Tunnel Venti Latio 00 Rod G

DEPARTMENT OF
TRANSPORT
TE
662
OCT
.A3
no.FHWARD-72-15
197Z
leport No. FHWA-RD-72-15

LIBRARY
Tunnel Ventilation and
Treatment
Air Pollution
S.
Rodgers,
J.
F.
Roehlich,
Jr.,
and C. A. Palladino
Mine Safety Appliance Research Corporation

Evans City, Pennsylvania 16033
*r5 ov
"
June 30, 1970
This document
through the
Service,
is
available
to
National Technical
Springfield,
Virginia
the
public
Information
22151.
Prepared for
FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION

Office of Research
Washington, D.C. 20590
NOTICE
This document is disseminated under the sponsorship
of the Department of Transportation in the interest
of information exchange.
The United States
Government assumes no liability for its contents or
use thereof.
The contents of this report reflect the views of the

contracting organization, which is responsible for
the facts and the accuracy of the data presented
herein.
The contents do not necessarily reflect the
official views or policy of the Department of
Transportation.
This report does not constitute a
standard, specification, or regulation.
TE
u.S.
.A3
noFHWA.-/r
êêr^l
\{\Jnv+*y
;
"ECHNICAL REPORT
^
Report No.
1.
"department ot
TRANSPORTATION
Aolm.'n.'str^^n.
2.
Government Accession No.
tTANTD^
LIBRARY
FHWA-RD-72-15,
4.
Title
\s *
and Subtitle
Sheridan J. Rodgers
Cataldo A. Palladino
9.
Report Dote
5.
Tunnel Ventilation and Air Pollution Treatment
7.
T$T CE l|Q(?2.
Recipient's CataloglNo.
3.
Author's)
Name
Performing Organization
Ferdinand Roehlich, Jr.,
QctOl
Date of Preparation
6.
Performing Organization Code
8.
Performing Organization Report No.
MSAR-71-187
and Address
Work Unit No.
10.
FCP 33F3012
Mine Safety Appliance Research Corporation

Evans. City, Pennsylvania 16033
11.
Contract or Grant No.
FH-ll-7597
13.
12.
Sponsoring Agency
Name and Address
Type
of Report and Period
Covered
Final Report
June 30, 1970
U.S. Department of Transportation
Federal Highway Administration

Washington, D. C.
20590
14.
Sponsoring Agency Code
Ab 2980
15.
Supplementary Notes
16. Abstract
The dangers such as harmful physiological effects and nuisances for various
tunnel air impurities for occupants were usually negligible, especially because of
limited exposure periods. Only carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides, and
particulates pose any significant problems. From the foregoing analysis, standards
of American Conference of Government and Industrial Hygienists, Federal ambient air
and occupational safety and health regulations, and tunnel occupancy, tentative limits
include:
Safety for Unmanned Tunnels
Carbon Monoxide
500 ppm
Nitric Oxide
37.5 ppm
Nitrogen Dioxide
5 ppm
Particulates
lOmg/meter"
A computer program was developed and validated to predict various significant air
contaminants.
Instrumentation to monitor tunnel air quality was proposed. Treatments
of tunnel air for either discharge to the surroundings or recycling were examined.
Economic and processing constraints such as dilute concentrations were probed.
Limited laboratory tests were conducted. Removal of carbon monoxide appears to be
impractical. Adsorption of nitrogen dioxide and more noxious hydrocarbons by activated carbon showed promise.
Particulates can be largely removed by electrostatic
precipitation, filtration, and wet scrubbing.
17.
Keywords
Mr
pollutants
Ventilation Instrumentation, Air Purifica'
tion, Air Quality Standards
19.
TnTinel
Security Classif. (of this report)
Unclassified
Form
DOT
F 1700.7 <s-69)
20.
18.
Distribution Statement
Availability unlimited.
The public can obtain this document through
the National Technical Information Service,
Springfield, Virginia 22151.
Security Classif. (of this page)
Unclassified
21. No. of
267
Pages
22.
Price
ABSTRACT
This study, funded by the Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, was aimed at
evaluating current air quality in existing tunnels and
determining means of upgrading air quality in existing
The study consisted of six phases:
and future tunnels.
1.
Identify the types and quantities

of impurities in vehicular tunnels.
2.
Evaluate the physiological effects

of these impurities on tunnel workers
and transients.
3.
Establish air quality criteria for

vehicular tunnels.
4.
Determine available methods for

improving air quality in vehicular
tunnels.
5.
Perform laboratory tests to demonstrate the applicability of selected

purification procedures.
6.
Recommend instrumentation for

vehicular tunnels.
Phase 1 consisted primarily of a literature

survey of past tunnel studies as well as vehicle emission
Those of
rates as a function of various driving modes.
major concern are CO, N0 X HC and particulates.
A computer
program was developed which adequately predicts the concentration of various impurities as a function of driving mode
and ventilation rates.
Some on-site sampling was performed
to verify the validity of the computer program.
,
Phase 2 involved a survey of the literature to

determine both short term and long term effects on humans
exposed to specific tunnel impurities.
These effects were
considered in terms of both safe levels and comfort levels
with respect to tunnel employees and tunnel transients.
The work of
findings in Phase 2.
were established with
Recommended Levels of
Phase 3 evolved as a result of the

Criteria for tunnel impurity levels
the basic guidelines being the
the American Conference of Governmental
Industrial Hygienists, the EPA standards as set forth 1n

the Federal Register and other references on the effects
of air impurities on safety and comfort.
4 involved a review of current literature
and procedures for purification of contaminated
Phase
on methods
atmospheres.
Typical purification systems which were
reviewed included catalytic combustion, adsorption, absorpThese
tion, wet scrubbing and electrostatic precipitation.
methods were considered within the constraints imposed by
tunnel atmospheres (i.e., low impurity levels and large
An economic evaluation of selected systems
gas volumes).
was made.
Phase 5 reguired laboratory evaluation of the
most promising methods of tunnel atmosphere purification.
Small scale testing was performed in a chamber containing
actual automobile exhaust gases.
Parameters which were
studied included temperature, space velocity, residence
time and so on.
Hopcalite at 225F to 250F reduced the
CO to zero.
Activated carbon proved to be effective in
the removal of NO2 and heavy hydrocarbons.
Phase 6 reguired the recommendation of impurity
monitors which should be used in tunnels.
For tunnels where
the air guality is maintained by ventilation, the recommendation was made that CO continued to be monitored and used
It
as the primary indicator of tunnel ventilation rates.
was also recommended that smoke meters be installed in
tunnels, particularly those which have heavy diesel traffic.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No
INTRODUCTION
RESULTS OF THE PROGRAM
Identification of Types and Quantities of

Impurities in Vehicular Tunnels
Literature Survey
Computer Model
Emission Rates for CO, H-C, N0 X
and Particulates
Verification of Computer Model
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF TUNNEL CONTAMINANTS

Contaminants Which Have Been Found in
Tunnel Atmospheres
Selected Contaminant Levels for Vehicular
Tunnels
Specific Limits for Manned Tunnels
Unmanned Tunnels
Summary of Recommended Levels
EVALUATION OF POLLUTANT REMOVAL METHODS
Applicable Control
Technology
Applicable Tunnel Pollution Control
Technology
Carbon Monoxide and Hydrocarbons
Catalytic Oxidation
Thermal Afterburning
Adsorption
Wet Scrubbing
Nitrogen Oxides
Source Control
Particulates
Tunnel Pollution Control - Feasibility and
Economic Evaluation
Tunnel Pollution Control Strategies
Exhaust Emission Projections
Tunnel Air Treatment:
Problem Statement
Tunnel Ventilation Costs
Process Feasibility:
CO and Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons
Particulates
Water Solubles
General Feasibility:
Recycle & Compartmentali zation
State of the Art
21
38
45
69
69
72
72
76
79
81
iii
81
83
84
87
93
94
97
101
105
108
113
116
119
125
130
134
139
143
150
151
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Page No.
Conclusions of Alternative Control Technologies

Selection of Control Techniques to be
Evaluated
General Discussion
Carbon Monoxide Removal Systems
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of Nitrogen
Particul ates
Purification Test System
Run No. 1 - Blank
Run No. 2 - Cold Hopcalite
Run No. 3 - Activated Carbon
Run No. 4 - Purafil
Run No. 5 - Hot Hopcalite
Run No. 6 - Silica Gel -Hopcal i te
Run No. 7 - Hopcalite
Runs 8 and 9 - Filter Media
Run No. 10 - Mn02-Cu0
Run No. 11 - Charcoal Plus Hopcalite
Run No. 12 - Charcoal Plus Moisture Tolerant
Hopcal
te
Purification Systems for Tunnels

TUNNEL INSTRUMENTATION
Carbon Monoxide
Smoke or Haze
Other Monitors
Hydrocarbons
Nitrogen Oxides
Total Aldehydes
Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen
Recommendations for Tunnel Instrumentation
'
155
158
158
159
159
159
160
160
162
164
164
166
166
166
167
167
167
167
168
168
171
171
173
174
174
174
174
174
174
CONCLUSIONS
177
REFERENCES
181
BIBLIOGRAPHY
A.
Specific Tunnel Studies
B.
General Tunnel Studies
C.
Emission Rates
D.
Traffic Surveys and Studies
E.
Ventilation Requirements and Equipment
F.
Physiological Effects
G.
Emission Control
H.
Pollutant Monitoring
191
191
192
194
197
199
201
204
205
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Page No.
APPENDIX
APPENDIX
II
IHF
209
Pollutant Removal Proceas Calculations

from Final Report Patent Development
Associates, Inc.
241
Final
Report
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS
Figure No.
Page
No
m
ii
Mean Hourly Traffic Flow Through

Sumner Tunnel , By Time and Type of
Day, Sept. 14-20, 1961
Mean Carbon Monoxide Concentration in
Sumner Tunnel by Time and Type of Day,
Sept. 14-20, 1961
Peak Carbon Monoxide Concentration 1n
Sumner Tunnel, by Time of Day, July and
September 1961
10
11
12
13
Mean Soiling Index at Sumner Tunnel

Stations on Week Days, by Time of Day,
Sept. 14-20, 1961
Mean CO Concentration at Sumner Tunnel

Stations by Time of Day, April 20
Through 28, 1963
11
Mean Daily Concentration of Gaseous

Pollutants in the Sumner Tunnel by
Sampling Stations, April 20 Through
28, 1963
13
Carbon Monoxide Profile

Tunnel-North Tunnel
19

Tunnel-South Tunnel

Tunnel-East Tunnel

West Tube
Squirrel Hill
Squirrel Hill
20
Fort P1tt
22
Liberty Tubes23
Effect of Air-Fuel Ratio on Automotive

Exhaust Components
27
CO Output vs Vehicle Velocity
29
Multiplication Factor for Gradient

For Gasoline Powered Cars
30
/'Increase"
\Pecrease.
vii
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)
Figure No.
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
Page No
Multiplication Factor for Gradient

Increases For oiesels
Gdecrease/
CO Emission at 5500 Ft.
That at 500 ft.
31
Compared with
32
Ventilation Rates and Roadway Gradient

for Baltimore Harbor-East Tube
47
Actual Trace of CO Monitor Readings in

The Baltimore Harbor Tunnel
48
Computer Predicted CO Profile-Baltimore

Harbor Tunnel-East Tube
50
Calculated and Actual CO Concentration

For Baltimore Harbor Tunnel-East Tube
51
Ventilation Rates and Roadway Gradient

For Allegheny-North Tube
53
Computed Traffic Conditions for

Armstrong Mountain Tunnel
54
Carbon Monoxide Profile Lincoln TunnelNorth Tube
56
Actual and Calculated CO Values for the

Lincoln Tunnel-North Tube
57

Lincoln Tunnel -Center Tube
59

Lincoln Tunnel-2 Way Traffic
60
Carbon Monoxide Profile of Fort Pitt

Tunnel-West Tube
62
Measure of CO Values for the Naturally

Ventilated Armstrong Tunnel
67
Schematic Diagram Proposed by Sir Bruce

White
82
Emissions of Carbon Monoxide vs. Vehicle

Speed
VI
117
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)
Figure No.
30
31
32
33
Page No
Projected Average Exhaust Emissions,

Period 1970-1980
126
Automotive Exhaust Purification Test

Chamber
161
Removal of Hydrocarbons by Activated

Carbon
165
Effect of Catalyst Temperature on CO

Concentration
169
LIST OF TABLES
Page No.
Table No.
1
Suspended Particulate Parameters

in Sumner Tunnel Outlet and Inlet
Air, Sept. 14-20, 1961
10
Comparison of Mean Concentrations of

Particulate Pollutants at Sumner Tunnel
as Two-Way Tunnel, Sept. 14-20, 1961
With Operation as One-Way Tunnel April
20-28, 1963
12
Results of Tunnel
1958
Experiments, Summer
15
Pollution in Blackwall Tunnel, May 14,

1959
16
Average Annual Amounts of Smoke and

7 Polycyclic Hydrocarbons Per 1000
Cubic Meters of Air at the Mersey
Tunnel
17
Average Annual Amounts of Selected

Impurities at the Mersey Tunnel
18
Exhaust Gas Emission Rates
25
Carbon Monoxide Production as a Function

of Carburetor Adjustment (Cubic Feet CO
per Foot of Travel
10
11
(ft^/min
26
CO Emissions
Reported in Reference 22
Emission Rate gm CO/veh-mi
40
Grams of Pollutant Emitted per Mile

For Fixed Mode of Operation (gm/veh-mi)
41
Carbon Monoxide Emission, gm CO/VehicleMi.
42
Analysis of Material Collected From

Ventilation Building of The Fort Pitt
Tunnel
63
13
Fort Pitt Tunnel Test Data April 7, 1971
65
14
Measured Tunnel Contaminants
70
12
XI
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Table No.
Page No.
15
TLV and STL for Selected Pollutants
77
16
Tentative Pollution Levels for Tunnels
79
17
Comparative Process Capabilities
85
18
Combustion-Related Vehicular Emissions
86
19
Removal Process Summary Catalytic

Oxidati on
89,90
20
Scrubber Capabilities (Imperato)
98
21
Results of a Typical Analysis of

Automobile Exhaust Gases
103
Simplified Reaction Scheme for Photocehmical Smog
104
22
23
Suspended Particulate Parameters in Sumner

Tunnel Outlet and Inlet Air, Sept. 14-20,
1961
24
110
National Air Quality Standards Proposed

by EPA Primary Standards
120
25
Exhaust Emission Standards and Goals
122
26
Automobile Longevity
124
27
Tunnel Pollutant Loadings
127
28
Preliminary Single-Pollutant Optimum

Process Indication
129
Estimated 1970 Tunnel Ventilation Blower

Capital Costs as Function of Head
Regui rement
132
Operating Costs of Tunnel Ventilation

Blower as Function of Head Reguirement
133
31
Summary of Catalytic Oxidation Costs
139
32
Spray Holdup Time & Chamber Volume as

Function of Dust Particulate Size
148
29
30
xii
LIST OF TABLES
(Continued)
Page No
Table No.
33
Influence of Recycle on CO Concentrate on
154
34
Process Cost and Feasibility Summary
156
35
Summary of Purification Systems
163
36
Application of Continuous Monitoring

Instruments to Tunnel Atmospheres
172
i i i
INTRODUCTION
This is the final report on Contract FH 11-7597
with the U. S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway
Administration.
The work which covered Tunnel Ventilation
and Air Pollution Treatment was performed by MSA Research
The basic
Corporation and covered a period of 16 months.
objectives of the program were to identify the impurities
and the level of these impurities in vehicular tunnels,
establish the toxicity levels of these impurities and recommend desirable time-concentration limits for the Impurities,
determine and test applicable processes for removal of the
impurities, and recommend air pollution monitoring devices
for tunnels.
is
The work statement as presented in the contract

quoted below:
"The contractor shall furnish the necessary facilities,

materials, personnel and such other services as may be required, and in consultation with the Government, conduct a
research and development project entitled Tunnel Ventilation
and Air Pollution Treatment.
The contractor shall direct its best efforts toward achievement of the program objective to the extent that time and
funds are provided.
The objective is to conduct research
on the feasibility of removing impurities from the air within vehicular tunnels and to maintain a purity level so as to
relieve the discomfort and eliminate the dangers to the
traveling public without exhausting vitiated air to surrounding areas.
the above objective, the contractor shall obtain
through comprehensive literature surveys and other sources,
pertinent information and analyze this material to:
To fulfill
Recognized variables include traffic conditions and vehicle

mix under various circumstances such as speed, load and, fuel
type-, road conditions including gradient, pavements, and
elevation above mean sea level; and atmospheric conditions
such as ambient temperature and winds at portals.
Establish criteria for desirable and allowable time3.

concentration limits of the pertinent impurities for the
maintenance of a safe and comfortable tunnel atmosphere for
various conditions and with due consideration to operating
personnel as well as the traveling public.
Reasoning behind the criteria shall be formulated.
Determine available methods, processes, and mechanisms

for removing contaminants from the tunnel air which may include but not be limited to cooling, scrubbing, electrostatic precipitation, and deacidi fi cation.
The interplay of
natural additions and flow, vehicle induced air movement,
internal ventilation patterns, and exhausting to the atmosphere shall be considered.
Physical feasibility of the
systems including power, space, and disposal problems shall
be included in the analyses.
Cost effectiveness, and other
economic factors will be involved in arriving at practical
and practicable systems for various tunnel conditions.
4.
Investigate and establish the adequacy, practicability,

reliability, and costing of available air pollution gauges
and detection devices (and systems of these) in the tunnel
environment.
The local concentrations as well as the large
scale concentrations of pollutants shall be subject to
me asurement.
5.
Perform laboratory tests as required to demonstrate the

This phase of
applicability of chosen clean up procedures.
the work must be carefully considered so that unnecessary
work is not expended."
6.
Two subcontractors were used in the performance

of the program.
The Industrial Health Foundation of Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania contributed in evaluating the physiological effects
of tunnel impurities.
Patent Development Associates, Inc. of
Glenshaw, Pennsylvania reviewed current impurity control
technology and performed feasibility and economic evaluations
of the current technology.
RESULTS OF THE PROGRAM

This section presents the results of the various
phases of the program.
One of the more difficult tasks was
to recommend desirable time-concentration limits for vehicular
These recommendations were to cover three general
tunnels.
categories - safe levels for tunnel personnel (Maintenance
men or police officers) who would spend hours per day 1n a
tunnel, safe levels for transient users who would spend 515 minutes In a tunnel and comfort levels for the transient
users.
Identification of Types and Quantities of Impurities

Vehicular Tunnels
in
Literature Survey - All artificially ventilated

tunnels have instrumentation for continuous monitoring of
CO.
In almost every case, the type of instrument which is
used to monitor CO 1n vehicular tunnels is the Hopcallte
type where the change 1n temperature due to the heat of
catalytic oxidation of CO can be related to the CO concentration in the air samples.
Although a wealth of data exists
on CO concentration as a result of this continuous monitoring,
it is difficult to relate the CO concentration to the traffic
density, type of vehicles (gasoline or diesel), vehicle
velocity and so on since these parameters are not routinely
measured.
Furthermore, the monitoring systems 1n tunnels
measure only CO, while this program is directed toward
establishing typical concentration values for other Impurities which are present 1n vehicular tunnels.
One additional shortcoming to this Information is that 1t represents
point concentrations either at the site of the analyzer or
an average concentration for a complete tunnel section when
the monitoring station is located 1n a ventilation duct.
A number of studies have been made on the concentration of impurities other than CO 1n vehicular tunnels.
Some studies have been devoted to measuring the complete CO
profile throughout the length of a tunnel.
These studies
were helpful 1n trying to determine typical and maximum
values of Impurities in tunnels, but again 1n many cases
the studies failed to present real time data on traffic
patterns and ventilation rates.
Two studies were made on the 1.1 mile long Sumner

The first study was made
in 196l(U when the Sumner Tunnel was a single tube carrying
two way traffic. .A second study on the Sumner Tunnel was
performed in 1963(2) when a sister tunnel, the Callahan
Tunnel was opened and the Sumner Tunnel was converted to
Tunnel
in Boston, Massachusetts.
The Sumner Tunnel

two lane, one way traffic pattern.
has intake and exhaust fans located at both the Boston and
East Boston ventilation buildings.
The ventilation rate
ranged from 73,000 cfm to 613,000 cfm.
a
During the f i rs t s tudy, the num ber of ve hi cles

tunnel was a bout 3 5,000 per day
The mi nlmum
vehi cle flow was 200 v ehi cle s per hour at 5 A.M. a nd the
maximum flow was 2,200 vehic les pe r hour during th e morning
Figur e 1 is a
and eve ning rush hours (8 A. M. and 4 P.M. ).
plot of traffic flow v ersus time o f day f or a typi cal weekday, we ekend and weekl y aver age fo r the w eek of Se ptember 14
to Sept ember 20, 1961.
Figu re 2 s hows th e mean CO concentration in the t unnel exhaus t stac k for t he same p eriod of
time,
Figure 3 shows the pe ak CO concent ration fo r the
week of Septembe r 14-2 0, 196 1 as w ell as the week of July 27August 2, 1961.
The h ighest insta ntaneou s peak co ncentration
during the study was 2 56 ppm
The tunnel is essen tlally a
closed system an d thus offer s the opportu nity to d etermine
the amo unt of po llutio n emit ted pe r vehic le mi le u sing the
equatio n:
using
t he
Amount measured
(Outlet cone.
(No.
- Inlet cone. )(Vo1ume of ventilation air)

of veh1cles)(0.55 mile of tunnel length)
/i
'
'
The term 0.55 mile was used since only half of the tunnel
served by the Boston ventilation building was used in the
calculation.
From 1 A.M. to 5 A.M. the calculated emission
rate for CO was 35 gm per vehicle mile.
During the remainder
of the day, the values for emission rate were approximately
twice this value.
The higher rate is due to the effect of
traffic modes, varying periods of idle, acceleration and
deceleration as a result of traffic tie-ups.
The mean soiling index was measured, also, and is
shown in Figure 4.
The highest mean coefficient of haze and
smoke (Cons) per 1000 feet of air was 6.5 Cohs.
In Allegheny
County, Pennsylvania the following classifications are used
for soiling index:(3)
0-1.0
1.0-2.0
2.0-3.0
3.0-4.0
Cons/1000
Cohs/1000
Cohs/1000
Cohs/1000
ft
ft
ft
ft
slight pollution
moderate pollution
heavy pollution
very heavy pollution
Thus, in terms of this arbitrary assignment of pollution

values, the 6.5 Cohs/1000 ft measured in the Sumner Tunnel
would correspond to very heavy pollution.
Suspended particulates were measured over a sampling

period of 8 hrs with the maximum concentration being observed
during the period from 9 A.M. to 3 P.M.
The total particulate
3000
1
.A
f\
A
uj
2000
f\\\
WEEKDAY
\r1
If
:/
WEEK5 s
__'
\\\syi v
J
\
l/s.
/'/
1000
.r--v\
y.\
.Â
**zzf
VV
^WEEKEND
v~\
1
1 /
*
\*S\
^v^v
s*
*\
*
Jl
12
IS
20
24
HOUR OF DAY
FIGURE
MEAN HOURLY TRAFFIC FLOW THROUGH SUMNER TUNNEL,

