxter, T.R. Miles Jr, T.R. Miles. Combustion properties of
biomass
9. S. Clarke, P.Eng, and F. Preto Biomass Burn Characteristics.
10. S. Munir A Review on Biomass-Coal Co-combustion: Current state of
knowledge
11. Bryan M. Jenkins James M. Ebeling Thermochemical properties of biomass
fuels
12. R. Saidura,, E.A. Abdelaziz, A. Demirbas, M.S. Hossaina, S. Mekhilef A
review on biomass as a fuel for boilers
13. Tomasz Chmielniak, Marek Sciazko Co-gasification of biomass and coal for
methanol synthesis
14. LI Run-dong*, LI Bing-shuo, Yand Tian-hua, Xie Ying-hui Liquefaction of rice
stalk in sub- and supercritical ethanol
15. Carl Wilen, Anterio Moilanen Biomass feed stock analysis
16. Papiya Roy Characterization of biomass as a feedstock of alternate fuels
17. Gasifier and Types of Gasifier. Retrieved from
http://www.fao.org/docrep/t0512e/t0512e0a.htm
18. Plasma Gasification. Retrieved from
http://www.safewasteandpower.com/process_plasma-gasification.html
115
19. Entrained Flow Gasifier. Retrieved from

http://www.energy.kth.se/compedu/webcompedu/S4_Combustion/B10_Ther
mochemical_Conversion/C1_Introduction_to_Gasification/ID55_files/Pressurize
d_entrained_flow_gasifier.htm
20. Abrar Inayat, Murni M Ahmad*, M I Abdul Mutalib, Suzana Yusup Flowsheet
Modelling of Biomass Steam Gasification System with CO2 Capture for
Hydrogen Production
21. Abrar Inayat, Murni M. Ahmad *, Suzana Yusup and Mohamed Ibrahim Abdul
Mutalib. Biomass Steam Gasification with In-Situ CO2 Capture for Enriched
Hydrogen Gas Production: A Reaction Kinetics Modelling Approach
22. Zakir Khan, Suzana Yusup etal Evaluation of reactor Dimensions through
Hydrodynamics study in a fluidized bed gasifier.
23. P. Basu Combustion and Gasification in Fluidized beds
24. Thar Mining & Power Project Project Information Pack Sindh Engro Coal
Mining Company Report. Pp 10
25. Marcello De Falco, Luigi Marrelli, Gaetano Iaquaniello Membrane Reactors for
Hydrogen Production Processes pp-105
26. C. Wheeler, A. Jhalani, E.J. Klein, S. Tummala, and L.D. Schmidt The water
gas-shift reaction at short contact times
27. Solubility of CO2 in water. Retrieved from
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/gases-solubility-water-d_1148.html
28. Aspen Hysys
29. Warren L . McCabe, Julian C. smith, Peter Harriott, Unit Operations of chemical
engineering, 7th ed.
30. Sankalp Shrivastav, Ibrahim Hussain Design of Bagasse Dryer to Recover
Energy of Water Tube Boiler in a Sugar Factory
31. Alan J. Rindels, John S. Gulliver, Joseph M. Wetzel, and Vaughan Voller
Analysis of the Elfuel, Coal Drying Facility
32. Cp of liquid water. Retrieved from
http://www.peacesoftware.de/einigewerte/calc_dampf.php5
33. Cp of water vapor. Retrieved from
http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/water-vapor-d_979.html
34. A.E Qureshi and D.E Creasy, Fluidized bed gas distributors, Powd. Tec., 22
(1979)113-119.
116
35. D. Kunii and O. Levenspiel, Fluidization Engineering, 2nd edition, ButterworthHeinemann, MA, 1991, pp95-106.
36. R.K. SINNOTT Coulson & Richardson's Chemical Engineering Design Vol 6.
37. Coulson & Richardson's, Particulate Technology and separation process Vol 2.
pp 698-699
38. P. Timmerhaus Plant Design and Economics for Chemical Engineers
39. Stanlay M. Walas Chemical Process Equipment- Selection and Design
117
APPENDIX A
A1: Char Gasification Reaction Equilibrium with Temperature at Pressure

of 1 atm.
A2: Equilibrium Methane Conversion at S/C =2
118
A3: CO Conversion in Water Gas Shift Reaction
A4: Temperature Pattern in Dryer
119
A5: Cyclone Pressure Drop Factor
A6: Standard Cyclone Dimension, High Gas Rate Cyclone
120
A7: Performance Curves, High Gas Rate Cyclone
A8: Scaled Performance Curve Cyclone
121
A9: Generalized Pressure Drop Correlation
A10: Number of Transfer units NOG as a function of y1/y2 with mGm/Lm as

Parameter
122
A11: Installed Cost of Dryer
A12: Columns Plates. Time Base mid-2004

Installed Cost = (Cost From Figure) * Material Factor

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PRODUCTION OF 2000 m3/hr OF SYN GAS FROM CO-GASIFICATION

USING CO2 SORBENT

This report is submitted in partial fulfillment of

Department of Chemical Engineering

To our Parents and Supervisor, Dr. Zakir Khan

Gasification of carbonaceous solid fuels to convert into syngas for application of

INSTRUMENTATION AND PROCESS CONTROL

Particle and Bulk Density

Ultimate and Proximate Analysis of Biomass

Production of Crops and their Residue availability in Pakistan

Operating Conditions and Process Parameters in the Gasifier

Proximate analysis of Coal and Biomass (Dry Basis)

Product Gas Composition of Gasifier

Composition of Gas at Inlet of Scrubber

Outlet composition of Gases of Scrubber

Material Balance on Gasifier

Composition of Inlet Gas of Scrubber

Composition of Outlet Gases of Scrubber

Temperature of Inlet and Outlet Streams

Bed Material Properties

Fluidizing Gas Properties (at 950K and 1 atm)

Fluidizing Gas Properties (at 523K and 2 atm)

Proximate analysis of Coal and Biomass (Dry Basis)

Scrubber Material Balance

Scrubber Top Composition

Total Purchased Cost of Major Equipments

Typical factors for the estimation of project fixed capital cost

Fixed Capital Cost

Counter-current Fixed bed (Up draft) Gasifier

Co-current Fixed bed (Down draft) Gasifier

Fluidized Bed Reactor

Entrained Flow Gasifier

Process Flow Diagram

Overall Material Balance

Overall Energy Balance

Direct Heat Rotary Dryer

High through-put Cyclone

Control Schemes of Gasifier

Control Schemes of Scrubber

HAZOP Method Flow Diagram

Lower Heating Value

Higher Heating Value

Char Gasification Reaction

Steam Methane Reaction

Water Gas Shift Reaction

Inlet moisture content

Final moisture content

Density of the Particle

Density of the Bed

Voidage at minimum Fluidization

Minimum Fluidization Velocity

Renold Number at minimum fluidization

Steam to Carbon Ratio

Initial Volumatric Flow Rate

Volumatric Flow Rate at minimum Fluidization

Distributor to bed pressure ratio

Bed pressure drop

Distributor pressure drop

Number of Holes at Orifice

Diameter of Standard Cyclone=0.203 m

Standard Flow Rate=0.0619 m3/sec

Volumetric Flow Rate

Standard solid-fluid density =2000 kg/m3