BY TIME AND TYPE OF DAY, SEPT. 14-20, 1961
-
J
12
16
?0
HOUR OF DAY
FIGURE
MEAN CARBON MONOXIDE CONCENTRATION IN SUMNER TUNNEL

SEPT. 14-20, 1961
BY TIME AND TYPE OF DAY,
300
SEPTEMBER 14-20
A7
Vv
JULY 27-AUGUST
20
'
24
HOUR OF DAY
FIGURE
PEAK CARBON MONOXIDE CONCENTRATION IN SUMNER TUNNEL,

BY TIME OF DAY, JULY AND SEPTEMBER 1961
if
^x
TUNNEL CENTER
--
TUNNEL OUTLET AIR
HOUR OF DAY
FIGURE
MEAN SOILING INDEX AT SUMNER TUNNEL STATIONS

BY TIME OF DAY, SEPT. 14-20, 1961
ON WEEK DAYS,
conce ntrati on durtn g that peri od wa

solub le mat erial (o rganic s) ac count
mg/m3 ) of t he total parti culat e inv
for 7 .5% (. 045 mg/m 3 ) of. the t otal
The b alance of the parti c ulate s wer
Cadmi urn, a
metal s othe r than 1 ead.
cern due to its tox icity, was qui te
1
11s ts the composi tion o f the coll
Using equat ion (1) emissi on ra tes w ere calculated for particul ates ( 0.36 gm/ vehicl e mi 1 e)
o rganic particulates
(0.16 gm/ve hide mi le) an d lea d (0. 031 gm/vehicle mile).
,
The secon d Sumne r Tunn el stu dy in volve d a total

This
of 6 samp ling stati ons thr oughou t the tunne 1.(2)
study was made afte r the t unnel had be en co nvert ed to a
two lane, one way t raffic c o n f i g uratio n wi t h an average
daily tra ffic densi ty of 2 2,000 vehicl es pe r day
A signif icant decrease i n impur ity le vel s w as no ted
the decrease
was attri buted to o peratio n of t he tun nel i n a o ne way traffic
mode and a decrease of 36% i n mo tor ve hide traf fie.
Figure
5 shows t he CO cone entrati on as a f unc tion of ti me of day.
Mean morn ing rush h our con centra tions for t he tw o way mode
ranged fr om 100-120 ppm CO , whil e the one w ay mo de mean concentratio n was ^90 ppm CO.
The s o i 1 i n g ind ex wa s also lower
showing 3 .5 Cohs fo r one w ay tra ffic v ersus 6 5 Cohs for
two way t raffic.
T able 2 compar es the mean part iculate concentratio n for the two mod es of traffi c.
.
Additional pollutants including SO2, N0, aldehydes

and NO were measured during the second study.
The concentrations of these impurities are shown in Figure 6.
It was
concluded that automotive exhaust does not contribute significantly to the S0 2 content of tunnel air.
The results
showed that the ratio of NO/NO2 was approximately 5/1.
Finally, the aliphatic aldehydes ranged from about 0.01 to
0.1 ppm.
An early study on the CO and particulate levels
in the Holland Tunnel was performed by the Bureau of Mines. (4)
The data in this report is probably of limited value due to
the difference in emission rates from gasoline powered ve-
hicles, gasoline composition and the number of diesel powered

vehicles of today compared with the types of vehicles in use
at that time.
Standard operating procedure at that time was
to allow the CO concentration to rise to 250 ppm with no
change in ventilation rate.
If the level remained at 250 ppm
for longer than 5 minutes, then additional fans were activated.
The authors noted at that time that the CO concentration was highest on the upgrade sections of the tunnel.
T3
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120
T
.
BOSTON LAND SECTION

BOSTON HARBOR SECTION
--' EAST BOSTON HARBOR SECTION
-EAST BOSTON LAND SECTION
100
E
QCL
90
80
r4-
70
o
ro
i.
60
4->
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O!
o
c
o
50
o
o
o
40
30
20
10
10
12
14
16
18
20
22
24
26
Time of Day
FIGURE
MEAN CO CONCENTRATION AT SUMNER TUNNEL STATIONS

BY TIME OF DAY, APRIL 20 THROUGH 28, 1963
11
COMPARISON OF MEAN CONCENTRATIONS OF PARTICULATE

POLLUTANTS AT SUMNER TUNNEL AS TWO-WAY TUNNEL,
SEPT. 14-20, 1961 WITH OPERATION AS ONE-WAY TUNNEL
APRIL 20-28, 1963
TABLE
Concentration, ug/cu m
One-Way*
Pollutant
Two -Way
Tunnel
Outlet
Inlet
Air
Air
Tunnel
Inlet
Outlet
Air
Air
particulates
588
104
Benzene-soluble organic
substances
225
11
144.2
8.3
29
22
18.1
0.3
Total
Sulfates
Nitrates
Lead
86
2.4
3.4
0.3
0.9
44.5
1.1
0.1
*36% decrease in traffic
12
424
45
Station Locations
40
35
toll booth, E. Boston

1/3 of distance into tunnel
center of tunnel
2/3 of distance into tunnel
Boston ventilation bldg.,

(inlet air)
Boston ventilation bldg.,
(outlet air)
2
t/(
o
re
SO -
U.
o
to
UJ
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li
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23456
i-J.
123456
123456
12
3456
Sampling Stations
FIGURE 6
MEAN DAILY CONCENTRATION OF GASEOUS POLLUTANTS IN THE
SUMNER TUNNEL BY SAMPLING STATIONS, APRIL 20 THROUGH 28, 1963
13
Work d one by Katz and Frevert^ 5 ' led to an estimate of CO

emissi on rate of 10 cu ft per car while traversing the
This would correspond to an em ission rate of 220 g
tunnel
per
vehicle
mile, a factor of approx imately 10 higher
CO
Parthan t he currently accepted average emi ssion rate.
mg/m 3
in
the
tunnel
nged
.88
concentration
ra
up
to
1
ticul a te
diameter
micron.
Analyses
of less t han 1
with a mean particle
of the particulates showed lead and ars enic to be present,
but it was concluded on the basis of in let air concentrations
One
that a rsenic was not contributed by aut omotive exhaust.
other point of interest in this study w as a reference to
S i n g s t ad's work(6) on the induced pisto n effect of automotive traffic in vehicular tunnels.
S ingstad stated that
1000 v ehicles per hour produced longitu dinal air velocities
Assuming a free cross-s ectional area of
of 880 ft/min.
370 ft 2
this is equivalent to a volume trie flow of 315,000
,
cfm.
Waller, et an?) studied the impurity levels of

the Blackwall and Rotherhithe Tunnels in London during a
period of high traffic density.
Table 3 summarizes the
concentration of CO, smoke and hydrocarbons which were
found in the two tunnels.
Table 4 summarizes additional
tests which were made in the Blackwall Tunnel only and includes lead, NO and N0o in addition to the previously mentioned contaminants.
it was reported that the mass median
diameter of the smoke particles was 1 micron.
Stocks et a!
studied the concentration of seven
polycyclic hydrocarbons and 13 trace metals in the Mersey
Tunnel in England.
Table 5 shows the average annual concentration of smoke and selected hydrocarbons found in the
Mersey Tunnel.
Table 6 lists the average annual concentrations for the 13 metals which were analyzed.
rece nt st udy was perform ed on the three arti fi cal ly ve n t i 1 a t ed ,tu n n e 1 s i n Pittsb urgh by th e Mic hael
Baker Jr. Compa ny(9" 11).
A 1 though this study was 1 imi ted
to me asure ment o f CO only, i t is of inter est b ecaus e the CO
prof i le th rougho ut ea ch tunn el was m easur ed ex perim ental ly
and o ne ca n comp are t he CO 1 evels at vari ous p o i n t s in the
tunne 1 wit h the level s indie ated by the p erman ently i nstall ed CO monit oring system s
F i g u re 7 shows the C0 profile of th e 4225 ft 1 ong Squ irrel Hi 1 1 we stbou nd tu nnel
The maxim urn va 1 u e i n d u r i n g the early morn ing rus h hour,
d i c a t ed by the t unnel CO mon itors wa s 100 ppm CO wh ereas
level s as high a s 160 ppm we re measu red n ear t he ce ntetr of
the t unnel
Fig ure 8 shows the effe ct of two way t raff ic
Again
in a tunne 1 wher ein t he pi st on effec t is negat ed.
the m aximu m CO m oni to r readi ng (145 ppm C 0) wa s sig nifiA
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20
cantly lower than the actual maximum in the tunnel (290 ppm
Figure 9 shows the CO profile of the 3613 ft long
CO).
In
Fort Pitt Tunnel durinn the early morning rush hour.
this case, the maximum reading of the CO monitor was 150 ppm
CO while the maximum CO concentration in the tunnel was 195
ppm CO.
Figure 10 is a CO profile of the Liberty Tunnel
The Fort Pitt and Sguirrel
during the evening rush hour.
Hill Tunnels have a longitudinal distributive type of ventilation while the Liberty Tunnel has a basic longitudinal type
of ventilation.
Specifically, fresh air is drawn in through
the entry portal and exhausted at the center for the first
half of the tunnel, then fresh air is injected about 50 ft
beyond the center and exhausted through the exit portal.
This mode of ventilation accounts for the CO peak at the
center of the tunnel
.
Computer Model - After havino reviewed the pertinent

literature, two facts became obvious.
First, the bulk of the
work on tunnel impurity levels had been limited to the measure
ment of CO, and second the bulk of the data which had been
reported represented averages over time periods ranging from
hr to 24 hr with little or no information on ventilation
rates as well as traffic density, traffic mix, road grade and
As a result of these deficiencies in the studies
so on.
which had been made, it was concluded that a computer model
should be developed which would predict concentration levels
of any exhaust impurity at any point in a tunnel.
1
The quantity of each component emitted from a

particular vehicle at a specific time is dependent upon
number of factors
:
Type of engine (gasoline, diesel, etc)

Size of engine (displacement, horsepower)
Condition of engine
Type of fuel (octane rating, additives)
Adjustment of carburetor
Driving mode - acceleration
-
rrnuinn
cru si ng
idling
deceleration
Velocity
Rate of acceleration
Road grade
Elevation above sea level
Ambient temperature and relati.ve humidity
Vehicle load
Condition of control devices such as
PCV
a
valve and gasoline tank vapor suppr essors
10
11
12
13
21
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23
When considering the total pollution generated

within a given tunnel, the following additional parameters
must be considered:
1.
Vehicle mix
cars, diesel trucks, busses,
2.
3.
4.
Du ring th e early part of the program an evaluation

of each of t hese fa ctors and parameters was initiated with
the ult imate goal i n mind of establishing a mathematical model
represe n t i n g any tu nnel.
Such a model would then enable
calcula tion of poll ution levels expected in any existing
tunnel or pr oposed tunnel and thereby serve as the basis
both fo r det e rm i n i n g pollutant removal system requirements
and for the e s t a b J i shment of pollution monitoring system
speci f c a t i o ns. (A preliminary summary of the study of the
c o n d i t i ons a ff ectin g exhaust emission is given below followed
by the descr i ption of a computer program for calculating
p o 1 1 u t i on co ncentra tion.
A Ithough the exhau
engi nes are simi lar to those
prop ortions of thes e constit
a ga sol ine powered automobi
carb on mono xide emi tted duri
wher eas a d i e s e 1 bti s may emi
Howe ver, th e hydroc arbon emi
engi ne may be seven times th
Tab
gas powered automob i le.
emi s si ons o f four e xhaust co
vehi cle ope
namely ac
dece le ratio
An important factor in exhaust emission rates
This is particularly
aside from the engine is the carburetor.
so with larger vehicles as illustrated in Table 8 which compares CO emission of cars and trucks as a function of carburetor adjustment. (1 3)
Another exhaust factor is crankcase
ventilation.
The control device introduced in 1963 reduces
pollution rates considerably when it is in proper condition.
The concentrations of other exhaust pollutants - nitric oxide
and hydrocarbons as well as CO - are influenced by the fuel/
air ratio delivered to the engine as shown in Figure 11.^4)
24
TABLE
EXHAUST GAS EMISSION RATES (ft 3 /min)
Mode
Accel eration
Crui se
Idle
Deceleration,
Gas auto
Diesel bus
CO
6.000
0.200
0,700
0,080
0,400
0.025
0.400
0.040
Gas auto
Diesel bus
NO*
0.050
0.400
0.020
0,083
<0.001
0,007
<0.001
0.009
Gas auto
Diesel bus
HC
0.016
0.100
0,006
0.030
0.005
0,045
0.024
0.100
Gas auto
Diesel bus
R-COH
0.002
0.008
<0.001
0.003
<0.001
0.001
0.009
25
0.001
TABLE
CARBON MONOXIDE PRODUCTION AS A FUNCTION

OF CARBURETOR ADJUSTMENT
(Cubic Feet CO per Foot of Travel)
Trucks
Cars
18.8 mi/
Adjustment of
Carburetor
qal
9.4 mi/
qal Ion
on
5.6 mi/
qal
on
r/"
Good
/.5
5*; -5
0.001033
0.000494
H2.\
0.000646
Average
Bad
0.000248
S^
0.001292
}7f,&
0.002066
26
%C.o
0.000829
0,002152
3 5"%
0.003358
oi
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o
cove
<-
cm
ooott
cm
AM01N3? yjd anniOA - noiiiimhoo s*o isnvmo
<:
X
Ul
o
I-
o
o
u_
1
o
c
c
oc
M
<
IT)
u_
Wdd-0N
X
Z
K
Ul
UJ
u.
u.
UI
t-
Ul
K
3
tX
2
O
<
H H0SV)
uidd
'NOUVUlNaDNOD NOOHVDOMQAH
27
r
Ul
e;
"3
r,
s
r
Another factor, particularly in hydrocarbon cone

concentration,
the timing adjustment of the ignition spark .(15)
Exh aust emission rates in units of weight per unit

distance trav eled for a slow moving vehicle are generally
much greater than for one cruising at speeds in excess of
50 miles/hrl
Several experimental studies have been reported
in the litera ture which correlate carbon monoxide emission with
vehicle veloc i ty and acceleration. ('4, 16-19)
summary of
some of these results is given in Figure 12.
A least-mean
squares equat ion of the combined data was calculated as
/\
fol lows
rvT
where
1.478xlO J
10.43
spe ed in miles per hour

CO emission in gms/veh-mi
is
r?-o6
4-b
in, ik
*&
fs.^n
So
3^.??
55
37- 3
&o
3T,
(2)
(s
Other studies have been reported in which the exhaust emission

of pollutants other than CO have been related to vehicle operating mode ( velocity, acceleration, etc).
E xhaust
aff ected by t he gr ade of

the r a d , i e
i n c 1 i n a t ion
of
The effe ct of
roa dway
an up -grade on th e exhau st emissi on ra te is s i m i lar t
that
of ac celera t i o n
that is
it i n c eases the exhau st vo 1 ume.
Conve rsely the e ffect o f a downgrade i s s i m i 1 a r to that of
decel erati o n.
Th e effec t of grad e on exhau st vo 1 ume may be
d
state
as a mul ti pi i cat i on coeffi c i e n t appl ied t o the points
obtai ned f om Equ ation 2 J
The gr aphs of Fi gures 13 a nd 14
give the gr ade co ef f i cie nts for C
emi s s i o n of c ars a nd
di ese 1 true ks.
F or exam pie, Figu re 13 show s tha t a c ar
cl imb ing a 2% gra de wi 1
emi t 1,4 time s as much CO as it
norma 1 ly wo uld on a flat (0-grade ) roa dway while the same
car d escend ing a 3% grad e will em it on ly 70 % as much CO as
it wo u 1 d w i th zer o grade
Coeffi c i e n t s can be s i m i 1 a rly
estab 1 i shed for o ther ex haust pol 1 utan ts.U 8)
.
emi ssi on
is
o
th e
1
Another exha ust p arame ter is the elevation above

of the roadw ay.
The e xhaust emi s si on of an autom o b i 1 e who se carb ureto r i s ad jus ted fo r sea level conditions
An
will be co n s i d e r a bly g reate r at higher elev ations.
examp le of this i s giv en in Figu re 1 5 for C emissions at
5500 feet e 1 e v a t i on co mpare d wit h thos e at 500 feet. 16
When coup! ed with the fact that the CO tole ranee of the
this parameter
human body decrea ses a salt i t u d e i ncre ases
prese nts a seriou s pro blem i n a high a ltitu de tunnel. 2 )
A few expe rimenta 1 stu dies of th e al ti tude effect have been
repor ted, primari ly th ose m ade i n conn e c t i o n with a proposed
tunne
nea r Denve r whi ch wi 11 be locat ed at an elevation of
about 11 ,0 00 feet abov e sea leve 1.(21 J
sea
eve!
28
180
1
'
1
160
(*]
140
ELEVATION
Acceleratl
O
u.
o
o
to
</
100
<
E
i
-C
no
>
>
Deceleration
60
o
o
<T
Deceleration
40
Deceleration
Deceleration
20
O D -
Surgeon General Report, 1958 Study - Cars

Stern, Los Angeles & Cincinnati, 1965 - Cars
0TT, 1962 Study - All vehicles
- Tlppetts, JFK Airport study
1
10
FIGURE 12
20
40
Vehicle speed (m1/hr;
-
30
50
CO OUTPUT VS VEHICLE VELOCITY
29
60
.00 + 0.0542
where
Grade (x)
percent grade
CO emission multiplication factor
for cars on grade
(t wpDCflccX
DECREASE/ F0R
GASOLINE POWERED CARS
30
0.91
x/2 for grades >-0.25%
0.11
where
FIGURE 14
Grade (x)
for grades <-0.25%
percent grade
CO emission multiplication factor for diesels on grade
MULTIPLICATION FACTOR FOR GRADIENT (deCREASe) F0R diesels
31
180
160
140
120
100
-C

*->.
/>
E
o
v~-
80
o
o
4->
+>
Ul
o
o
40
20
10
30
20
40
50
60
Vehicle speed (mi/hr)

FIGURE 15
CO EMISSION AT 5500
32
FT COMPARED WITH THAT AT 500
FT
Available data has been correlated in order to

establish an altitude coefficient for our mathematical model
Two regression lines have been computed as follows:
CO emission vs altitude with zero grade
F
1.0 + 0.166
1000
where
0.7035xl0 _8 h 2
(3)
altitude above sea level in feet
CO emission multiplication factor
for altitude
b.
CO emission vs grade at elevations

7500 ft above sea level
y =
92.99
where
y =
exceeding
2
28. 2x + 6.924x
(4)
percent grade
CO emission in gms/vehi cl e-mi
e.
com puter progr am wh ich was developed included

ventilation rates, vehicle
such as emi s s i o n r ates
induced ventilation and
mix
vehi cle velo city, road grade
ther fac tors such a s eng i ne displacement and horseso o n)
powe r, th e condit ion o f the e n g i n e, age of the vehicle, carbure tor a djustmen t and so on coul d not be included since
thes e are unknown vari ables whi ch exist in any traffic mix.
This is t o say th at th ere i s no s uch thing as an "average
De velopmen t of the co mpute r program was rather
car"
stra ightf orward w hile select i on o f emission rates proved to
be a diff i c u 1 1 t a sk in terms of s electing an appropriate
emis si on rate.
(jhe
van
abl es
The expected concentration level of a gaseous pollutant in a given tunnel may be calculated if the following
data are known:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Quantity of pollutant generated

(cfm/vehi cl e)
Traffic load (vehi cles/hr)
Fan air flowrate (cfm/mile)
Traffic speed (miles/hr)
Ambient air pollutant concentration (ppm)
The average pollutant concentration within the tunnel

is then calculated by the equation:
f(ppm)
axbxl06
cxd
33
(f
(5)
In order to calculate a more definitive profile

given pollutant through the length of the tunnel, the
The assumptions
following elementary model was derived.
made in the derivation are minimal hence the chief possible
The
source of error is the accuracy of the input data.
assumptions made are:
of
There is no appreciable removal of

oxygen nor production of CO2, or
water vapor.
The gas composition at a given
tunnel point has constant access
to the tunnel cross section.
Longitudinal diffusion is low.
a.
b.
c.
Assumption a is implied by the mass volume balance

for air flow.
It states, essentially, that the net gain or
removal (of these substances) is small when compared with
the quantity of ventilating air passing through the tunnel.
The combustion process is
3N +
2 +
CH 2)N
>NC0
(N +
1)H 2
(6)
where the second term represents the saturated hydrocarbon.

This process does produce a slight increase in air volume.
The second assumption (uniform composition at a
given cross section) is based on turbulence induced by
traffic.
Since the axial air velocity differs from the
vehicle velocity, a turbulent swirl is produced behind each
Also the
vehicle which tends to homogenize the tunnel air.
inlet and outlet air flow patterns minimize the possibility
of stagnant air pockets.
In the third assumption the pure
axial diffusion is extremely low.
The axial diffusion caused
by the swirls in the wake of the vehicles is larger.
However for long tunnels it is small when compared with the
axial transport of pollutants.
If these assumptions are applied, the differential
equations for pollutant concentration become simple air and
pollutant mass balances.
The differential equation for air
is
$
where
(7)
direction
quantity of air flow
length
cross flow in and out (quantity per unit length).
vo
34
in
axial
The differential equation for pollutant is
4|^l
where
v.c
c+z
r\
(8)
pollutant concentration
ambient pollution concentration
pollution generated per unit length of tunnel.
The above equations are subject to the boundary conditions:
and
where
Cj n
Q(0)
C(0)
(9)
(10)
in
inlet axial flow
pollution concentration at tunnel inlet.
The above equations can best be cast in a "finite

difference" form.
Several forms are available of which the
following are the simplest:
where
Q(n)
c(n)
(n-1) +
i
"
-,-
(V i
1
(n)-v (n))dl
(11)
Q(n-1 )c(n-l )+G(n)
12
and G are evaluated at the mid point between

These equations require that Q be always
positive and are always stable.
(n-1)
Vn
and
(n).
The computer program solves the above set of

equations "stepwise from tunnel entrance to tunnel exit.
The
step length (dl) may be selected as desired.
The program is
written so as to check the direction of axial air flow at
each step and will stop if Q becomes negative.
For tunnels
in which air flow direction in some segments is opposite
that in other segments, the program would be applied to the
Since
individual tunnel segments so as to keep Q positive.
the exit air flow is given the tunnels or tunnel segments
may be conveniently linked.
A print out of the program is presented on page 36.
The program is normally read from magnetic tape, however a
punched tape recording of the program has also been prepared
and will be forwarded with this report.
A glossary of input
and readout data is given on page 37.
This lists the units
and encoding symbols used for each of the variables used in
the program.
35
L
C P IS GU FT/VEH MILEJ QTI/O IS CFM/MILEJVI IS CFM
C TUNNEL LENbTH AND DELT IS MILESJVEH IS VEH/HH;CONC
ARE PPM
DIMENSION GTK5>*QT0C5>
24 TYPE I
1
FORMAT </#/*/* "TUNNEL CONC"#/"POL. COEFS" >
ACCEPT 2* P1*P2
2 FORMAT <E)
TYPE 3
3 FORMAT C/*"TRANS AIR IN"* /#"TRANS AIR OUT")
ACCEPT 2*QTIU >*0TI(2 >*QTl <3>*QTI <4>*QT1<5>
ACCEPT 2*GT0<1 >*QT0<2>*QTOC3>*QTOC4>*QTO<5>
6 TYPE 4
4 FORMAT C/*"END AIR IN TUNNEL LENGTH TUNNEL DELT L" >
ACCEPT 2*V1*BL*DL
IF (VI) 6*7*7
7 TYPE 27
27 FORMAT C/*"VEHICLES/KR; INLET* AMBIENT CONC")
ACCEPT 2*VEH1*VER2*CI*C0
TYPE 32
32 FORMAT </*"CONT">
ACCEPT 2*C0NT
IF (CONT) 33*34*34
33 W=0.0
GDIS0.0
34 TYPE 5
5 FORMAT (/*/*"TUNNEL POS
CONC")
ALs0.0
lSWT<=i
35
IF <AL*DL-BL> 8*8*36
36
DLnBL-AL
ISWV=-ISWT
8 AL-=AL<DL/2.0
13 QTIC = (((eTI(5>*AL+QTI<4))*AL+QTI(3>)*AL+QTH2))*AL+QTI<l
>
IF <QTIC> 15*16*16
15 TYPE 17*QTIG
17 FORMAT C/*" TRANS IN IS NEli"*E>
"
00 TO 25
16 QT0Cn(CCQT0(5)*AL+QT0C4))*AL+QT0C3>)*AL+QT0<2)**AL+QT0<l)
IF <QT0C> 18x19*19
18 TYPE 20*OTOC
20 FORIiAT C/*"TRANS OUT IS NEfo"*E>
bO TO 25
19 VO"VI+DL*CQTlC-QTOC>
IF CVO) 21*22*22
21 TYPE 23
23 FORMAT (/*" AIR VEL ZERO"?
AL=AL+VO/<QTOC-GTIO+05*DL
bO'TO 25
22 CI=VI*CI+QT1C*DL*C0+<VEHI*P1+VER2*P2)*1 .6667E4*DL
CI-CI/(VO*QTOC*DL>
ALnAL+DL/2.0'
VJ-VO
TYPE 28*AL*C1
28 FORMAT (/*E*E)
QDI5"GD1S*QT0C*DL
u<=v;+UT0C*r)L*ci
IF <XGWT> 31*31*35
'
TYPE 30*VO
30 FORMAT </*"DI5CHARUE FLOW'VE)
IF(QDIS) 38*24*38
38
ClÛ/QDXS
TYPE 3V/CI
37 FORMAT (/*"AV'b CONC"*E>
1.0 TO 24
25 TYPE 26* AL
2C FORMAT t/* M P05ITON"*E>
co to 24
uiu
31
.,-,
TYPICAL PRINT OUT OF

COMPUTER PROGRAM
'
r
r-
<D
Ol
p-
p-
ia>
tO)
OI
E
3
O
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Ol
pjC
01
01
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+j
+->
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3
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fc.
01
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D-
O-
>
3
C
E
p"
JOi
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-O
>
3
C
E
U
p-
i-
3
o
x:
Ol
OI
OH
CD
4->
+>
01
01
o>
OI
01
OI
OI
OI
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4-
4-
r-
t/>
p-
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p-
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-O
-Cl
TJ3
P"
ppp-
o.
+J
c
o
a.
to
OI
tOl
p"
oc
M
z:
r:
a.
3
U
3
u
3
u
3
U
to
OI
to
p-
.e
p-
p-
0)
ia
>
a.
oc
LU
^~
o
>
O-
to
OI
^~
to
Ol
^-^
p-
ta
o
>
^-*
s:
u_
ta
t_>
to.
r-
to
CO
p-
c
o
Ol
o
o
p*
u
3
o:
<o
T3
1-
+>
OI
o>
o
CO
c
c
3
>-
c
c
3
M
*-
o
C
01
r-
+>
+>
+j
c
co
t/j
o
_l
UJ
~i
CQ
E
Oi
**-
*-
o
p-
+J
r
p
>
3
O
%
o
<C
cc
<c
+*
p*-
CD
2
o
o
Q-
c
c
3
&.
4->
10
+j
O
c
+J
-C
+J
0>
r-
p
-
OI
Jd
CJ>
/a
t->
*p-
OI
l/>
(/)
to
p"
t-
p-
4->
10
o
Ju
0)
<0
r
OI
i-
s-
p-
p-
c
c
3
(O
<o
(0
c
01
E
01
s-
u
p4p-
<a
L.
p-
l->
C
OI
o
c
o
u
M
p"
p
p
TJ
4-
c
o
OI
3
C
r-
p-
S-
JC
+>
p"
(O
J-
(O
Ol
4->
+J
01
to
CT>
<e
sz
<o
JOl
Ol
to
M
O
c
o
a
Q.
Ol
c
c
3
p~
s:
>-
to
1
O.
cr
o
r-
o-
>
_J
CQ
37
_J
IE
LU
>
to
-M
O
z
o
o
r-
Ol
11
o
CO
2
o-
r!->
to
_j
p-
Q.
u
3
O-

c
E
E
3
p-
tO
o
to
i-
o
**-
OI
II
P-"
1
r=)
O.
I
3
O
c
Ol
u
c
o
o
<o
3
X
>
'
An actual data computation is presented on page 39.

Output data consists of columns showing concentration levels
for a given pollutant at incremental distances along various
Section boundaries are usually desections of the tunnel.
termined by blower shaft locations and changes in road grade
The exhaust air flow from
level (or percent inclination).
the section is given below the concentration/location columns
followed by the average concentration of the given pollutant
in the exit air duct (where applicable).
Emission Rate s for CO H-C, N0_ and Particulates

As stat ed befo re, selec ting app ropriate emission rates proved
strating task.
The XIII World Conto be a di f f i c ult and f
gress o n Road Tunnel s I 51 showed that a great discrepancy
existed in reg ard to em ission rates.
Some of the data reported in this ref erenc e dated back to 1919, and it was found
later t hat in some case s this data is still being used to
Table 7 shows the emission rates of
predict emissi on rates.
CO, N0 X
HC an d R-COH f rom gasoline and diesel engines as a
f u n c t i o n of mo de of ope ration as reported in 1965.
This
same re ference also rep orts emission rates of CO as a function
of carb uretor adjustmen t for cars and trucks (Table 8).
,
Table 9 lists the emission rates for CQ^s summarized in XIII World Congress on Road Tunnels. 22 '
This
table represents the best data available in 1957 and is composed primari ly .of resul ts reported by the Coordinating Research Ci:ouncil. 23 '
(
The Surgeon General's Report of 1962< 24 ) lists the

emission rates for late 1950 automobiles,
Table 10 lists
the results; values for H-C and N0 X are shown in this table
also and will be discussed later.
Over the past few years, the emission rate of CO

Table 11
from gasoline powered vehicles has been decreasing.
shows the emission rates for pre-1966, 1966-1969 and 1970
passenger cars and light trucks as well as heavy duty trucks! 25 25
Stormont' 2 ^) reports emission rates of 65 g CO/vehmi for 1965-1967 models, 35 gm CO/veh-mi for 1968 models,
A target of 4.7 gm
25 gm CO/veh-mi for 1969 and 1970 models.
CO/veh-mi is set for 1975 models.
Federal Regulations for CO emissions as reported in
Environmental Science and Technology( 28 ) are:
Year
gm CO/veh-mi
1968
1970
1972
1975
35.1
23.0
39.0
4.7
38
'
0.7209 0.3341
TRANS AIR IN
TRANS AIH OUT 0.4684E6
to
0.264E6
end aih in tunnel lenbth
tunnel delt l28600 0.235 0.02
vehicles/hr; inlet* anient conc 11&0 352

CONT-I
CONC
TUNNEL POS
0.850087E+1
0.200000E-1
0.142818E+2
0.400000E-1
0.1&3770E+2
0.599999E-1
0.213752E+2
0.800000E-1
0.999999E-1
0.236307E+2
0.119999E+0
0.253666E+2
0.267267E+2
0.139999E+0
0.27815SE+2
0.159999E+&
0.179999E+0
0.2869S4E+2
0.294170E+2
0.199999E+0
0.219999E+0
0.300154E+2
0.304023E+2
0.2350O0E+0
DISCRAKbE PLOW
-766339E+5
AVb CONC 0.235749E+2
Section N4
40 ppm
CO Monitor Chart Reading
TUNNEL CONC
POL. COEFS 0.9876 0.86
TRANS AIR IN
TRANS AIH OUT0.6011E6
0.6266E6
end aih in tunnel lenuth
tunnel delt l 0.76634e5 0.4868 0.05
vehicles/hr; inlet* ambient conc 1180 352 30.4

CONT-l
TUNNEL POS
0.5000U0E-1
0.1Uu)kJt3t3L + kJ
CONC
0.333033E+2
0.3S41 40E+2
0.369414E+2
0.1S000WE+0
0.3b0414fc;+2
0.200000E+0
0.250000E+0
0.3bb298E+2
0.3000O0E+0
0.393920E+2
0.39790911+2
0.35O000E+0
0.399999E+0
0.400723E+2
0.449999E+0
0-40269bE+2
0.466600E+0
0.403804E+2
DISCHARbE PLOW 0.642205E+5
AVO CONC 0.381655E+2
Section N3
50 ppm
CO Monitor Chart Reading
TUNNEL CUNC
POL. COEFS 1.1944 2.7607
TRANS AIH IN
TRANS AIH OUT 0.&786E6
0.&76E6
END AIH IN TUNNEL LENbTri

VEHlCLES/HH;
INLh.T#
TUNNEL DELT L 0.642205E5 0.4621 0.05
AMBIENT CONC
1 1
bo 352 40.38
CONT-l
PORTION OF COMPUTER PRINTOUT

FOR LINCOLN TUNNEL-WESTBOUND TUBE
39
TABLE
CO EMISSIONS REPORTED IN REFERENCE

Emission Rate gm CO/veh-mi
22
Speed
(mnh
Downgrade
Accelerati on
Level
?
y<?
35
Upgrade
"'Jx
56
41
73
195
86
30
64
45
s
25
40
20
56
106
128
311
2.
(3
112
269
78
74
99
^/
70
?!
410
99
?*-
10
225
6
i?
15
(3
128
573
40
159
/<S
Z-7
214
TABLE 10
GRAMS OF POLLUTANT EMITTED PER MILE FOR

FIXED MDDE OF OPERATION
(gm/veh-mi
Mode
Cruise:
20 miles per hour
30 miles per hour
40 miles per hour
50 mi les per hour
CO
Gross HC
72
57
47
9.1
40
Acceleration
to 60 miles per hour
to 25 miles per hour
15 to 30 miles per hour
240
120
Decelerati on
30 to
miles per hour
26
40
60
30
6.4
5.4
7.7
2.7
5.2
381
41
28
29
14
6.8
5.9
7.7
5.0
10.2
ol
$.
4-
SJte
o
o
o
o
CM
c
c
a-
CO
*aCVJ
t
in
r-
ro
r-
r1/1
V)
p-
3:
CD
:=>
oo
o
oo
o*o
o*
r
î
o
U
O
C
CO
in
ro
ro
r
CM
CO
i
CM
f
CM
CO
vo
i
CO
CM
ic
CO
CM
CM
in
r>.
mm
o>
CM
S-
o
o
C7>
s
>
3oo
Oo
oo
> "O
> ID O
A
o
.
2=1
>
-l->
CO
I-**
^~I
co
co
UJ
X
o
O
cn
ZJ
J-
r>.
cr>
CM
>
f
-J
CTi
CO
S-
ve
1
If)
CO
to
S(O
fe?
CT.
s-
U3
CO
0J
ex
CO
CT>
3-
Ol
i4
If)
i/1
^~
CO
CO
<o
CJ
S-
D.
Q.
o
CO
T3
CL)
01
O.
CO

42
O
CM
CO
If)
This applies only to light duty vehicles.
Many other references were reviewed and are inFor the

cluded in the Bibliography section of this report.
current mixture of model years we have selected an average
CO emission rate from gasoline powered vehicles of 40 gm CO/
If the Federal Standards are met and as older models
yeh-mi
are phased out of operation, this value will decrease.
.
Less information was found on CO emission from

diesel powered vehicles, and again some of this information
For example, all references on CO emiswas contradictory.
sion from diesel engines listed some positive values, whereas
the Surgeon General's Report of 1962(24) listed an emission
Rispler ('2) reported a CO emission
rate of zero for CO.
rate for diesel engines at 40 mph cruise of 4.3 gm/veh-mi.
Rose(29) reported an emission rate of CO from diesels of
about 3.5 gm/veh-mi under crui se, condi tions
From this
limited data, we conclude that under cruise conditions, the
CO emission rate from diesels is
gm/veh-mi.
Emission rates
of CO from diesels for the effects of road grade can be adjusted using. the data in Figure Ik.
.
Hydrocarbon emissions have been studied by a number

of investigators.
In the case of hydrocarbons, emissions
are much more dependent upon the condition of the car and
the emission control devices installed on cars than are CO
emission rates.
The Surgeon General's report(24) listed
the emission rates as a function of mode of operation.
(Table 10).
This same reference reports diesel emission of
H-C as 4.5 gm H-C/veh-mi at 30 mph (cruise), 20.5 gm H-C/
veh-mil under acceleration and 17.3 gm H-C/veh-mi under
'decelerati on.
Stormont(27) reports H-C emissions according to
the year of the automobile under cruise conditions.
The
values are:
Year
gm H-C/veh-mi
1965-1967
12
1970
1972
1975
6
2
0.5 (Projected)
The Federal Standards (28, 30) for H-C emissions

from passenger vehicles are as follows:
Year
gm H-C/veh mi
1972-1974
3.4
0.46
1975
43
These values apply to light duty vehicles only.

1965, Rose'29) reported H-C emission for gasoline and diesel engines under cruise conditions as 5.8 gm
H-C/veh-mi 1 and 6.2 gm H-C/veh mi, respectively.
In
On the basis of the data which were compiled on

H-C emissions, we selected an average emission rate of 2.7 gm
H-C/veh-mi for gasoline powered vehicles and 3.4 gm H-C/veh-mi
Hydrocarbon emission by diesels are about 8.0
for diesels.
gms/veh-mi under accelerating conditions and 10.5 gm/veh-mi
under decelerating conditions.

The emission of oxides of nitrogen from motor vehicles exhaust is generally reported in terms of N0 X
i.e.,
the total of NO plus N0 2
Studies have shown that approximately 80% of the N0 X emitted is in the form of NO.
In
tunnels, where the residence time of the exhaust gases is
of the order of seconds, there is little time for NO to convert to NO2, hence approximately 80% of the N0 V in tunnels
is there as NO.
,
The Surgeon General's Report lists NO

emissions
at 30 mph and 5.2 gm NO x /veh-mi at 50
The same reports lists the emission from diesels
mph cruise.
as 8.9 gm NO x /veh-mi and 8.8 gm NO/veh-mi under acceleration.
of 2.6 gm NO x /veh-mi
Stormont reported N0 X emissions according to the

vehicle year:
Emission Rate
Year
(gm NO y /veh-mi)
1960
1965-1971
1972
1973
1975
6
5
4
3
1
The values listed for 1972-1975 are projected values.
Rose reported an emission rate of 3.9 gm NO x /veh-mi

Diesels in a cruise
for gasoline engines in the cruise mode.
mode emitted 10.0 gm N0 x /veh-mi.
Although the data are limited with respect to N0 X

emission, the reported values are in relatively good agreement.
We have selected an emission rate of 4.0 gm NO/veh-mi
for gasoline engines and 8.0 gm NO/veh-mi for diesel engines.
It must be recognized that various driving modes will change
these emission rates, but the data on N0 emissions as a
function of driving mode is limited.
44
The data on particulates are even more limited

Frey and Corn^ 31 '
than for other exhaust contaminants.
studied the particle size and concentration in vehicle exThe particle size ranged from 0.01 to 5 u.
haust gases.
Gasoline engines were reported to emit 0.4 gm/veh-mi while
The Environmental
diesel engines emitted 5.0 gm/veh-mi.
Protection Agency' 32 ) has set standards for particulate
emissions for 1975 model cars - 0.1 gm/veh-mi.
In summary, it has been difficult to select standard
emission rates for gasoline and diesel powered vehicles under
various driving modes, with the possible exception of CO.
However, by limiting the selection of emission rates reported
during the 1 960 s only, we believe the selected rates are
representative of the gasoline and diesel powered vehicle
mix which is currently on the road
The emission rates which
we have selected are as follows:
'
Mode of
Operation
CO,
Gasoline
Cruise*
40
Diesel
Cruise
Type of
Vehicle
Emission Rates (gm/veh-mi)

HC
N0-xV
Particulates
4.0
Gasoline
Projected 1970
Gasoline
Projected 1975**
23
4.7
2.7
4.0
0.4
3.4
8.0
5.0
0.9
0.1
2.2
0.5
Emission rates for
CO can be corrected for grade by using

factors given in Figures 13 and 14.
Federal Standards
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Baltimore Harbor Tunnel

Allegheny Mountain Tunnel
Lincoln Tunnel
Fort Pitt Tunnel
Armstrong Tunnel
In most cases, the CO levels of the tunnel were taken from

the continuous monitoring data while in one case CO, H-C, NO
and/or particulates were measured.
45
The Baltimore Harbor Tunnel is a 6700 ft long dual

tube tunnel which is part of an expressway circling the city
The Harbor Tunnel is located beneath the
of Baltimore.
Patapsco River.
The northern portal and ventilation building
are surrounded by industrial plants while the southern one lies
Tolls are collected at booths located
in rather open country.
about 0.7 miles from the south portal.
Each tube is staffed
by 3 or 4 patrolmen on a continuous basis with a shift change
every two hours.
Each tunnel patrolman spends a total of 4
hours per day inside the tunnel - most of the time in semienclosed shelter booths.
The traffic load varies from 55,000
to 75,000 vehicles per day.
Transverse ventilating is used
and CO is continuously monitored in the exhaust stacks.
One of the chief reasons for selecting the Harbor
for our survey was the fact that complete records are
maintained which include the following:
Tunnel
Traffic counts and traffic type,

according to number of axles
Continuous ventilation rate data
Detailed accounting of all traffic
stoppages in the tunnel
Complete set of engineering drawings
Ambient weather conditions.
During the visit spot checks were taken of traffic count and
mix and vehicle residence time or speed.
Particulate samples
were also obtainedby portable MSA mine samplers placed on
the tunnel catwalk.
The weight per unit-volume of sample
collected was about 0.6 mg/m^ which is the same concentration
as the sample taken at the Fort Pitt Tunnel.
The average CO
concentration in the tunnel, as recorded by monitors sampling
exit air, averaged about 75 ppm over a three day period and
rarely exceeded 180 ppm during peak traffic periods.
Traffic counts were made of both gasoline and

diesel powered vehicles in the east tube over a period of
about 15 mins.
The CO traces for this period were then obFigure 16
tained from the Baltimore Harbor Tunnel authorities.
shows the road grade of the tunnel and the reported ventilation
rates for the period during which traffic counts were made.
Figure 17 is an actual trace of the CO monitors in the tunnel
The inputs
during the period when traffic counts were made.
to the computer program included:
1.
2.
Ventilation pattern and flow rates,

road gradient and tunnel section
lengths are shown in Figure 16.
1260 gas/hr
Traffic count and mix:
268 diesel/hr
I
46
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47
CO Concentration
(parts per 10,000)
AM
AM
10 AM
-1
Ol
f^h
12 AM
\
11
AM-
10 AM
1
FIGURE 17
ACTUAL TRACE OF CO MONITOR READINGS IN THE

BALTIMORE HARBOR TUNNEL
48
3.
4.
5.
6.
42-50 mph
2 ppm assumed
^23% of fan rates
(50,000 cfm)
Emission rate for CO as a function
of the above conditions.
Vehicle velocity:
Ambient CO level
Piston effect:
The CO concentration profile calculated by the

The
mathematical model method is presented in Figure 18.
sharply defined maximum and minimum values are similar to the
pattern obtained by other investigators.
These peaks are
caused by the combined effects of ventilation patterns and
CO emission rate differentials.
Since the tunnel CO monitor's sampling probes are

installed in the exit air ducts instead of at road level, a
direct comparison with calculated results at a given point
in the tunnel can only be obtained by actual CO measurement
at a given point.
However, an average CO concentration calculated from the profile values should agree with the CO levels
indicated by the permanent tunnel CO monitors.
Hence an
additional step was added to the computer program which yields
average CO concentration values at the end of each tunnel
section and a cumulative average value for a series of combined tunnel sections.
Average CO concentration values obtained were:
a.
b.
71.1 ppm for Section

75.9 ppm for Sections
and 2)
(3,4, 5 and 6)
(1
Actual values taken from the recorders in the control room

during the time of this test were, respectively:
a.
b.
60 i 15 ppm
65 + 15 ppm
(1
(3,
and 2)
4,
and 6).
Figure 19 is a plot of these average results.

The results
indicate that the computed CO level falls within the measured
CO concentration.
Th e Alleg heny Mounta in Tunnel is a dual tube tunnel
locat ed on t he Penn sylvania Tu rnpike.
It differs from all of
the o ther tu nnels w hich we vis ited in that it is located in a
rural area w hi le th e others we re all urban tunnels.
Each tube
is 61 00 ft 1 ong and has an ave rage grade of t 0.5%.
The
tunne 1 s are venti 1 a ted in a lo ngitudinal distributive fashion,
Venti lati on is prov ided by ove rhead ducts and fans mounted at
ei the r porta 1 of ea ch tube.
F lowrates may be adjusted in four
Vitiated
steps from 4 50,000 cfm/tube to 1,200,000 cfm/tube.
air i s exhau sted th rough the t raffic portals.
Anemometer
readi ngs of wind ve locity insi de the duct of the south tube
49
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<
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LU CO
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yielded values of 600 ft/min at a point 30 ft from the intake

fan and 390 ft/min at duct midpoint.
Traffic and gas/diesel mix was rather constant

throughout the day and was nearly identical in both directions
295
105
10 gasoline vehicles/hr
5
diesel
vehicles/hr
Average speed for the vehicles was determined by telephone

and was 55 to 60 mph for cars
communications at each portal
and 50 mph for large trucks.
9
Carbon monoxide monitoring instruments are located

the ventilation building control rooms.
Air inlet probes
The
are located in three niches in the wall of each tube.
CO levels indicated by the center tunnel monitors are generally higher than those of the other monitors.
However, the
concentration ranges of all six monitors were below 40 ppm
throughout the day of our visit.
(Fig. 20)
in
Input parameters:
Traffic count and mix:
291
gas/hr
110 diesel/hr
Ventilation flow rate:
450,000 cfm/duct
Ambient CO level
Road gradient:
Tunnel length:
(see Fig. 20)

ppm assumed
See Fig. 20
See Fig. 20
1
The CO level was quite low and nearly constant

throughout the length of the tunnel during the period that
the traffic counts were made.
Monitors located in niches
at three points inside the tunnel each showed CO levels
averaging 20 ppm.
Since the response accuracy of the monitors is I 10 ppm the computed result (15 ppm CO) is considered
in agreement with actual.
If a 20% factor is added for piston
effect the calculated average CO concentration drops to 12 ppm
which is still in agreement with the monitors.
Other potential conditions for the Allegheny Tunnel

were computed (Figure 21).
These included:
1.
1000 cars/hr @ 40 mph with 450,000 cfm

forced and 50,000 cfm natural and piston
ventilation (Curve A).
2.
A
@
complete power failure with 1000 cars/hr

40 mph with a 180,000 cfm piston effect
(Curve B).
52
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traffic jam with a forced ventilation

rate of 600,000 cfm (Curve C).
3.
4.
traffic jam with a forced ventilation

rate of 450,000 cfm (Curve D).
With 1000 cars traveling at 40 mph and a ventilation rate of

450,000 cfm, the average CO concentration would be 35 ppm.
Under a traffic jam condition, the CO would be 160 ppm
with a 600,000 cfm ventilation rate and 225 ppm with a
With a power failure where
450,000 cfm ventilation rate.
the only ventilation would be due to the piston effect, the
CO profile would range from zero at the entry portal to
150 ppm at the exit portal.
Traffic counts were made at the Lincoln Tunnel

in New York City and CO data from the permanent monitors
in the tunnel were acquired.
This information was used to
predict the CO level in various sections of the tunnel and
to compare the predicted with the actual
concentration.
A mat hematica 1 mod el of tunnel vent ilatlon was developed in 1965 by the R&D D i v i s i o n of t he Po rt of N ew York
Authori ty-Engi n eering D epart ment
The p urpos e of th is model
was to predict the amou nt of any c ontami nant in the Lincoln
and Hoi land Tun nels.
T he mo del wa s form ulate d by ba lancing
air and contami nant i n f 1 ows and ou tf lows for each se ctional
length of tunne 1.
Inst ead o f the finite diff erence equations
used in the MSA R model
the PNYA m odel e mploy s diffe rential
equatio ns which are der i ved for bo th ven til at ion and contami nant pr ofi les.
The dat a gen erated by bo th me thods s hould be
identic al if a suf ficie ntly smal 1 length deri v a t i v e (dl) is
chosen,
The MS AR model does not r equi re deri v a t i o n of
differe ntial eq u a t i o n s
,
The carbon monoxide profile of the Lincoln Tunnelnorth tube was calculated using the PNYA model.
The results
were then compared with observed CO values as shown in
Figure 22.
Agreement between observed and calculated CO
profiles is good except at the tunnel portals.
55
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concentrations deviated somewhat from the measured concentrations.

This was also true in the case where two-way traffic
was used in the center tube (Figure 25).
However, with the
two-way traffic pattern the calculated and measured CO concentrations followed the same general trend.
Deviations of
the actual values from calculated values could be due to incorrect ventilation rate data, incorrect CO readings, incorrect
inlet air CO concentrations or an error in the computer program.
However, the latter reason is unlikely since good agreement between actual and calculated values were found in all
other tunnels tested as well as the north tube of the Lincoln
Tunnel
-
The Fort Pitt Tunnel is a dual-tube urban tunnel

which carries Interstate Route 1-76 into downtown Pittsburgh,
Pa.
Each tube is 4900 ft long and has a road level grade of
Mo except at one end of the West tunnel which has a 3.5% up
grade for about 400 ft.
(The North portals are on two different levels which correspond to the decks of the approach bridge.)
Atmospheric conditions were cloudy, light rain all day, very
little wind, temperature 50 to 54F during the day when actual
measurements were made.
A s eries of 30-minute counts were taken at various
times t hrough out a typical week day.
Results showed that the
traf f i c rate varied from 1500 to 1900 vehicles per hour per
tube be tween 9 A.M. and 4 P.M. and 3200 to 3400 vehicles per
hour at peak times (4 to 6 P.M. outbound tube and 7 to 9 A.M.
inbound ).
Du ring the night the rate is usually down to 200400 per hour except when a sports or civic event is scheduled,
The rat i o of gasoline engine powered to diesel powered vehicles
varied from 1 3/1 in late morning to 66/1 during the evening
T raffic normally moved through the tunnel at 45 to
rush ho ur.
At p eak periods speeds fall to 20-25 mph.
Since the
55 mph.
average s p a c i ng between vehicles is about 20 ft, the maximum
tunnel popul tion is 250 vehicles per tube.
The population
den si ty may i ncrease, of course, in case of a stoppage.
Pit t Tunn el
a s in most tunnels which
empl oy semi -t ravers e or s emi -1 n g i t u dinal ven t i 1 a t i o n with
intake fans b ut no exhaus t fans
the air samp ling intake
lines for the CO mo ni tori ng equ ipmen t are mou nted in niches
This
in the tunnel wal 1 about 9 ft a bove roadway 1 e v e 1
each o ne located about
tunnel employ ed two moni t ors pe r tub e
T he recorded
350 ft in fro m the portal sort unnel ends.
signal s from each o f the four H opcal i te-type detectors are
During
m o n i t o red by operat ing pe rsonne 1 in the contr ol room.
the
During
the n i ght the CO le vel is norma lly a bout 10 p pm.
when
it
eriods
day it rises to abo ut 50 ppm ex cept at peak p
if
250
ppm
to
rises to 100 ppm.
Peak p e r i o d level may rise
emission
llution
fan sp eeds ar e not i n c r e a s e d in adva nee of po
i ncrea ses
In
the
Fo rt
58
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Spot checks of CO content at catwalk levels were

Readings during off-peak hours
made with a portable detector.
At
recorded
in the control room.
CO
values
agreed with the
peak traffic hours, however, the spot check values ranged
In a more complete
about 60 ppm higher than .those recorded.
variations
in
the
Fort
Pitt tunnel, it
analysis of CO level
was demonstrated that the CO level in the central portion of
the tunnel may be considerably higher than that at the ends
(Figure 26).
Each tube contains six fans - three at each end.
Only two of the three are used as fresh air input fans.
The
third fan is used as an emergency exhaust.
Fresh air is supplied
through ceiling ducts from either end of each tube.
Vitiated
air is exhausted through the traffic portals.
Considerably
more air is exhausted via the traffic exit portal due chiefly
to the addition of the piston effect.
The magnitude of this
difference was measured by taking anemometer readings on the
catwalk.
Air velocity at the inlet portal ranged from about
820 ft/min compared with 1210 ft/min at the exit portal.
Air flow rates are adjusted manually from the conroom according to traffic demand.
Flow rates range from
121,000 cfm (night-downgrade) to 535,000 cfm (peak-upgrade)
with a maximum fan capacity of 714,000 cfm (upgrade tunnel).
Each fan can provide for up to 85% of the normal requirement
for its particular duct.
trol
Ten-minute observations were carried out at various

hours along the tunnel catwalk.
Results showed an average
noise level of 97 dBC with peaks up to 106 dBC.
The peaks
were produced by the passage of large trailer and cab type
trucks.
Operating and maintenance personnel are normally
not exposed to these sound levels for extended time periods.
A constant volume air sampler was placed in operation
point 264 ft from the south portal of the east tube on
the catwalk with the sampling inlet away from the stream of
traffic.
A filter paper disc (MSA Part No. 25310) was used
with a sampling flow rate of 15 cfm.
The sampler was operated
for 5 hours during the off-peak hours (11 A.M. to 4 P.M.).
A
total of 68 mg of particulates were collected which represents
a density of 0.6 mg/m3.
at
A 3.2 gm sample of particulates was collected from

the floor of the room housing the Fort Pitt tunnel south portal
ventilation fans.
An analysis of this sample was performed by
an emission spectroscopy method.
The results are shown in
Table 12.
Extraction with benzene showed that the sample was
9355 benzene soluble (organic).
61
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TABLE 12
- ANALYSIS OF MATERIAL COLLECTED

FROM VENTILATION BUILDING OF
THE FORT PITT TUNNEL*
Concentration
Component
Iron
7.5%
Aluminum
3.6%
Magnesium
1%
Silicon
14%
Boron
90 ppm
Cobalt
10 ppm
Manganese
8000 ppm
150 ppm
Tin
Lead
2000 ppm
Chromium
400 ppm
Titanium
1000 ppm
Nickel
500 ppm
Molybdenum
200 ppm
Vanadium
200 ppm
Sodium
1500 ppm
Niobium
<100 ppm
Calcium
<100 ppm
Zinc
1000 ppm
*This is an analysis of the benzene in soluble fraction

of the collected material.
63
Samples were taken for total hydrocarbons and NO,

The total hydrocarbon samples were taken in glass
sampling bombs and ultimately transferred to the laboratory
and analyzed.
Samples for NO were collected and analyzed by
the Saltzman Method. (33)
also.
Vehi cle co unts we re made in bot h the no rthbo und and

south bound tub es and sample s were c o 1 1 e c t ed at tw o loc a t i o n s
in ea ch tu be.
Venti 1 a t i o n rates we re obt ained fr om th e control room oper ators and the i nf orma t i o n w as used to ca 1 cul ate
the p redi c ted level s based on the c ompute r model and t he
selec ted e miss ion ra tes.
T he resul ts are shown i n Tab le 13.
The p redi c ted and ac tual CO values agree quite we 11 ( 20%).
The N B-l s amp! es for NO and HC did not ag ree well wi th the
predi cted leve Is.
H owever, since t hese a re point sour ce
some
measu remen ts a nd wer e made near the entry of the tunne 1
diffe rence s co uld be expect ed.
In al 1 ca ses, the pred i cted
NO le vel s were equal to or higher t han th e measur ed va 1 ues
In
This may i ndi c ate th at NO e mission factor s are in corre ct.
gener al
h owev er
mo st of t he resul ts agr ee rathe r wel 1 , but
could prob ably be im proved if bette r em is s i o n rat es we re known
for t he cu rren t car populat ion.
,
One naturally ventilated tunnel, the Armstrong Tunnel

Pittsburgh, was visited and data were collected on CO concentration and noise level.
This two-tube tunnel is located
near downtown Pittsburgh, Pa.
It carries city traffic a
distance of 1350 ft and lies beneath the campus of Duquesne
University.
Traffic lights are located at the intersections
at either end of the tunnel.
Since this tunnel has no ventilating fans, it was selected as an ideal location to study
piston effect.
The tunnel is also used by pedestrians (in
one tube only).
in
The number of vehicles admitted to the tunnel is

limited by the cycle of the traffic control lights.
In the
west tube approximately 18 vehicles/min are admitted while
Traffic
in the east tube the number is about 33 per minute..
speed is maintained at about 30 mph.
Backing does occur at
the traffic lights.
This normally involves 6 to 12 vehicles
for times of 30 seconds.
Gas/diesel ratio ranges from 10:1
to 20:1.
Pedestrian traffic averages 8 per hour with an
average walk-through time of approximately four minutes.
Readings taken with a portable Hopcalite detector

averaged 50 ppm inside the tunnel with an increase to 200 ppm
Anemometer
at the portal at which backed-up traffic occurs,.
determinations of air movement showed that a velocity of 370
ft/min was maintained at sidewalk level with an intermittent
flow of 1050 vehicles per hour.
Assuming a tunnel crosssection of 435 ft 2
the volumetric flow rate could be as high
as 150,000 cfm.
The CO output for 18 cars at 30 mph is 18 x
,
64
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60 gms/mile or 270- gm per tunnel length (1/4 mi).

Since
vehicles require 30 sec to pass through the tunnel the CO
Assuming a venemission rate is 540 gms/min or 15.3 cfm.
tilation rate of 150,000 cfm (4,860,000 gms/min) yields a
possible average tunnel CO concentration of 110 ppm.
Figure
Traffic noise ranged from
27 shows the measured CO profile.
88 to 93 dBC.
In conclusion, the computer program appears to
adequately predict the pollution level of CO in tunnels as
a function of the variables which are fed into the program.
Computed values for hydrocarbons and NO appear to be reliable
in some cases and unreliable in others.
However, emission
rates for the contaminants are not as well defined as are
emission rates for CO and vary considerably depending upon
the mechanical condition and age of the car.
66
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67
PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF TUNNEL CONTAMINANTS

The objectives of this phase of the program were
the effects of vehicle tunnel impurities on both
evaluate
to
and the transient public, and to set limits
workers
in-tunnel
concentrations for manned tunnels as
allowable
maximum
for
comfort
levels for unmanned tunnels.
safety
and
well as
Selection of the impurities for which limits were set was
based on the contaminants which were found in tunnels and
the concentration levels at which these contaminants were
The Industrial Health Founpresent in vehicular tunnels.
of
Pittsburgh
served
as a subcontractor on this
dation, Inc.
The
final
report
from Industrial
the
program.
phase of
Appendix
included
of this report.
Foundation
is
as
Health
I
responsibility
of
of
specific
limits
was
the
The selection
along
with
criteria
for
seMSAR and selected limits
the
lection of these limits were submitted to and reviewed by
the Environmental Protection Agency.
Table 14 is a composite listing of ranges of tunnel

contaminants measured in a number of different tunnels.
These
values serve to compare relative concentrations and therefore
provide a basis on which to select those contaminants for
which limits should be set.
Carbon monoxide levels in tunnels frequently exceed
the Threshold Limit Value (50 ppm) and occasionally exceed
Since CO is the
the Short Term Limit Value (400 ppm/15 min).
major health hazard impurity in automobile exhaust, limits
will be set for this contaminant.
69
TABLE 14
MEASURED TUNNEL CONTAMINANTS
Contaminant
Range
54-170 ppm
0.05-0.43 ppm
CO
N0 2
0.2-1 .63 ppm

0.05-0.12 ppm
0.04-<0.05 ppm
Aldehydes** '
SO2
Tota 1 pa rticul ates
Poly cycl ic hydrocarbons
Pyre ne
Benz o(a )pyrene
!
0.424-2.350 mg/m
0.04-1.20
0.03-0.69
0.03-0.53
0.09-0.99
Coro nene
Benz perylene
Metals
Lead
Iron
Zinc
Cadm i urn
(1)
yg/m 3
yg/m 3
yg/m 3
yq/m 3
9.5-44.5 ug/m 3
9.5-23.4 yg/m 3
2.2 yg/m 3
0.04-0.6 yg/m 3
It has been estimated that formaldehyde accounts for

70-80% of the total aldehyde emissions.
70
Oxides of nit rogen are p resent i n t unnel atmospheres

resul t of ox i d a t i o n of a tmosp h e r i c ni tro gen du ring fuel
combu st ion
The N0/N0 2 ratio vari es ace ordi n g to t he mode
of op erati on but on the avera ge th e rati o is in the range of
Howe ver, the
appro ximat ely 4/1 to 5/ I in q a s o 1 i ne eng i nes
oxide s of ni troge n emi t ted by dies el eng ines are hi gher than
Of th e two oxide s, N0 2 is
that emi tt ed by g a s o 1 i n e engi nes
i
i
The TLV f or N0 2 is 5 ppm,
m
t
x
d
more
rri
t
n
the
ore
o i c an
ta
g
Altho ugh t hese c ontami where as th e TLV f or NO is 25 ppm.
nants appe ar to b e pres ent in 1 eve Is bel ow th e safe ty limits
and o dor t hreshol d 1 imi ts
the re are
at the presen t tim e
For
plans to u se cert a i n t u nnel s for d i e s e 1 traff ic onl y.
Pitt
T
i
inte
nds
to
examp le, t he
sburgh Port Autho rity r a n s t
conve rt an e x i s t i ng tro Hey t unnel into a mas s tran sit bus
tunne 1.
T hese bu ses wi II be d i e s e 1 powe red a nd one woul d
predi ct an increa sed le vel of ox id es of ni tro gen in that
tunne 1.
I n
antic i p a t i o n of t hese probl e ms , i t was decided
that level s would be se t for NO an d N0 2
as
The other impurity in tunnels which has been observed to exceed the irritation or odor threshold limit is
The irritation threshold for HCHO has been
formaldehyde.
be
reported to
as low as 0.05 ppm while levels of 0.12 ppm
have been reported in tunnels.
Authorities on odor have
frequently attributed the objectionable odor of auto exhaust
to the aldehyde content.
Therefore, limits have been selected for formaldehyde which is the major aldehyde emitted
from auto exhaust.
Other impurities present in tunnel atmospheres include, as two general categories, partially burned hydrocarbons
and metals.
Benzo(a )pyrene has been of particular concern to
the environmental health personnel because of its carcinogenic
properties.
However, the maximum value measured has been only
0.5% of the TLV.
All metals which have been detected are well
below the TLV.
Lead is the metal that has been measured in
With
highest concentrations and it is only 20% of the TLV.
the advent of unleaded gasolines, the concentration will undoubtedly decrease.
71
This covers all of the contaminants which have been

detected in vehicular tunnels except for S0.
A cursory comparison of the concentration level versus tne odor level would
suggest that limits should be set for SO?.
However, the work
which provided these values showed that the S0 level was
present in the intake air rather than as a result of automotive exhaust.
Therefore, no limits will be set for SO2.
Selected Contaminant Levels for Vehicular Tunnels

In manned tunnels, police officers are located at
three or four locations in the tunnel.
These officers spend
two hours in the tunnel and two hours out of the tunnel
so
that during an 8 hr work day, they are exposed to the tunnel
Personal inatmosphere for a total period of four hours.
terviews with these employees revealed that they frequently
Personal
experience headache, tiredness and eye irritation.
observation of these officers as they came off duty during
or immediately following rush hour traffic indicated that
they did indeed have eye irritation.
,
Ma intenance personnel represent another work group

osed to tunnel atmospheres.
Routine maintenance
such as repl acement of lights, repair or replacement of tile
and w ashing of the tunnel walls is scheduled during off-peak
perio d s
In dual tube tunnels such as the Pennsylvania
Turnp i ke Tun nels, Baltimore Harbor Tunnel and others, two
way t raff ic is shunted through one tube during the late
eveni ng and early morning hours while the other tube is
being washed or repaired.
Emergency maintenance within
the t u n n e 1 i s not frequently required and in general requires
that mai nten ance personnel be present in the tunnel for only
a sho rt time
whi ch
is
ex
Three of the studies were directly pertinent to

setting of limits for manned tunnels in that the studies involved clinical examination of personnel who had spent greater
One of the reports stated:
than 10 years working in tunnels.
"No mortality or morbidity from primary lung
cancer was found among a group of 97 retired
tunnel police officers who had worked within
72
H oil and Li nco 1 n Tunne Is, a nd had been

in re ti rement for at leas t 10 years after 25
No c ase of primary
years of activ e serv ice.
lung cancer wa s foun d amo ng th e 25 r etired
pol ic e officer s stud ied w ho ha d died during
Among the 16
this same reti rement peri od.
nontunn el ret ired pol ic e offi cers in1 i v i n g
cl ude din this study , the re is one w ith primary lung cane er sue cessf ul ly resect ed 11
Th e inte rval betwe en i n tial exyears ago.
posur e in the tunnel s and the time o f this
study was at
east 1 8 yea rs an d as 1 ong as
37 ye ars
rs
in 8 9.7%, the i nterv al was over
30 ye a rs."(34l
the
The second article stated:

"Resul ts are pre sented of a n epi demiol og i c
nvest igatio n of the r e s p i r atory sympton s and
pulmon ary fu ncti ons of a gr oup o f men ex posed
to aut omobi e ex haust in a road tunnel
Chroni c
nonspe ci f i c resp i rator y dis ease was more prevalent i n men who had wo rked in th e tunnel for
more t han 10 yea rs tha n in those with a shorter
time o f empl oyme nt.
C hest colds were al so more
freque nt in thi s group
Th e siz e of the sample
did no t perm it p roper asses sment of the effect
of age or ci gare tte sm o k i n g on t his popu 1 a t i o n
The ma ximal expi ratory flow rate
as mea sured
with t he Wri ght peak f lowme ter was sign ificantly lower in the wo rkers with chronic nonspeci f ic res pi ra tory d iseas e tha n in the rest
of the worke rs s tudied "(35
i
third stated that:
"Examination of a group of 156 Holland Tunnel

traffic officers exposed throughout a period
of 13 years to an occupational carbon monoxide
exposure averaging 70 ppm did not reveal any
evidence of injury to health contri butable to
carbon monoxide exposure. "(36)
On the basis of the work by Speizer, one may conclude that
some adverse effects on the respiratory system are imposed
by exposure to tunnel impurities.
In spite of the large volume of information available on physiological effects of air contaminants on the
human being, it is still extremely difficult to select firm
standards for employees in manned tunnels due to the conflicting data which are presented.
However, this dilemma
73
has apparently been solved by the Occupational Safety and

This Act sets
Health Act of 1970, Public Law 91-596.(37)
standards "to assure safe and healthful working conditions
As part of this Act, concenfor working men and women".
trations are set for air contaminants including CO, NO,
NO2, HCHO and particulates (oil mist).
These values are:
Contaminant
Al lowable
Concentrati on
CO
NO
N0 2
50 ppm
25 ppm
3
ppm
ppm
mg/m 3
HCHO
Particul ates (oil mist)
Time Weighted
Avg. Limi ts(38)
75.0
37.5
10.0
6.0
10.0
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
mg/rrr
Although the Act does not make allowances for less than 8 hr
exposure periods, the TLV levels do provide for a time weighted
average.
By definition, time weighted averages permit excursions above the TLV provided they are compensated by equivIn some
alent excursions below the limit during the work day.
instances it may be permissible to calculate the average
weekly concentration for a workweek rather than a workday.
The degree of permissible excursion is related to the magnitude
of the TLV of a particular substance as shown below:
Permi ssi bl
Excursion Factor
TLV (ppm)
0-1
1-10
10-100
100-1000
1.5
1.25
therefore recommended that these time weighted average

limits be adopted as standards for manned tunnels since tunnel
personnel are not exposed for a full 8 hr workday.
It
is
Most tunnels are designed to maintain CO levels at

less than 100 ppm and in general, a warning light is activated
in the fan control room when the level goes above 250 ppm.
During rush hour traffic, CO levels in the range of 350 ppm
It is obvious that these
are not unusual in some tunnels.
levels significantly exceed the above recommended values for
manned tunnels.
In such cases, the workers are exposed to
levels exceeding the Occupational Safety and Health Act of
1970 and some remedial action must be taken to bring these
tunnels within the limits as set forth by the Act.
74
The Act does allow these limits to be exceeded "in

cases where protective equipment or protective equipment in
Alternatives to
addition to other measures" are provided.
maintaining levels at less than the specified limit should
be considered since with appropriate fan operation these
levels can be maintained in most tunnels for 18-20 hrs of a
24 hr day.
Some tunnel authorities have already considered
alternatives
1.
Baltimore Harbor Tunnel Authority considered the use of closed circuit television surveillance as an alternative to
having personnel in the tunnel.
In the
event of an accident or breakdown as indicated by the closed circuit television
system, maintenance men, firemen or police
officers would immediately enter the tunnel
However, the
to rectify the problem.
authority ultimately rejected the idea
with the reasoning being that men stationed
in the tunnel could react more rapidly
to potentially hazardous situations such
as accidents, fires and so on.
2.
The Port Au t h o r i ty of N ew Yo rk Ci ty has

i nst ailed
c losed circui t tel evisi on in the
Line oln Tun nel
Howeve r, th ey st ill maintai n police offi cers in the tunne 1 for
rapi d respo nse t o fires , bre akdow ns, etc.
They are cu rrent ly buil ding a pro totype
trol ley car whic h would be c onsta ntly
mann ed by a pol i ce offi cer a t eac h portal,
In t he even t of a probl em wi tness ed on
the closed ci rcu it tele v i s i o n , th e car
woul d be ra P i d 1 y d i s p a t ched to th e scene
of t he prob 1 em.
Al thou gh th e off icer
will not be stat ioned i n the tunn el , it
is h ighly 1 i k e 1 y that h e wi 1 1 be exposed
to c oncentr ation s above the speci fied
1 i mi t
at th e exi t porta Is as a re suit of
the piston ef fee t of ca rs ex haust ing contami nants t hroug h the p ortal s.
.
These two aforementioned measures involve removing the officers from the tunnel, and it must be admitted that this does
increase the reaction time to an incident in the tunnel.
Other measures which would be feasible would inelude:

1.
direct air supply to the officers'

cubicle to provide clean, outside air
75
was tried in at least one tunnel, but the

inlet vents were plugged up by the officers during the winter due to the chill
factor of the cold air blowing in.
2.
In summ ary, the re commen dati on i s ma de tha t lmpuri ty limit s i n manne d tunn el s co nf orm to the Occup a t i o n a 1
Health and S afety Act of 197 with the a ddi tio nal pr o v i s i o n
that th e tim e-wei ghted limit s esta b 1 i s h e d by t he Ame r i c a n
Conf ere nee o f Gov ernme ntal a nd Ind u s t r i a 1 Hygi e n i s t s be
used,
It is reco g n i z e d that these limit s are curren tly exceeded durin g rus h hou rs in all tu nnel s and ev en dur i n g n o n
peak ho urs i n som e tun nel s.
If th ese re commen dati on s are
adopted , the n rem edi al actio n must be ta ken to bri ng the
tunnels with in al lowab 1 e 1 i m its.
These action s may i nclude
traffic cont rol , chang es in tunnel venti lation proce dures
puri fie a t i o n of t unnel air o r indi v i d u a 1 respi ratory pro,
tection
Unmanned Tunnels
min/day) of the t
n
f i c a n t ly
less
police o fficers i
premise is made t
should b e set to
safety 1 evel must
be h i g h r than th
of expos ure to th
shorter,
Safety
separate ly in the
The pollutants which are considered in unmanned
tunnels are the same as those considered in manned tunnels,
Since the resii.e., CO, NO, N0 2? HCHO and particulates.
dence time of an individual in a tunnel is relatively short
(5-15 min), then safe levels for most of the contaminants
can be increased over those limits set for manned tunnels.
It must be remembered that if one contaminant is allowed to
increase, then all other contaminants increase proportionately
according to their relative concentrations in auto exhaust.
However, if internal purification which is being studied as
part of this program proves to be feasible, removal of
selected contaminants would be possible.
76
Prior to setting safe limits for unmanned tunnels,

The definition used in this
"safe limits" must be defined.
case refers to levels at which short term exposure will not
One of
create any physiological effects on the individual.
the problems in setting short term safe limits is that
limited work has been done in this field, and no systematic
rationale has been developed for relating Threshold Limit
Values, which are set for long term exposures, to short term
The American Industrial Hygiene Association, The
exposures.
Pennsylvania Department of Health and the Aero Medical
Association have attempted to set tentative standards and
at this time this is the only established information which
can be reliably quoted.
Table 15 lists Threshold Limit Values and Short

Term Limits (AIHF) which have been set for the selected
tunnel pollutants.
It is obvious from Table 15 that the
number of Short Term Limits which have been set are signifiHowcantly fewer than the number which have not been set.
design
and
the
to
to
ever,
tunnel engineer needs values
other data exist which can be used to set tentative limits.
TABLE 15
TLV AND STL FOR SELECTED POLLUTANTS
Polluta nt
TLV
CO
NO
N0 2
50 ppm
25 ppm
HCHO
Particulates
2
5
ppm
ppm
3
mg/m
mm
_ _
STL
10 min
1500
mi n
1000
--
30 min
800
--
--
35
--
(ppm)
25
---
20
---
The assumption is made that during rush hour traffic

with a stop and go situation, the time to traverse a tunnel
could be of the order of 15 min.
The standard curves for
effects of various carbon monoxide exposures as a function
of time shows that at 500 ppm no perceptible effects occur
within 15 min.
Nitric oxide (NO) is a simple asphyxiant and
therefore levels significantly higher than the TLV should be
tolerable.
However, in the absence of any firm values to
support this conclusion, it is .recommended that the STL for
NO be set at 37.5 ppm.
The STL for N0
(15 min) has been
2
tentatively set at 5 ppm.
This could cause temporary eye
and nasal irritation but no permanent physiological damage.
Short Term Limits for formaldehyde has been set at 5 ppm for
5 min.
The literature states that levels above 5 ppm are
severely irritating and therefore a 5 ppm STL is recommended
for 15 min. exposures.
Particulates are the only non-gaseous
77
impurities which are being considered for STL values.

We do
not recommend a level higher than the TLV for particulates,
i.e., 10 mg/m^.
In summary, it is difficult to set Short Term
Limits for tunnel pollutants due to the lack of specific
However, using the data which
data on short term effects.
are available along with what is believed to be reasonable
extrapolations of related data, the limits which have been
selected are as follows:
500 ppm
37.5 ppm
5 ppm
5 ppm
3
5 mg/m*
CO
NO
NO2
HCHO
Particulates
Comfort level, as used in this case, is defined

that level of contaminant which produces no irritation,
sense of unpleasant odor or physiological effect such as
minor headache.
The "comfort level" varies from person to
person depending upon his sensitivity to a given contaminant.
Individuals with certain allergies may be particularly
sensitive to specific contaminants.
Some individuals are
more sensitive to odors than are others.
These are normal
differences that exist among the human population, so in
general, odor threshold levels or irritation levels have
been selected on the basis of the sensitivity experienced by
the major portion of the public.
as
Carbon monoxide is colorless and odorless and therefore creates no sensation odor or eye or nasal irritation.
Significant levels of carbon monoxide over certain periods of
time can cause headache.
However, assuming a maximum again
of 15 minutes residence time in a tunnel, a level of 1000 ppm
is certainly well within the tolerable range.
Nitric oxide
(NO) is also a colorless gas with a slightly sweetish taste
or odor at high concentrations.
No data were found on either
the odor threshold limit or the irritation threshold limit,
hence for the present time the TLV of 25 ppm will be used as
the comfort limit for NO.
NO? exhibits an undesirable odor and is a strong
Trie odor threshold limit has been reported to be
irritant.
1-3 ppm and the odor is characteristic and distinct at 5 ppm.
The recommended comfort limit for tunnels should be 1-3 ppm.
Formaldehyde is also an odorous and irritating compound.
Most references quote an odor threshold limit of ^1 ppm,
Eye
although this seems to vary greatly among individuals.
and nasal irritations have been reported at levels of 2-3
ppm HCHO.
For a comfort level in tunnels, we recommend a
level
of
ppm.
78
Particulates in tunnels can be odorous due to their

own chemical composition or from odorous gases absorbed on
Particulates can also have an irrithe particulate surface.
tation effect particularly through deposition in the eyes.
However, the most significant effect on comfort is probably
Mo data was found
due to the haze effect of particulates.
on the correlation of particulate concentration versus visiSpot checks made by MSAR personnel at
bility in tunnels.
the Baltimore Harbor Tunnel and the Fort Pitt Tunnel showed
particulate concentrations of approximately 0.6 mg/m 3 with
the particle size ranging from <1 micron to about 5 microns.
At this concentration level (0.6 mg/m 3 ), the "haze level"
was low and the visibility was quite good.
However, we
hesitate to select this concentration as a firm value for
tunnel comfort.
In the absence of sufficient data, we have
decided that a satisfactory level cannot be chosen at this
time.
Summary of Recommended Levels
Tentative pollutant concentration levels have been

chosen for manned tunnels and for unmanned tunnels.
In the
latter case, both safe and comfortable levels have been
These levels are summarized in Table 16.
chosen.
TABLE 16
Pol
TENTATIVE POLLUTION LEVELS FOR TUNNELS
Manned
Tunnel s
utant
75 ppm
37 5 ppm
10 PPm
CO
NO
N0 ?
hcro
Parti cul ates
(1)
N.R.
Unmanned Tunnels
Comfort Level
Safety Level
500 ppm
37.5 ppm
5 ppm
6 ppm
PPm
10 mg/m J
No
i
10 mg/m J
1000 ppm
25 ppm
ppm
1
1
N.R.
recommendation due to insufficient

format ion.
The levels which have been set for manned tunnels were dictated by the Occupational Safety and Health Act of 1970; there
would seem to be little reason to question these values since
they are required standards set by the Federal Government.
The safety and comfort levels which were chosen are, of course,
subject to some question since little data exists on short
term exposure limits.
79
EVALUATION OF POLLUTANT REMOVAL METHODS

There are two potential reasons for development of
methods and systems for purification of tunnel atmospheres.
One of these reasons is to purify the atmosphere within the
tunnel itself, while the other reason is to improve the quality
In relation. to purity
of the exhaust air from the tunnel.
of the air within
the tunnels, one reference* 39 ' which was
This system catalytifound involves recycle of tunnel air.
cally oxidized CO to CO2 with Hopcalite followed by condensation
of CO2 and water at liquid nitrogen-liquid oxygen temperatures
The boil-off of the liquid air during cooling
(Figure 28).
provided fresh air for the tunnel.
No claim was made for removal of hydrocarbons
One other
particulates and so on.
reference was found on recycle of tunnel air. (4) This system
incorporated wet scrubbing for particulate removal, catalytic
oxidation for CO removal, a deacidi f ication unit to remove
CO2 and a condenser.
This article claimed that Neutrotecni cia
Italiana S.R.L., Milan manufactured these units commercially.
MSA Italiana is located in Milan and one of the MSA representatives in the Milan office was requested to procure information from the referenced company.
The MSA representative
reported that the company stopped its activity in November
,
1968.
Patent Development Associates, under subcontract to

MSAR, reviewed the state-of-the-art of applicable control
PDA also made an economic evaluation of selected
technology.
control measures which might be adaptable to purification of
The result of this study is presented as
tunnel atmospheres.
part of this section.
It should be noted that the PDA study
was made mid-way through the overall program and therefore
some of the emission standards or criteria which are quoted
may have changed since that time.
It must also be kept in
mind that the economic evaluations which are presented are
for hypothetical cases and do not necessarily apply to any
specific existing or planned tunnel; these economic evaluations are presented merely to show the relative cost of
tunnel air purification or recycle versus direct ventilation.
As a result of the survey, certain control techniques were selected for evaluation.
The test system and the
control techniques which have been tested are also presented
in this section.
State of the Art
Applicable Control Technology
Historically, emission control technology was developed as a set of empirical solutions to specific industrial
The acceleration of
problems in diverse industries and areas.
technical and industrial interest in pollution control per se
81
VENTILATING DEVICE
AT \i,2m (SOO
It.)
INTERVALS ALONG
TUNNEL
arfe
FPESH
DISCHARGE
DUCT
8 Q B P
HOPCALtTE CATALVST
FOR OXIDISING CARBON
MONOXIDE TO CARBON
DIOXIDE
RFLF.ASE FLOAT
VALVE
WATER
LIOUID
CARBON
DIOXIDE
CARBON
PUMP
FIGURE 28
DIOXIDE
SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM. PROPOSED BY

SIR BRUCE WHITE(39)
82
in the last two decades has forced continuing collection and

critical examination of the technology available for accomplishing such control, and several comprehensive reviews have
recently appeared.
The Air Pollution Engineering Manual j

./1s an extensive compilation by the Air Pollution Control district of
the County of Los Angeles of control problem hardware solutions and design approaches by type of industrial emission
This reference includes in-depth review of
and industry.
the supporting theory for the design and selection of control
method and equipment for particulate removal (inertial separators, baghouses, electrical precipitators) and gaseous
pollutants (thermal and catalytic incineration, adsorption,
condensation, scrubbing).
ew po lluti on
Perhaps t he best basic text in
control technology field is Air Pollution (42)" Vol urn e III
Sources of Air Poll ution and Their Contro 1 of this prima ry
work con tains the m ost com plete and d e t a i Ted r eview of e quipment des ign prccedu res and c a p a b i 1 i t ies
Anot her s tate- ofartt reyi ew is Vol urn e II: C ontrol Equ i pmen t of the A i r Po 1 1 u t i o n
Ma nuaiv 4 3) which co vers in d u s t r i a 1 c ontro T equ i pmen t in the
same tec hnology cat e g o r i e s of inerti al se parat ors
bagho uses
etc. g i v en above,
An abbr eviated tr eatme nt of theo ry an d
design p rocedures i n d i c a t e s the empi ricis m of 1 arge area s
of curre nt equipmen t selec tion proce dures
Th e sta temen t
made in this refere nee tha t "when th e pro cess is on the
drawing board and t he coll e c t o r is t be speci fied as pa rt
of the p lant design , the p rime recou rse i s to exper i e n c e , on
similar plants and process es" is a r e a 1 i s tic a pprai sal o f
many are as of prese nt cont rol techno logy art.
Much of t he
informat ion obtaine d by "e xperience" has been and i s con f i ned
to equip ment vendor or i n us trial fi 1 es
but t he in creas e in
enforcem ent efforts and in dependent resea rch a nd pu b 1 i c a tion
should e ventually f orce su c h data in to th e ope n lit eratu re.
At the p resent time
much of control equi pment desi gn ar t
and tech no logy is h eld by vendors on a co nf i de n t i a 1 basi s.
One resu It of this s i t u a t i on is freq uent equi p ment overdesign t o compensat e for p erformance unce rtain ty, w i th
attendan t cost and space e xcesses
a nd th is si tuati on ap plies
to some of the appl i c a b 1 e control te chnol ogy f or th e tun nel
problem.
.
Applicable Tunnel Pollution Control Technology

Control technology
problem of pollutant removal
tunnels must be evaluated in
system constraints.
Initial
automotive exhaust pollution
83
possibly applicable to the

in the ventilation of vehicular
the context of the probable
review of tunnel -contained dilute
indicate the following parameters
to be potentially significant:
requirements.
Blower head loss limitations, particularly
in existing tunnels.
Large air volume handling requirements.
Relatively low pollutant concentrations.
Relatively low pollutant emission rates.
Mul ti -poll utant removal
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Thu s, app 1 i c a b 1 e co ntrol te c h n i q u e s sho uld have

p ol luta nt th resho Id s e n s tivity, be c apab le of
being d e s i g n e d into hi gh -thro ughput
1 ow-1 os s
equ ipme nt
conf i gu ration s
and pref erabl y be fun cti onal for more than
Unfortu natel y, m ost
one com ponent or ty pe of poll utant.
process es cap able o f tre a t i n g large v ol umetr ic fl ows at wery
dilute pol 1 ut ant co ncent ratio ns are n ormal ly sing 1 e-p urpose
For
operati ons
a s typi fied by el ectrosta tic pre c i p i t atio n.
the gas eous c ompone nts
the c ontrol p rocesse s tha t ap pear
likely to sat isfy t he ab ove-n oted gen eral cr i teri a ar e
adsorpt ion, c atalyt i c ox i d a t i on, and absorpt ion.
For the
particu lates
a p p 1 i cable proc esses in elude e lectr osta ti c,
precipi tation
and inert i al o r wet-sc rubbing
It i s obvious
that a comb in ati on of co ntrol operati ons w i 1 be need ed to
cover t he spe ctrum of po lluta nts and concent ratio n le vel s
present in di luted autom oti ve exhaust gas.
1
ow or zero
Table 17 presents a summary of the comparative

process capabilities for the probably-applicable control
technology as they apply to the tunnel pollution problem.
An inspection of Table 17 shows that \/ery few of the standard control operations appear to have unqualified applicability to the tunnel' pollutants within the general constraints
of the problem.
The two operations that appear to be technically applicable without apparent limitations or additional
research are electrostatic precipitation for the particulates,
and adsorption for the hydrocarbons.
The state of the art of available control technology
will be reviewed below with respect to the principal classes
of pollutants, and the processes that would normally be used
for removal of each pollutant.
Because of the mul ti -functionality of several of the operations considered, process discussion emphasis will be placed on the primary pollutant
applicability as shown in Table 17.
Carbon Monoxide and Hydrocarbons

In terms of the relative magnitude of pollutant
loadings, CO and unburned (including partially-oxidized)
hydrocarbons are the major constituents in auto exhausts, as
In addition to the
shown in Table 18, taken from Stern' 42 ).
emissions shown as contributed by blow-by and exhaust, the
84
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evaporative losses from the fuel tank and carburetor add

another 20 to 40 percent to the hydrocarbon content of the
Nevertheless, Table 18 indicates the various
total emission.
pollutant contributions, exclusive of the particulates, and
These two
CO and hydrocarbons are the most significant.
pollutant components are usually grouped together by reason
of the fact that they are present because of incomplete
oxidation, and completion of oxidation by secondary means
It should be pointed
will eliminate them from the exhaust.
out, however, that for non-oxidati ve techniques such as
adsorption, these two components will not behave similarly.
The two general methods of oxidative disposal of
carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons are.
(a)
(b)
Catalytic oxidation
Direct thermal or flame incineration
These two methods of combustion completion have

been used as source control techniques for automotive
emissions, and sufficient experience has been obtained on
their use to provide a guide to their possible use on tunnel
air.
Catalytic Oxidation
Basic researc h on the s uscepti bi 1 i ty of homolo gous
series of hydrocarbons
talyt ic oxidation has been
carried out by Accomazz
while the
and Caretto^ 45 )
industrial aspects of d
eco nomics and operation ha ve
been reviewed by Brewer
and W erner(47).
Werner clas s i f i e s
the commercial catalyti c aft erbur ning (CAB) catalysts as
(a) active metal /metal 1 ic ca r r i e r
(b) active oxide/oxid e
carrier, and (c) active meta 1 / o x i de carrier.
Poisoning or
loss of activity is one of t he ma jor problems with CAB
materials and both Brew er an d Wer ner provide information on
the nature of poisons f or th e var ious types of catalysts
Miller(47a) reported th e res ults of laboratory tests of
the effect of support g eomet ry on oxidation performance over
a volumetric space velo city (gas volume/bed volume) rang e of
30,000 to 175,000 hr." 1
con c 1 u d i ng that an open-structu red
geometrically regular s uppor t was optimum.
However, lar ge
volume costs for this c ataly st ($ 300/cu.ft.) appear to b e
prohibitive.
Further w ork o n sup port geometry was repor ted
by Leak(48) w ho tested alumi na-co ated steel wool filamen tary
catalytic mufflers on a uto e xhaus t.
A dual-catalyst sys tern
of vanadia plus copper chrom ite o n the alumina had the h ighest
activity for CO and hyd rocar bon r emoval.
Industrial and
economic data on CAB in stall a t i o n s is provided by Lauber (49)
and Krenz(50) while des ign p roced ures are given by Dey(5 1).
,
nir
87
Research on a wide variety of possible exhaust

has been published including vanadium-alumina
promoted uranium oxides(54) an d combinations of
vanadium a nd copper oxides with noble metals(55)
large
amount of relevant background art on catalytic mufflers is
contai ned in the U. S. Patent Office, Class 23/Subclass 2.
This file has been reviewed, and it was found that most of
the develo pment effort in this area has been undertaken
either by chemical companies manufacturing tetraethyl lead
Table 19 summarizes the features
or petrole urn companies.
of several of the recent catalytic muffler patents for
treatment of auto exhaust.
a
/\
Cata lytic o x i d a tion n ormal ly i n vol ve s tempe ratures

Muc h of the c n v e n t i onal
o f 400 -800 F.C5.6).
techno logy of catal ytic o x i d a t i on de ri ves from commer cial
a p p 1 i c a t i o n to the remova 1 of o rgani c vap ors f rom ind ustrial
proces s emissi ons a t thes e el ev ated tempe ratur es(57), and
automo t i v e e x h aust cataly st tern perat ures are o f the o rder
of 600 F.
In tunne 1 gas proces sing, the opera tion of a
cataly tic o x i d a t i o n proce ss at tempe ratur es ab ove amb ient
will i ncur an econo m i c b u rden p ropor t i o n a 1 to the deg ree of
temper ature el evati on.
T he the rmal penal ty in the ca se of
a recy cle gas opera t i o n i s doub led, becau se th e gas n ot only
has to be heat ed to react ion t e mpera ture
it h as to b e recool ed to ambi ent c i rcul a tion t emper ature
Th us, wit h large
circul a t i n g a i r vol umes
an opt imum syste m wi 1 1 requi re a
parti c ularly 1 ow, o r pref erenti ally ambie nt-te mperatu re
cataly St.
in
the
ra n g e
Heat evolution in catalytic oxidation application

does not appea r to be a potential problem at the low comOn
b u s t i ble
cone entration levels expected in tunnel gas.
the o ther hand
combustible levels are too low to support
react ion at t mperatures above ambient.
The ambient-temperatu re requi r ement delineates an operational area in which
only limited w ork has been done.
Low-temperature catalytic
and hydrocarbons consist of hopcalite,
o x i d a nts for C
suppo rted nob! e-metal catalysts, and some newly developed
trans i t i o n and noble-metal /activated carbon combinations.
,
Low- temperature catalytic oxidation of CO and

unbur ned hydro carbons at simulated auto exhaust conditions
was s tudied by Cannon and Welling(58) for a very wide
range of metal and support combinations at temperatures
below 350C.
While a large group of catalysts appeared to
have satisfact ory activity in this temperature range, only
one
catalyst, a commercial 60% manganese oxide/40% copper
oxide
had a t hreshold oxidation temperature of 25C and
a com plete oxi dation
(100%) efficiency at an operating
tempe rature le vel of 25C for an hourly space velocity of
All o ther catalytic materials tested had threshold
10,80 0.
,
88
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oxida tion temp erat-u res well in ex cess o f 100C a nd 100%

It shoul d be note d here
effic iency lev els o ver 200C
terion
fo
aut
omoti e catalyt ic muffler
of
th
cri
r
one
e
that
use - retentio n of catalytic acti vity a t elevate d temperature s -is no t rel evant to conti nuous ambient-t emperature
Thus
opera tion on t unnel venti lat ion g as.
w h i 1 e the mancombi
nat
d
e-copper
oxide
ions
owngraded
by Cannon
ganes
were
W
elling
be
cause
of
hightempe
and
rature loss of acti vi ty
the a bility of thes e catalys ts to o x i d i ze both C
and unburne d hydroca rbons at room tempe rature in the p resence
of wa ter vapor is e xtremely s i g n i f i cant in terms of the
objec tives of the t unnel ven til at ion pr ogram, an d hightempe rature st ructu ral and a c t i v i ty cha nges are not pertinent
Becaus e of this chan ge in cri te r i a of a ceptabi 1 i ty
prior work on the c atalytic oxida tion o f automot ive exhaust
fumes has to b e re- examined or re peated
.
Th e usual low-tempe rature CO ca talysts such as

a re susce ptible to poi son ing w ith water vapor,
It is bel iev ed that a part of this w ater- caused loss in
activi ty may be due to c a p i 11 ary con densa tion and blockage
of por e f 1 ow at lo\, temperatu res, wh ich p henomenon would
also b e expe cted to be operat iveon any f ine-pore, higharea c atalys t.
Howe ver, Sutt (59) re porte d two new catalysts suppor t on act i vated-ca rbon wh i ch w ere claimed to
be res istant to wate r-vapor p o i s o n i n g.
f the two catalysts tested , a copp er II chl oride/p latin um group comoinati on on carbon w as found to be f u n c t i onal for CO
oxidat ion at lower t emperatur es (25 C) th an a transitionmetal oxide catalyst (150C).
When teste d on ammonia
synthe sis g a s at 25 C at a sp ace vel o c i ty of 200, the
Cu/Pt/ carbon catalys t gave 10 0% CO o x i d a t ion at a CO
select ivity (in the presence of Ho) v a ry i ng from 0.86
to 1.0
Bee ause the syngas u sed has a re lative humidity
of 80% , exce llent re sistance to wate r poi son ing is indicated
al tho ugh conf i rmati on of this beha vior at higher
space veloci ties wou Id be des i rable.
hopcal ite,
In 1 964, the sta te of Ca 1 if orni a cert ified a

number of cata lytic muffle r system s as be ing ca pable o f
meetin g their proje cted 19 66 emiss ion sta ndards of 275 ppm
hydroc arbons a nd 1. 5% carb on monox i d e
a v eraged over 1 2,000
mi les.
Howeve r, th e autom obile ma nuf actu rers c hose to meet
the em ission s tanda rds by air i n j e c t i o n i nto th e exhau st
manifo Id (manu al tr a n s m i s s ions) or by mod ificat ion of the
fuel-a ir ratio
sp ark t i m ing and other a spects of eng ine
design
As a resul t, none of the catalyt i c d e v ices we re
ever u sed, and furt her res earch on these reacto rs virt ual ly
ceased in 1964
Th e u 1 1 i m ate capa b i 1 i t i e s of c atalyti c
muffle rs are t he su bject o f some s pecul at ion, b ut ther e is
eviden ce that they can mee t the mo re stri ngent emissio n
standa rds proj ected for th e mid- a nd late -1970' s.
Imp roves
91
ments are required. to meet the

1964 test campaign:
di
sadvantages shown in the
Short life-time of 6,000 to 12,000 miles

Susceptibility to lead and particulate
poisoning (a contributing factor to the
short life).
Susceptibility to inactivation by temperatures in excess of 1700F, a level
occasionally reached in the exhaust.
Relatively high initial cost of $75 to
$100, with frequent maintenance and
replacement costs.
a.
b.
c.
d.
One of the prim a ry c a u s es of short cataly st life

the 19 64 Ca 1 i forn i a te sts was the co a t i n g of the catalyst
surface w ith 1 ead(60 ).
T he use o f a no n-lea ded gas oline would
obviously remo ve thi s cau se of fa i 1 ure and also wo u 1 d yield
a smaller and less-s luggi sh conve rter.
With the ad vent of
in ere as in g sup plies of un leaded g a s o 1 i n es
e xhaust catalysts
have been cl as si f i ed acco rding to a p p 1 i c a b i 1
leaded or
unleaded ( p o s o n i n g or no n - p o i s o n ing) q a s o 1 i
However, the othe r de-a c t i v a tion mec h a n i s m of o ver-hea ting would
still rem ain.
For t hese reasons
it ha s bee n state d by the
Ameri can Chemi cal So ciety that "d i f f i cu 1 1 i e s thus r emain in
the devel opmen t of a cata lytic co nverte r tha t could meet even
the 1968 or 19 70 fed eral standard s for hydro carbons and earbon monox i de a t reas onabl e cost a nd wit h rea sonable 1 i fetime
in
i.
162)'
The outl ook f or the p o s s i b le use of ca talyt 1 c

tec h n i q u es fo r the removal of CO and u nburn ed
hydrocar bons at th e con d i t i o n s speci fie to proje cted tunnel
gas appl i c a t i on is not encour aging,
There are n o kno wn
i nstance s
of i ndus tri al a p p 1 i cation of cata lytic ox id a t i o n
at the 1 arge gas f 1 ow v ol umes
1 ow
c ombusti ble c oncen tration
and most impo rtant
at the re 1 ati vel y low t emper ature s involved i n tun nel a i r tr eatmen t.
Mor e to th e poi nt
t here are
no known succ essfu 1 i nd us tri a 1 i n s t a 1 1 ati on s i nv o 1 v i n g any
Alt hough
one of t he th ree s peci f i c par ameters sti pul a t e d
the new 1 ow-t emper ature catal yst lab oratory data revi ewed
above ap pears hope ful p arti cu larly f or CO o x i d a t i on
a great
deal of a d d i t i o n a 1 deve 1 opmen t work is o b v ously requ i red
for the full evalu ati on of th e large -scale u t i 1 i z a t i o n of
such tec hnolo gy.
Feasi bili ty determ i n a t i o n requ i res further
inf ormat ion o n al 1 owabl e spac e veloc ity, po s s i b 1 e tra ce metal
and the
cos ts and a v a i 1 a b i 1 i ty
p o i s o n i n g, ca talys t lif e
present 1 abor atory data fall short o f these asse ssmen t reAgain
qui remen ts
the pract ical i ty of try inq t o ace ompl i sh
at ambie nt tu nnel condi t i o n s what ha s not b een c ommer c i a 1 1 y
accompl i shed at th e mor e f avo rable c oncentr a t i o n and tempm ust be
e rat ure condi t i o n s prev alent in the source exhau st
ox
dat
on
92
Should low-temperature oxidation of

seriously questioned.
pollutant,
CO,
prove feasible, then a secondary
the major
adsorption,
will be required for removal
such
as
operation,
Such dual processing is certain
of the hydrocarbon content.
to be costly, even if probably feasible.
it shoul d be no ted t hat i ndustrial appl icati on of
for hydro'
catalyti c oxi d a t i o n has n ot be en fo und accep
In
carbon o x i d a t ion u se in t he Lo s Ang eles area (635.
of
cata
lytic
afte
rburners
for
reviewin g the use
s ol ven t
Krenz s tated that permi ts are n o 1 on qer
emission cont rol
being is sued by th e Los A ngele s Cou nty APCD for t hese units
because "sour ce te st data i ndi cate that thes e cat alyti c
afterbur ners could not me et th e 90 percent e ffici ency requiremen t of Rule 66".
T here are o ther, and conf li cti ng,
reports in th e lit erature on t he su ccess of comme r c i a 1 inF or ex ample
the
s t a 11 a t i ons o f cat alytic oxi da ti on units.
successf ul us e of a CAB o n an a cry! ic monome r vap or in
several diffe
units a t Joh nson Wax Compa ny pi ants has
Conve rsely , onl y partial oxid ation of a
been rep orted (Mf.
mineral solve nt fu me was obtai ned a t a GAF C orpor ation
vinyl fl oor c o v e r i ng plan t wit h CAB
and th s pro cess was
din favor of a c onden s a t i o n-mist el i m i n a tor s ys,
Information privately available to PDA on catalytic

oxidation uses indicates that CAB is highly effective for
situations where the material to be oxidized is either a
single component or an homologous group of compounds.
Further, for an efficient design, the concentrations and exhaust conditions must be known in detail.
For most applications involving a wide range of combustible materials at
variable concentrations, CAB will not yield adequate efficiency levels.
Thermal Afterburning
All of the development work on thermal afterburning
of the residual CO and hydrocarbons in vehicle exhaust has
been done as source control work.
Early efforts to complete the combustion of the

unburned hydrocarbons and CO leaving the cylinders involved
both air injection into the exhaust manifold and direct
flame afterburners (42)
Air injection and/or engine design
changes appear to be sufficient to meet the 1970 federal
standards for CO and hydrocarbon emissions, but for the projected lower emission levels, more advanced systems are
required.
One such system under active development is the
exhaust manifold thermal reactor, a unit which has been extensively developed by DuPont (66) (67)
Exhaust reactors
.
93
are suitable for use with leaded gasolines, and their use
would permit continuation of present gasoline formulations.
The exhaust manifold reactors mount on the engine in place
Air is injected
of the conventional exhaust manifolds.
into the exhaust ports, using the air injection system now
standard on most production autos.
The reactor consists
essentially of an initial mixing chamber, followed by
baffled passageways to provide adequate retention time at
high temperature.
The DuPont units use concentric annular
baffles surrounding the central mixing tube.
Development
efforts have been directed at finding suitable low-cost
materials that will endure the 1700F reaction temperatures
and also have adequate erosion resistance to the highvelocity lead compounds impinging with the exhaust.
In an initial 100,000 mile test, an early DuPont
Type I reactor^6) held average emissions to 27 ppm hydrocarbons and 0.65% CO, but suffered from baffle. rosion.
An improved later version, Type V, was claimed'- 7 ' to yield
emission levels of 0.2 g/mile HC and 4.5 g/mile CO, both
well below the 1974 California standards.
Thermal incineration of small quantities of combustibles in air requires temperatures of the order of
1100 o -1500F.
Because of the virtually trace quantities
of oxidizable material, none of the heat requirements can
be internally derived, and must therefore be completely
supplied externally.
Even where a fraction of the thermal
energy was internally derived, the economic penalty attached
to the higher temperatures of direct incineration was calculated by Heinle) to be from 150 to 600% of the cost of
an equivalent catalytic oxidation temperatures of 500 to
The external
800F lower than for thermal incineration.
fuel and cooling costs for thermal cycles of the order of
magnitude required for direct incineration of the CO and
HC in the bulk tunnel air thus appears to be insupportable.
Adsorption
S elective removal of hydrocarbons from a gas
stream can be effected by the process of physical adsorption,
Al thou gh ac tivated carbon is the usual sorbent employed for
the va por-p hase adsorption of organic molecules, other highsurfac e are a media, such as synthetic zeolites, silica gel
and al umina
have been used for selective removal of orThe synthetic zeolites
g a n i c and i norganic, contaminants.
genera y h ave better sorption efficiencies than the carbonsH 11- bu t they do not have as great an equilibriumThey are therefore occasionally used as
h o 1 d i n g cap acity.
the fi nal c leanup bed in a two-adsorbent system to remove
the la st tr aces of pollutant.
,
94
Activa ted car bon i s the sorbent of general i ndustrial use, an d "this mater i a 1 w i 11 adsorb, by means of
Van der Waal's f orces
all c ompone nts from a ir with mo leThe te rm "carbon
cular we ights gr eater t han N 2 or 2.
is somet h i n g of a m i s n o mer, inasmu ch as acti vated carb on
contains ,2 to 25 % oxyge n and c o n s i derable qu a n t i t i e s o f
hydrogen (69).
A c t i v a t e d car bon ma y be more properly
viewed a s a comp lex org anic polyme r with a 1 arge inter nal
surface,
A fair ly volu i nou s lite rature on acti vated carbon exis ts.
Has slerwO J pre sents a detailed review of the
prior 1 terature
h i s t o ry, a nd cur rent appli cations in his
book, wh ile some prel im inary engin eering des ign theory and
practi ce is cove red i n two s tandar d referenc
Barry(73 ), after review ing p u b 1 i s h ed informa t i o n cone 1 uded
that ade quate de sign an d pro cess s caleup pro cedures we re
not sati sfactory at tha t tim e.
Co nfirming t his find in g,
the Los Angeles County AFCD and th e U. S. Pu blic Healt h
Service undertoo k the e valua t i o n o f sorption design me thods
N everand obta ined and p u b 1 i s hed u pdated design da ta(74).
theless
valid d e s i g n r equi r es rel i a b 1 e 1 a b o ratory dat a
for the speci f i c organi c or organi c mix, a r equi rement
seldom s a t i s f i e d i n adv ance.
,
ti
Va por-ph ase a dsorption over activated crbon is

gas- solid equi 1 brium process where the rate of
dsorption
is pro p o r t i o nal to the displacement from equilibrium (driving
force)
The equi 1 i b r i u m driving force is favored by low
temper atures and h igh p ressure, and in many cases, by
smal le r carb on par tide sizes.
Because activated carbon
costs are in the r ange of $0.75/lb, adsorption beds are
normal ly reg enerat ed wi th steam or hot inert gas to permit re -use.
Physi cal a dsorption is an exothermic operation
and he at mus t be s uppl i ed in regeneration to overcome the
energy of ad sorpti on.
Steam is a convenient source of
therma 1 ener gy and beca use of its low (ambient) vapor pressure
However,
and co ndensa bility , it is the regenerant of choice.
the no rmal t empera ture range of saturated steam is not
suff ic i e n 1 1 y high to co mpletely strip an adsorbed phase
from t he car bon
a nd st eam-regenerated carbon cannot normally
be emp loyed for ve r
w concentrations of organic pollutants.
For ex ample
Matti aif 56? states that 3.5 lbs of steam/lb of
stripp ed org anic i s req uired when the vapor-containing air
in the sorpt ion cy cle i s 0.2%, while over 30 lb of steam/lb
of org anic m ay be requi red when the pollutant concentration
level is red uced t o 200 ppm.
a
Adsorption techniques have been applied to the

control of evaporative emissions from automobile fuel tanks
and carburetors.
Vapor-capture systems, employing activated
carbon canisters or foamed polyurethane, serve as storage
The
systems for the vapors released during engine shutdown.
95
stored vapors are purged from the sorbent on engine startup

jê main problem
into the intake system of the engine^'5),
with such adsorption/desorption systems had been the upsetting of carburetion by over-enrichment of the engine feed
on startup, but automatic valve control appears to have
solved this particular problem.
The technical feasibility"
of such evaporative control systems has been demonstrated v42
and it is expected that they will be incorporated in 1972
producti on model s.
The use of a c t i v a t ed carb on adso rptio n for the
continuous removal o f hydroc arbons from tu nnel air a p pears
to be technically fe a s i b 1 e
i nasmuc h
as th is is norma 1 ly an
ambient temperature operatic n.
In terms o f the tunne 1 venti ation probl em
ac ti vated carbon adsorpt ion h as pot e n t i a 1
only with respect to the org a n i c co ntent o f the gas, al though
in combination with other so rbents
may al so parti ally
i t
cover N0 X
It will be d e f i c i e n t w i th resp ect t o CO r emoval
the major const ituen t of the pol lut ant i n p ut
a nd can therefore be considered a s only a partia 1 or su pplem entary control process for thi s a p p 1 i c ation.
The ma jor o bjecti on to
activated carbon tre atment o f large f 1 ows of ga s typi cal of
the projected tunnel a p p 1 i c a t i o n is one of capi tal co st.
Exclusive of erectio n costs, total install ed co sts fo r
carbon sorption syst ems us in g steam regene ratio n are e s t i mated to be $32.50/1 b of con t ami nan t capac ity p er eye le(43).
Operating costs depe nd on th e frequ ency an d len gth of regeneration life of b ed, cont ami n ant concen trati on lev el
and necessity for pr e-f i 1 tra t i o n an d secon d-sor bent s ystems
Given the wery dilut e org an c conta m i n a n t 1 eve! in tu nnel
air and the nature o f the po 1 utant mix, a c t i v a ted ca rbon
sorption may have to be supp lemente d with a cle anup o perati on employing a di fferent sorbent
thus compo u n d i n g the
cost problem.
,
T o meet some of the cost o bjections to ca rbon

sorpti on sy stems as app lied to 1 ow c oncentrat ion 1 e vel
system s (20 ppm) , Matt ial56) propos ed the "Z orbci n " process , in wh ich th e stri pped or ganic obtai ned during regenerati o n i s i n c i n e rated to prov ide bo th the he at and inert
gas ne eded for re genera tion.
In the event th at org anic
recove ry ra ther t h a n in ci nerat ion is indi cate d Mat tia
propos ed a "Casca de" op e r a t i o n in wh ich a p a i r of p ri ma ry
adsorb ers i n para lie! f eed a s ingle secondary adsor ber.
An eco nomi c compa r i s o n of vari ous mo des of so rption and/or
syst ems in d i c a t e that t he "Casca de" ar rangement
i n c i n e rati o n
an apprec i a b 1 e
had th e low est an nual iz ed cost
i n c 1 u d i n g
W ithout th is rec overed
credit for the re covere d solve nt.
sol ven t ere dit, t he "Zo rbci n" arrang ement was the m ost economic
if a low-con centra tion and ambien t-tempHo wever
eratur e cat alyti c oxida tion te c h n i q u e is avai lable there
s
96
r,
would be no point -to sorbing organic pollutants prior to

an elution and burning sequence.
Th e presen ce of part i c u 1 a t es in an air stream
being proces sed by a cti va ted c arbon sorption poses several
I f
the pa rticu lates are s olid, then the carbon
probl ems.
bed m ay act as a fil ter a nd th e flow resistance of the
Very fine solids or
unit will in crease o r it may p lug.
aeros ols may also po ison the s orpti o n abilities of the
and a sorpti on be d mus t usua lly be protected from
carbo n
If
parti culate effects by su itabl e pre- filtration means.
penetration
the a erosol size and bed depth is su ch that bed
occur s, then aerosol bui 1 dup i n the gas will occur in a
recyc le syst em, unle ss an effi c i e n t particulate collection
techn ique su ch as el ectro s t a t i c prec ipitation or filtration
is us ed in s e r i e s w i th th e ads orpti o n unit.
,
Wet Scrubbing
"Wet s crubb ing" in the f ield of pol lution control
has tw o differen t mea n i n g s
It is appl ied to both p articulate r emoval and gas absor p t i o n , a nd de spite the dis parity
of fun cti on, dis t i n c t ion b etween t he tw o appl i cation areas
and ty pes of equ i pmen t is sometime s not made
A cas e in
point is Table 2 tak en f om a rec ent r eview.
Of th e eight
types of equipme nt li sted
only tw o th e pack ed and spray
towers , are conv entio nal m ass tran sfer or gas -absorp tion
device s.
As is o b v i o us fr om the p artic ulate- removal eff iciencie s for thes e two type s of equ ipmen t list ed in T able 20,
they, as well as the prima r i 1 y d u s t-scr ubber units, have
some d egree of d ual-f u n c t i onal i ty.
How ever, for mas s transfer co ntactors
dust col le c t i o n is usua lly in c i d e n t a 1 and
vice v ersa, and becau se of the ext reme di ffer ences i n design
theory and objec ti ves
sep a r a t i o n by pr imary functio n is
desi ra ble.
,
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The primary function of any piece of absorption

equipment is to provide a large active area of contact
This is accomplished
between the gas and liquid phases.
by dispersing the liquid phase over a geometric packing
material or as droplets by spraying.
Packed tower absorbers may be used in three

modes of two-phase flow operation: (a ) countercurrent,
The maximum degree of
(b) cocurrent and (c) crossflow.
absorption efficiency (most number of transfer units, or
NTU) is obtained with countercurrent contact, and for
difficultly-soluble gases, or maximum degree of removal
In an absorber,
this is the preferred type of contact unit.
the completeness of solute removal fr om the gas stream is
a sensitive function of the time of c ontact or height,
Because the gas pressure loss through the packing is
directly proportional to the height o f packing, this latter
factor controls efficiency and affect s gas blowing costs.
For this reason, a large variety of 1 ow-loss, high-efficiency
packings have been developed commerci ally.
Because any
packing shape represents a compromise between the conflicting requirements of high fluid disper si on and low gas
pressure losses, each tower packing h as its particular
optimum area of application.
,
The key en gi neer i ng es timate l n pa eking sele c t i o n

and c olumn des ign is asses sment of the requi red v ol ume of
packi ng for a given amount of tr ansfer.
To make this e s t i mate
some typ e of p acking perfo rmance index
in the f orm
of ei ther a vo lgmetr ic coe ff i cie nt, Kg a
or heigh t of a
trans fer unit, (HTU) , must be em ployed,
Des pi te the r api d
advan ces in fu ndamen tal tr ansfer theory in r ecent year s,
the b ody of de sign i nf orma t i o n a v a i 1 a b 1 e to the e ngine er
has n ot reflec ted th ese ad vances
The di ff i cul ty is t hat
even for a giv en sys tern, an d pack ing, th e coe ffici ents are
not i nvari ant
prope r t i e s , but d epend o n flo w rat es an d
The stand ard
opera tive port ion of the e q u i 1 i b rium cu rve.
proce dure is t herefo re to select desi gn perf orman ce da ta
whose conditio ns or determ i n a t i o n most cl ose iy ap proxi mate
For t race co ntami nant remov al
those of the a ppl ica t i o n
this inf ormati on i s u n a v a i 1 abl e.
,
99
Spray chambers or towers may be used for gas

absorption in cases where only a few transfer units are
These units
required, i.e., for soluble gas components.
have the advantages of very low gas-phase pressure drop
and inexpensive construction, but do not offer counterFour types of spray systems are used
current contact.
commercially: (a) simple spray columns, (b) cyclonic spray
The
towers, (c) venturi scrubbers, and (d) jet scrubbers.
spray chamber is a contacting device that is frequently
used in situations where a contaminated gas stream contains
both particulates and a highly soluble gas component.
Particle collection in spray towers is discussed below, but
the mass transfer characteristics of this equipment is
pertinent to the removal of the oxygenated, partiallyoxidized, hydrocarbons in the exhaust.
These include such
components as acrolein and formaldehyde, which are objectionable from the point of view of odor and irritation
effects.
Spray scrubb ers c an remo ve hyd rocar bons f rom a
tream by th ree me chani sms(79)
(a) d i s s o 1 u t i o n of the
vapor comp onent in the 1 iqu id, (b) conde n s a t i on by temperature diff erenti a 1
in the same ma nner t hat a i r is dehumid i f ied by co Id wat er sp rays
a nd (c) vapo r mol e cules
may a dsorb on pa rticul ate m atter w h i c h i s sub sequen tly
remov ed by impi n gement on t he liqu id dro ps.
Design data
are a v a i 1 a ble pr imari 1 y for the so lubili ty me c h a n i s m, and
a f ul ly va lid d e sign w ould undoubt edly r equi r e pre! i m i n a ry
test data,
With respe ct to the so lubili ty me c h a n i s m 1 i t eratu re da ta for spray towe rs(80) showed that the n umber
of tr ansfe r unit s was propo rtional to th e 1 iq u i d r a te, and
was i ncrea sed by a fin er sp ray (hi gher 1 i q u i d power input)
The r ate o f mass trans fer w as most rapid near the s pray
nozzl e
ow ing to the f ormat ion of fresh 1 i q u i d surf ace and
col le ction of sp ray by the chamber wal 1 s
En trai nm ent is
a pro bl em with s pray t ower use, pa rticul arly at the higher
al tho ugh th is pr oblem m ay be resol ved by the use
gas f lows
of su i tab! e mist el imi nator s or cy clonic flow spray towers.
gas
Appl ica tion of we t scrub b i n g g as ab sorption

technique s to rem oval of co ntamina nts f om tu nnel ventilation
air poses several probl ems.
If an organ ic so Ivent is employed as a solve n t even i f a hig h-mol e cul ar weight material
is employ e d
una v o i d a bly be at least
its vapor pres sure wi 1
the same order of magnitude as som e of t he po llutants, so
that the net effe ct could b e subst i t u t i o n of one pollutant,
A s i m i lar problem
the solve nt, for another, t he solu te.
exists wi th water as a solv ent, si nee re cycle of gas through
an aqueou s phase system wil 1 tend to adi a b a t i cally saturate
C o n t i n u ous operat ion of a tunn el at 100% relative
the air.
humidity is not d esirable and app 1 i c a t i on of wet scrubbing
,
100
techniques would require the use of a downstream condensing

If the absorber is operated
system to remove solvent vapors.
at ambient temperatures, then the downstream solvent-removal
condenser must be operated at low, or refrigerant, temperaThis, in turn, means that
tures in order to remove solvent.
the bulk tunnel air must be thermally cycled between refrigerant and ambient temperatures, adding a thermal cooling
and heating cost to the base operation of the absorption.
I t
appe ars that the humidi f ication or saturation
proble m wi 1 1 prob ably prevent in situ tunnel application of
absorp tion proces ses.
However, the possibility remains of
using such a proc ess on the exhaust air from the tunnel,
While the w ashed air may generate a steam plume under certain
atmosp heric condi tions, exhaust processing would prevent
local accum u 1 a t i o ns of pollutants, and the possibility of
contam i n a n t recyc le in situations where the intake fan is
locate d nea r the exhaust fan.
A number of tunnels already
have s pray chambe rs installed to protect the exhaust fans
in the even t of t unnel fires, and their use as exhaust control d evice s woul d represent only an operating cost increment.
While the d i sposa 1 of the polluted water resulting from wet
scrubb ing m ay be a problem, this can be minimized by the
use of wate r recy cle operation, with a small amount of makeup and blee d 1 i q u id.
The recycle mode of operation would
al so p ermi t use o f exhaust wet scrubbing in tunnels without
ready acces s to 1 arge amounts of water.
Nitrogen Oxides
Combustion of a hydrocarbon fuel with air normally

results in the combination of part of the nitrogen and oxygen
to form nitric oxide (NO) at the higher temperatures.
Subsequent to its formation, NO is oxidized by residual or
atmospheric oxygen to nitrogen dioxide, NO2:
2N0 + Oo
(13)
2N0,
The
x i d a t i n of ni trie
x i de is a si ow exot dermic reaction,
1 iber ating
2 4,250 B tu/lb mo le
a nd is favore d by low temperature s.
The
x i d a t ion reac tion in a r is ma rkedly concentrati on-depe ndent.
When th e
r i g i n a 1 concen tration of NO
is 2% by vol ume, it requi re s 10 secon ds for half the NO to
oxidi z e , w h i le it t akes nea rly 6
hou rs for a similar degree
of ox i d a t i n when t he i n i t al NO cone entrati on is 1 ppm'
Kinet ically, the ox idation react ion i s third -order, .and the
rate constan ts have been th oroug hly e xplored by Rao^ 2 ) for
the h omogene ous gas -phase r eacti on.
This la tter investigation
al so explore d the c atalyzed ox id a t i n of nit ric oxide, using
both a c t i v a t ed carb on and s i 1 i c a gel as cata lysts
,
101
van able mix ture
of NO and NO? (plus minor

trogen oxide s ) is commonly designated as
NO. fo rmatio n is fav ored by nig h combustion temperafixtures and ex cess o xygen, s
tha t for internal combustion
engi ne s
the h i g h e st emiss ions are as sociated with air-fuel
ratios s 1 i g h tly on the lea n si d e of s toi chi ometri c.
High
speeds and h eavy a ccelerat ions produc e the major portion of
the NO x
and level s of N0 X emi s
s
in typical urban traffic
range betwee n 800 and 3000 ppm(
Data published by the
Los An geles County Air Pol 1 u t i o n Cont rol District, as presented by Fa 1th(83 and g i ven i n Tabl e 21 show the effect of
d r i v i n g vari ations on NO
emiss ions.
Th e
amount s of
o ther
At \/ery low concentrations of N0
with water is:

2
N0 2 +
HN0 2 + HN0 3
(K =
the reaction
10 5
(15)
and in warm water, the HN0 2 is unstable:

3
HN0 2
HNO3 + 2N0 +
(16)
The NO released in any of the above dissolution

reactions must be re-oxidized to N0 2
.
f ultraNi troge n d i x i d e i s a s trong abso rber

violet light and is the i ni t i ator comp ound for th e chain
f ozo ne and photoreacti ons re s u 1 1 i ng in the f ormat ion
chemi c al smo g.
A simp! if ied reac ti on schem e for the formation of ph otoch emical smog (62) indie a t i n g the t rigger
role
f N0 2
Th e fir st two reactions
is g iven i n Tab Te 22
show t he pro babl e prima ry ox idant (ozo ne) f ormati on mechanism, w hi le t he su bseque nt re actio ns in d i c a t e the f ormati on
.
A f ew ten ths of a
lut ants.
ti
ve hydroc arbons
1 e ss
tha n 1 p pm of reac
f
(unsat urated ) are suf i c i e n t to i n i t i a te th e reac tion chain,
but va 1 ues a s hi h as
.7 pp m N0 X and 3 ppm hydro carbons
have b een fo und f or amb lent atmos phere on s moggy days
Al thou gh ul t ravio let ra d i a t i on is not avail able i n vehicular
F a i th(33 ) stat es th at ex perie nee i n the gas i n
tunnel s
dustry shows that oxide s of ni tro gen i n ext remely smal 1
of sec ond a ry i
ppm of N0 X a nd
rr
tants
and
p ol
102
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TABLE 22
SIMPLIFIED REACTION SCHEME FOR PHOTOCHEMICAL SMOG
N0
Light
*~
Nitrogen
dioxide
+
Molecular
oxygen
3
NO
Nitric
oxide
+
+
NO
He
Hydrocarbon
2
_^
He
Hc0 3
NO
Hc0 3
HcO x
Radical
HcO
Hc0 3
N0 2
m-
+0
Atomic
oxygen
Ozone
N0 2
HcO
Radical
HcOj
Radical
Aldehydes,
ketones ,etc.
Hc0
?
Radical
3
Hc0 2
Peroxyacyl
nitrates
This reaction scheme is intended to be illustrative, not

definitive.
Research is still in progress on the detailed
chemistry of the smog-forming process.
104
quantities will react with hydrocarbons to form particulate

This latter role of N0 X with
matter, even in the dark.
respect to in situ particulate matter generation in tunnels
has apparently not been investigated, so that based on
present data on concentration levels, the primary objection
to tunnel N0 V concentrations would be with respect to exbaust to the ambient atmosphere.
Source Control
De sign change s made on in ternal- combust ion engines

for the purp ose o f redu c i n g t h e emi ssion o f unbur ned hydrocarbons and carbo n mono xide th rough more e f f i c i e n t comb u s t i o n gene rally have the opp o s i t e effect on nit rogen oxide
The higher combus tion tempera tures a nd excess
product ion.
oxygen atten dant on mor e effic ient combust ion or secondary
oxidati on ar e exa ctly t he cond i tion s servi n g to i ncrease
the deg ree o f nit rogen f i x a t i o n.
C onverse ly, red uction of
the com b u s t i on te mperat ure and the amount of oxyg en available at this temp eratur e serve s to reduce the N0 X level s
and thi s pro vi des the b as is fo r the most c ommon a pproach to
control
exh aust gas re c i r c u 1 a tion.
:
The exhaus t gas reci r c u 1 a t i on sys tern d eveloped by

Esso Resea rch and En gi nee ri ng C ompany (85) u t i 1 i z es a system
which recy cles gas f ro.m t he exh aust t hrottl e pla te.
A
simpl e vac uum-operat ed on -off v alve s huts o ff th e recirculatio n at idle to g ve sm ooth e n g i n e operat ion a nd also at
wide- open throttle t o pre vent 1 oss i n vehic 1 e pe rformance.
Dynam omete r tests fo r 50, 000 mi les at a rec ircul at ion rate
of ab out 1 5 percent showe d cons i s t e n t reduc ti on of N0 X
level s to the 1974 C al i fo rnia s tandar ds of 1.3 g rams of N0 X
per m ile.
Theoretic ally, 90 pe rcent NO'x re
on will
)
but the
requi re 30 percent e xhaus t gas recycl e Teve
decre ase i n power ge nerat ion at this recycl e lev el may not
be ac cepta ble.
N0 X emissions from vehicles can also be controlled
by catalytic reduction in the exhaust stream.
However, such
105
f a re d u c i n g
reduc tion op e ratio n requi res t he pres ence
and th is is
a hydroca rbon
b v i u sly
i n c o n s i stent
1 her exh aust control objec t i v e s
w i th
For
this re ason, m ost pr oposed catal ytic mu f f ler system s for
control of N0 X call for two sepa rate re actors or ca talyst
beds, o ne oper a t i n g at redu cing condi ti ons fo r NO X reduction, an d the
ther a t oxidi zing condi ti ons fo r C0 a nd HC
removal
A ca se in point i s pre sented by T ay lor, 1 969,
in U. S
Paten t No. 3,429.6 56, a ssigned to Es so Res earch
and Eng i n e e r i n g Comp any^ 8 )
Ta ylor s two- st age ex haust
treatme n t call s for a prima ry ox i d a t i n bed t remo ve 02,
f ol lowe d by a reduci ng bed conta i n i n g a steam -refor ming
catalys t to re act CO and th e hyd rocarbo ns wit h H 2 to form
CO2 and Ho2
an d reac tion of the N0 V with the hydrog en thus
produce d.
a
gas sue h as CO or
(87) disclosed the

recent news announcement KO/
development of a new "ni ckel -copper" catalyst claimed to
be 90% effective for N0 X reduction in automotive exhaust.
It was also indicated that the new catalyst for N0 X removal
would be part of a dual -catalyst system, with the second
catalyst capable of oxidative removal of CO and hydrocarbons
However, the development of exhaust catalytic converters
for N0 X does not appear to have progressed to the same
feasibility point as the exhaust recycle units.
A
Har di son 88) and Fletc her(89 ) have reviewed both

elevate d and atmospher i c pr e s s u r e cata lytic p rocesses for
the red ucti on of N0 X i n the tail gases
from i n d u s t r i al
nitric acid p lants.
W hen t he em i s s i n limit is of t e
order f 200 ppm Europ ean p racti ce is to use a two-st age
reduc ti on sys tern.
The firs t sta ge is used to remove
practi c al ly a 11 of the oxyg en f om the gas st ream to secure
Operthe nee essary complete redu c t i n in th e secon d stage,
F, and this
ating t empera ture 1 i mi ts ar e fro m 900 to 1
type of reduc tion oper a t i n does not a ppear t
be fea s i b 1 e
for the tunne 1 ventila tion probl em, be cause
f both t he
Th e
tempera ture 1 eve! and the xygen -remov al feat ure.
normal atmosp heric con centr a t i n of ox ygen in tunnel recycle a i r , an d the obv ious neces s i ty f mai nt a i n i n g t his
level , preclu des the u se of any reduct i v e cat alytic t echThu s , the only pot e n t i a 1
n i q u e w hich c ould cons ume
xygen
for cat alytic reductio n app 1 i c a t ion to NO
ha s to ste m from
the pos s i b i 1 i ty of sel ecti v e rea c t i n with a reduci ng agent
such as CO in the pres ence of 0?
Thi s 1 atte r reacti on has
at the
been st u d i e d by both B akerv 90) a nd Rya so 11*91)
1 aborat ory
le vel
.
It is anticipated
that removal of nitrogen oxides
from tunnel air by any conventional technique, including
catalytic reduction may be the most difficult objective to
achieve.
Thermodynami cal ly the decomposition of NO into
,
106
b ut no cataly st has b een

N
is q uite fa vorab le
2
t
thi
dec
effec
s
omposi tion a t reason able
i
1
that
w
found
(92).
Whi
le the destr uctive c ataratures
tempe
rates or
and
of
CO
hydro
carbon
s requ ires an excess
oxidatio
n
lytic
f
N0
val
ic
remo
o
from
a gas stream n ormal ly
catalyt
of
X
2
fi owever
the use of t wo or
employ s reduci ng cond i t i o n s.
i
th
cataly
sts
w
i
d
i
m
if
ferent
s
s
i
lar
d
se lecti vi t ies at
more
ften
tions
o
al
low
the
condi
s
cataly
sis of i ncomreacti on
E
ven
i
n
the
b
reacti
ons.
prese
nee
excess 2 a
i
e
of
1
pat
b
i
1
i
ty
with
the
cap
a
of
adsor
b
i
b
ng
oth CO a nd N0 X
cataly st
"
1
d
i
eld
a
n
"in
ternal
redu ctive re action.
select ively, c o u
y
(91)
died
th
cat
d
Ryason
stu
e
alyze reac tion o f N0 X wi th CO
veloci
t
ies
nd
a
te mperat ures a nd found alumina
at hi h space
Howev er, temp eratures
suppor ted cata lysts t o be effec ti ve.
of 100 0F were requi r ed, p lus s toichi ometri c quanti ties of
reacta nts, so that th is ap proac h to t unnel gas clea n u p is
not ap parently promis ing.
2
and
An extremely comprehensive and detailed body of

work on N0 2 adsorption was developed in connection wi t b the
Wisconsin process for the production of nitric add'93j
This process employed shallow fluidized beds of silica gel
and this process was demonstrated
for the adsorption of N0 2
on an industrial scale.
Silica gel contacting was also used
in this process for the catalytic oxidation of NO to N0 2
The published data on this si 1 ca-gel -based oxi dati on-sorption
operation show the following specific points:
t
a.
b.
Sorber design was based on operation at

10F at a gel: N0 2 ratio of 14.
Poor
recovery was indicated at temperatures
above 10, regardless of gel flow.
Catalysis of NO oxidation to N0 2 by
silica gel required a gas dewpoint of
-60F.
It is obvious that both of the above specifications

are outside the range of probable tunnel application with
respect to utilization of ambient temperatures and in-tunnel
dewpoints.
The sorption concept is nevertheless of con-
tinuing interest; Sundaresan(94) reported that a commercial

zeolite (molecular sieve) was more efficient than silica gel
for removing very low concentrations of N0 X from a nitric
acid plant tail gas.
N0 X selectivity in the presence of
organic contaminants has not been explored for zeolite or
carbon adsorption, and laboratory studies of such selectivity
at the low levels of N0 X concentration indicated for tunnel
air must be made before actual application can be seriously
considered.
107
As sh own ab ove i n the bri e f rev i ew of the d i sion r e a c t i ons of N0 2s wet scrub bi ng of M0 , part icuX
larly at 1 ow CO ncentr a t i n s, is nei t her a strai g htf or ward
Fort her, ot her s ol uble
nor e ff ici ent a bsorpt ion s i t u a t ion.
gas c ompon ents likely to b e pre sent in tu nnel ga s , su ch as
CO2 a nd SO 2 , wi 11 int erfer e wit h N0 y solu tion eq u i 1 i b ria.
A det ailed revi ew of the d i ff ic ul tie s ass ociated with the
sorpt ion
f low conce ntrat i ons of NO x fco m oower pi an t
stack gase s has been recen tly p u b 1 i s fiedO
conn ection
wi th this 1 atte r revi ew, a pape r by Barto
ndi ca ted
that absor ption (wi th chem i cal react ion) appeare d to be
the m ost p romi s i n g p tenti al te c h n i q ue f r the r emova 1 of
N0 X f rom p ower pi ant stack gas, and sugge sted th e use of
H owrecyc le li mewat er or magne sium hydro xide s 1 u t i n.
ever, the poten tial " promi se"
f thi s abs orption tech n i q u e
was b ased on tw cond i t i n s tha t wou Id no t neces s a r i 1 y be
b t a i ned i n the case of tu nnel venti 1 a 1 1 n
sol
lit
a.
b.
Cost-benefit calculations on a complex

magnesium hydroxide absorption flow
sheet showed absorption to have the
lowest annual costs only because byproduct credits offset the high
capital charges for installation.
It was assumed that equimolar concentrations of NO and N0 2 (N2O3)
could be obtained in the gas in
order to optimize absorption.
The assumption of equimolar NO and NO? gas contents finds some support in the literature; Radnakri shna'96)
s t u d i e d the removal
of N0 X with dilute sodium, potassium
and ca lcium hydroxide solutions, and found that when the
alkali was in excess, equal amounts of nitrate and nitrite
were f ormed.
However, this may be a liquid-phase reaction,
In any
rather than a catalyzed gas-phase displacement.
event, N0 X removal from tunnel air by wet scrubbing means
appare ntly requires intensive development effort prior to
feasib i 1 i ty determination, and this operation does not appear
to be susceptible to design or installation at present.
Particulates
government has estimated that current vehicles

The
emit approximately 0.3 g/mile of particulate matter(67).
Although particulate matter has not as yet been clearly defined, and neither measuring techniques nor test cycle conditions have been specified, a standard of 0.1 g/mile has
been proposed for 1975, and a 1980 level of 0.03 g/mile.
According to Stern(42), automotive exhaust emissions contain
70% by count of extremely fine particles in the size range
108
However, on a mass distribution basis,

of 0.02 to 0.06y.
particles less than 1 0y in size account for less than 5%
of the total weight of the particulate matter in the exhaust.
.
Exhaust particulates contain both inorganic and

organic compounds of high molecular weight, with the most
significant fraction consisting of lead compounds deriving
from the tetraethyl lead antiknock compounds.
Approximately
75% of the lead burned in the engine is exhausted to the
atmosphere, with the total amount of lead particulates discharged being proportional to the concentration of tetraethyl lead in the gasoline.
It is worth noting that the
current introduction of low-lead and non-leaded gasolines
at the fuel pumps will directly yield significant reductions in the total particulate emission.
the e xhaust particIn a dditi on to the lead salt s
ulates may als o rep resen t carbon, i ron rust, t a r s and oil
mists.
Furthe r tu nnel air also conta ins part iculates
derive d from t i re a brasi on, salt (from winter salting
operat ions) an d fug i ti ve dust.
T he pr imary pa r t i c u 1 a t e
contri b u t o r is exha ust
both from gaso line and d i e s e 1
engine s.
The latte r exh a u s t is p artic ularly h igh in smoke
and od or compo unds (part ial ly-oxi di zed hydroca rbons), and
the us e of bar ium-b ased smoke sup press ant a d d i tives may give
rise t o a uniq ue se t of particula te em i s s i o n p roblemsW).
Bari urn sul fate has low t oxici ty
and t here is usual ly
enough sulfur in d esel fuel to y ield this inn ocuous compound in the e xhaus t ash
Howeve r wa ter-sol u ble barium
salts are toxi c
an d com plete sul fatio n may no t always be
certai n.
,
109
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64,000 mile test as against a normal emission rate of 0.2 to

In a 26,000 mile test on an improved version of
0.3 g/mile.
the trap system, lead salt emissions were reduced to 0.03 g/
Perhaps even more significant were the reductions in
mile.
At 3,000 miles, the trap system
the BaP emission rates.
reduced BaP emissions from 66 to 24 mi crograms/gallon of
fuel, while at 18,000 miles traveled, the reduction was
Studies are continuing,
from 228 to 6 micrograms/gallon.
but the last test data showed that total particulate emission
could be maintained at the 0.03 to 0.04 g/mile level, with a
lead salt content running from 50 to 75% of the total particulates.
The D uPont exhaus t trapping system described above
utilize d the fl ow energy an d high velocity inherent in automotive exhaust to agglomera te and centrifugal ly separate the
Any similar external
particl es from the exhaust gases.
system of parti culate remov al must include means for imparting
the sam e flow e nergy to the total gas: exhaust plus the much
F urther, while agglomeration may
larger venti lat ion flow.
be easi ly accom plished at h igh particle population density,
it beco mes infi nitely more difficult with a very disperse
For cy clones, therefore, dust collection
populat ion dens ity.
eff i cie ncy deer eases with d ecreasing dust loadings (42)
Collect ion effi ciency for i nertial separators also depends
on part i c 1 e s i z e distributi on, particle density and other
particl e proper ties.
As po inted out above, information on
the nat ure of p articul ates in gasoline and diesel engine exhaust i s still sketchy, and does not yet provide the basis
for pro per sele ction of col lector type.
Inasmuch as cyclones
and oth er inert ial devices show high efficiencies for particles
in the plus-10 micron size range, such data are of extreme
prel imi nary imp ortance.
Fu rther, relatively high pressure
drops a re regui red for high efficiencies, and these will be
at leas t of the same order of magnitude as the initial tunnel
ventila tion sys tern itself.
Some of the pressure drop characteristics of wet

collectors, as well as the gas and liquid velocity ranges
were given in Table 20.
Again the humidi f ication problems
existing with any type of wet contactor mitigate against the
use of an internal wet scrubber, but such units may have
application to the exhaust air.
Most of the wet collectors
listed also have a pressure drop range that would necessitate
a doubling of the fan horsepower for most existing tunnels
Notably, the
in order to operate
the scrubbing equipment.
spray chamber is the sole device with an inherent resistance
less than 1 inch. W.G.
Aqueous spray scrubbing is capable of

in a well-designed unit.
of particulate removal
111
high degree
Hangebrauclo 9/
has re ported that spray scrubbing removed 98% of the benzo(a)pyr ene emi ssion from a municipal incinerator.
Similar
level s of con trol were achieved on the polynuclear hydrocarbon emi ssi on from hot asphalt blowing plants.
Because
polynu clear c arcinogens are associated with the particulate
f racti on, the se data indicate excellent potential for tunnel
exhaus t contr ol for the most dangerous health hazards in the
emi ssi on.
In addition to the organic carcinogens, wet
scrubb i n g has capability for the removal of most oxygenated
organi cs
w h i ch are usually water-soluble, and a portion of
the NO x
,
One of the few industrial control units which

appea rs to be readily applicable to the tunnel air control
probl em is th e electrostatic precipitator.
In mechanical
col le ctors
s uch filters
(baghouses) and cyclones, energy
is ap plied to the entire gas stream.
In the electrostatic
preci pi t a tor
the energy used for collection is applied
only to the p articles.
The collection process consists of
charg i n g the particulates by means of a hioh-voltaqe corona
d i s c h arge and then electrostatically depositing them on a
groun ded coll ecting electrode.
The electric power required
to ma i n t a i n t he corona ranae from 50 to 500 watts/1000 CFM(J2)
and v ol tages of from 50,000 to 100,000 volts are required^ 98 ),
Becau se of th e highly selective energy input mechanism,
press ure loss through the electrostatic precipitators is
very low, fro m 0.1 to 0.5 inches W.G.
However, gas flow
throu gh the u nit must be held tc low velocities (2 to 8 ft/
sec) so that these devices are usually fairly large.
,
In addi tion to the volume trie requi rement s, other

antage s inc 1 u d e hi gh ca pi to! costs and p o s s i b le dust
Efficexpl os ion ha zards in the case s of c umbus tible dusts
i e n c i e s
of c ommer c i a 1 u n its n ow bei ng so 1 d ar e i n e xcess of
99%(99 ) and submi cron pa rti cl es may be c ol lee ted wi th almost
equal f aci 1 ty as 100-rni cron parti c les.
Fact ors co ntroll i ng
design i n c 1 u de (a ) dust re si s ti vi ty (b) gas t empera tures
For
f low di stri b u t i o n a nd (d ) mo is ture conte nt of gas.
(c)
high e ff 1 cie ncy p artic! e remo val
t he el e c t r i cal re si sti vi ty
should be i n the range o f 10 4 to 10 10 oh m-cm; actua 1 particle
H i gh parti resist i vi ty range s from lO" 3 to 1 0l 4 ohm -crow 9).
cle re s i s t i v i t i e s can le ad to col le c t i o n elec trode insulation
by a t hick p artic le laye r and subse q u e n t back d i s c h arge of a
corona from the c ol ecti ng el ectrod e
in terfe ring w i th the
normal perf o rmanc e of th e u n i t.
d
s adv
An excellent review of both design and- application

of electrostatic precipitators is presented in the Air Pollu
nas updated
tion Engineering Manual (41) while Walker( 99 )
A simpler,
the cost and efficiency data for this equipment.
and potentially cheaper form of electrostatic unit, is the
$
112
^) and
s p a c e-charae" precipitator, described by Faith^
in the space-charge precipitator, the
by Ha nsonHOl).
parti culates are charged by a conventional corona, and then
charg ed droplets of liquid are introduced into the gas in
the f orm of a spray froma charged nozzle.
Particles and
1 i q u i d
droplets are then collected by grounded wire mesh
col le ctors.
This unit combines the best features of spray
absor ption with the electrostatic efficiency levels of
parti culate removal, while avoiding the complexity and
high capital cost of conventional precipitators.
Unfortunate ly, this type of equipment is in the devlopment stage
and w ill require extensive work before becoming commercially
avail able.
Tunnel Pollution Control
Feasibility and Economic Evaluation
objective of this study was to determine the

techn i c a 1 a nd economic feasibility of available processes
for r emovi n g pollutants from vehicular tunnel atmospheres,
The p ol uta nts are those originating in automotive exhausts,
and i nclude CO, N0 X
unburned and partially-oxidized hydrocarbo ns
an d. particulates.
Early in the program, it was
real i zed th at adaptation of existing industrial pollution
contr ol tec hnology for processing tunnel air was only one
of se veral possible control strategies that might be employed,
The o ther p ossible strategies include auto exhaust source
contr ol and tunnel ventilation augmentation.
The cost and
ef fee tivene ss of these latter control strategies were explored
to a degree sufficient to establish a basis for comparison for
the i n situ secondary pollution control approach.
T he
The present state of the pollution control technology art potentially applicable to the tunnel problem has
been covered.
This section deals with the preliminary technical design and cost evaluations for selected systems.
The
base model used for the feasibility studies is a 1-mile long,
250,000 CFM ventilation rate tunnel.
D esign a nd ec onomi c studi es hav e been ma de of
indust rial pol luti on co ntrol proces ses po t e n t i a 1 1 y appl icable
to the remo val of pol lu tants from v e h i c u 1 ar tunnel atmospheres
In add i tion
a stu dy ha s bee n made of the effect o f automotive
exhaus t sou rce con trol measu res pro gramme d to go i nto effect
in the deca de of 1 970-1 980, on the averag e CO and hydrocarbon
emissi on
c orrecte d for auto mobi le popula tion age.
The
result s of this la tter study i n d i c a te tha t a four- fold red u c t i o n in CO and hydro carbo n emiss ion 1 e vel swill result
from p resen tly-man dated vehi cle exh aust c ontrol s
and that
the tu nnel polluti on pr oblem wi 11 c orresp ondi ngly diminish
in s e eri ty unless ambi ent s tandard s are changed.
At minimum,
it app ears that tu nnel venti 1 at ion design must mak e allowance
,
113
for the transi ent nature of the pollutant loadings, and at

maximum, there is a good possibility that source control will
eliminate the tunnel atmosphere problem.
dy of
compara tive fe a s i b i 1 ty and econ
ati on bl ower augment a t i o n vs
v arious s econdary
poll uti on co ntrol p rocesse s has s hown t hat b lower ad dition or
revi sio n is the mos t techn i c a 1 1 y and ec onomi cally fe a s i b e
route t
all e v i at i n q the t unnel a tmosph ere n ollution burden
Of a 11 of t he cont rol op erati ons, tha t of
at this time
uti 1 zing a 60% Mn 02/40 % CuO am b i e n t catalyt i c ox i d a t i o n
tempera ture catalys t, appe ars mos t prom i s i n g for in si tu
tunnel use.
Howeve r, desi gn was extrap ol ate d from 1 aboratory
data, a nd fu rther d irect d evelopm ent wo rk is requi re d and
recomme nded.
From a techn i c a 1 v i ewpoin t, th ere are seri ous
operabi lity q u e s t i o ns for catalyt i c o x i d a t i o n
a c t i v ated
carbon adsor p t i o n a nd elec trostat ic pre c i pit a t i o n be cause
the pol 1 utan t or pa rti cul a te cone entrat ion i n each c a s e is
well be 1 ow t he lowe r limit of any known indu s t r i a 1 a ppl i cation
Economi cally
only catalyt i c o x i d a t i o n appea rs to be nearcompeti ti ve with a u gmented bl ower capac ity.
Spray s c rubbing
was ass essed as a p o t e n t i a
exhau st tre atmen t method for
control of t he gros s tunne 1 emiss ion, a nd wa s found to be
t e c h n i c ally feasibl e and e conomi c ally p romi s i n g
alt hough
di rect test veri f i a t i o n i s d e s i r able.
A
tunnel
vent
i 1
A short study of recycle air operations around the

tunnel or tunnel section was made, and it was found that any
degree of recycle would give rise to an increase in tunnel
pollutant concentration above the level obtained in oncethrough air operation.
The detailed review of the state-of-the-art for

both source control and tunnel ventilation air treatment
technology yields a number of significant conclusions which
bear directly on the technology feasibility determination.
In summary:
1.
Control technology available for the

removal of vehicle-derived pollutants
comprises two distinct categories:
(a)
(b)
Source control technology already

developed for removal of pollutants
from automotive exhaust at exhaust
conditions.
Industrial technology which must be
adapted or extrapolated to tunnel
air pollutants and concentration
levels, as well as to ambient temperature operating conditions.
114
pol lutant so urce controls are

1 a r
al ready parti ally in o peration and an
e s c a 1 a t i ng de gree of a pplication and
e f f i c i e n cy. is now mand ated by law for
the imme di ate fi ve-yea r period.
Some
proven c ontro I equipme nt meeting proVeh fcu
posed fu ture emi ssion standards already

exists, and a choice o f competitive
t e c h n i q u es wi II appare ntly become avail
able in the n ear futur e.
Significant
decrease s i n vehicular emissions have
al ready occur red.
In most cases, the adaptation of conventional industrial control technology
to the tunnel air treatment will require
experimental development and field tests
This required preliminary work has not
been done, and no present tunnel treatment installations exist.
4.
5.
does not appear reasonable to expect

exhaust control techniques developed to
operate at the high-temperature, highIt
pollutant concentration exhaust conditions

150- fold dilution,
ambient-temperature tunnel air conditions.
In pollution control design a prime rule
is to treat at the point of maximum concentration prior to dilution - a rule
based on both economic and efficiency
considerations, as well as functional
feasibi 1 i ty.
to function at the
The above preliminary conclusions strongly indicate

that tunnel air treatment is not likely to prove to be a tenable
control strategy at this time, should alternate means of control
be available.
On the other hand there are a few standard technologies such as electrostatic precipitation, which appears to
be more suitable for tunnel air processing than for source control
115
This section will be concerned with the evaluapplication.

ation of the capabilities of all potentially applicable technology in the context of available alternates and the changing
nature of the source emissions.
trol
Strategie
Tunn el Pollution
Con
!
~

~
~ ^t- s
!
I
..!
..II.
II..!..
I.
The application of pollution control equipment for

the removal of pollutants from tunnel air is only one of
several control approaches open, and it is necessary to consider these alternates, if only from the point of technical
There are four apparent tunnel
and economic perspective.
pollution control strategies:

Control of traffic loadings and speed
within tunnel.
Increased ventilation rates.
Exhaust source controls.
Tunnel air treatment.
A.
B.
C.
D.
Pragmatically, the first two control strategies

are standard present control modes for tunnel pollution
problems, although recent studies'^ 8 ) indicate that these
techniques are not yet fully realized.
Se veral of the newer E uropean tu nnels
such as
the Mon t Bla nc Tun nel an d Great St. Bernha rd Tun nel , o pened
in the I960' s
ut1 lize t raffic f low contro 1 as a means of
1 1 mi tin g
in- tunnel emi ss ions (20)
The Mon t Blan c Tunn el
utilize s a s ystem of con trol lig hts for ve hides in an d
e n t e r i n g the tunne 1 to c ontrol s peed betwe en 25 and 37 mph.
The Gre at St
Bern hard T unnel us es traffic count ers to conti nuous ly mo ni tor the nu mber of vehicles i n the tunnel
and
enterin g tra ffic i s stop ped when the maxim urn num ber of
vehi cle s is reache d.
Wh lie t h e s e are non- urban tunnel s , the
Lincoln Tunn el und er the Hudson River, is report edU8) to be
install ing t raff i c flow control s utilizing traff i c c o u nters
tied in to a comput er whi ch will in turn co ntrol traffi c signal s.
The o bjecti ve i s to simul taneously reduce the n umber
of vehi cles in the tunne 1 at any one time by inc reasin g the
F i gure 2 9, tak en
average vehi cul ar speed in the t unnel.
from Ot t U 02 ) show s the reductio n in CO em is si on with increase in av erage vehi cl e speed and it is appare nt tha t
in ere as ing a verage vehic le speed is a dire ct CO contro 1
,
measure
Information supplied by Kyle' 18 ) on the Sumner
Tunnel in Boston Harbor showed that the total longitudinal
air speed in the tunnel was 14.7 mph, of which the ventilation
air speed constituted only 1.3 mph, while the vehicle sweep
effect contributed 13.4 mph.
It should be noted that the
116
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SPEED
0TT(I9
DC
CARBON
29
to
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FIGURE
VEHICLE
if)
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u.
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IT)
117
>
<
ab
Re serve capaci ty and fan spee d con trol are i nvary built into t unnel v e n t i 1 a t i o n sys terns in order to
hand! e peak traf fi c 1 oad i n g s

with out i ncurr i n g the a d d i t i o n a
opera ting ex pense of con stantly ru nning at m aximum ve n t i 1 a t i o n
capac ity.
T heoret i c a 1 1 y
this des ign a pproa ch could be
carri ed one step f urther by adding fans to a ugment pe ak venti1 a t i o n
capac i ty
Howeve r, v e n t i 1 a ti on ducts in exist ing
tunne 1 s are of a f i x e d s ize, and t he pr essur e head of the
v e n t i 1 a t i o n blower s is s i m i 1 a r 1 y f i xed by th e peak fl ow requi re ments f or tha t duct size.
Be cause the blower he ad requi re ment is a fun c t i o n of (gas ma ss fl ow ra te) 2 thro ugh the
f i xed -size d uct
a n atte mpt to dou ble t he pe ak ventil a t i o n
flow rate wi 1 1 cau se a f our-fold i ncrea se in the head 1 oss
Depen ding on the h ead-ca pacity cha racte r i s t i cs of the original
fan
it is p robabl e this higher he ad wi 1 1 no t permit the
o r i g i nal fan to de vel op any more t han a frac t i o n of i ts lowhead flow ca paci ty
Thu s reductio n of pol 1 u tant cone en t rati on
by fl ow augm en tat i on for an e x i s t ng tu nnel will depe nd on
if any
the d egree
of o ver-design i n t he or iginal ve n t i 1 a t i o n
syste m and the he ad-cap acity char acter i s t i c s of the original
bl owe r.
Thi s comb i n a t i o n of facto rs wi 11 ob viously b e different f or each tunne 1
and would req ui re check i n g of t e initial
v e n t i 1 ati on system d e s i g n.
Altern ately it may be po s s i b 1 e
to re place t he bl a des on the o r i g i nal f an to yield he ad comThe a d d i t i o n
p a t i b i 1 i ty w ith th e a d d i t i o n a 1 h i g h-hea d uni t.
of i n termedi ate ve nti lat ion shafts is a nothe r possibi 1 ity
and this
but t his w i 1 be f e a s i b 1 e only for spec i f 1 c tunnels
c o n s i d e r a t i o n is b eyond the scope of th i s re port.
1
Direct vehicular exhaust control techniques have

received the major share of attention and implementation.
There appears to be no question that every possible effort
has been, and will be made, to protect the present industrial
118
i
1
and private investment in the internal combustion vehicular

Present
engine by the further development of source controls.
differences between Federal authorities and the automotive
industry concern timetables for emission reduction, rather
than the degree.
re cent paper (103) rev iewi n g the pr ogress of
the a utomo t i v e in d u s t ry in control 1 ng em i s s i o n s , i t was
claim ed th at 1971 model pas senqer ca rs ha d 85% le ss hydrocarbo n emi ssi ons and 65% le ss CO emi s s i o n than ea r 1 i e r
Jense n also in d i c a t ed that similar
uncon troll ed mode Is.
reduc tion in N0 X emi ssi ons could be expec ted for 1973 model
No data we re introdu ced to su pport the mag n i t u d e of
cars.
In
laime d emiss ion reduct i ons

but neve rtheless
enqi ne
cha n g e s in recent mo del years have al ready produced
can t reduc t i o n s in e xhaust em i s s i o n.
Whil e previous
intro ducti on of 1 ow-emissio n vehicle s i s now affe cting "average" v e h i c le emis si ons, and will con t i n u e to lowe r this
avera ge as the ve hide popu 1 a t i o n in cl ude s a grea ter proporti on of these low- emi ssi on v e h i c es
p redi ctio n of the
quant i t a t i ve effe ct of the programme d red u c t i o n s is desirable,
and t his w ill be done below
the
des
gn
signi f i
i
Be cause source contr ol te c h n i q ues appear to be

succeed ing, proje cted em i s s i o n stan dards and air q u a 1 i ty
cri teri a goa Is th at form erly a ppear ed un atta i n a b 1 e are now
Tu nnel v e n t i lati on syst em design
p o s s i b 1 e, if not probabl e.
must ta ke in to ac count t he new Fede ral a i r q ual i ty cri teri a
which a re 1 i kely to be c onsi de rably more str i n g e n t than present al lowab 1 e po 1 1 utant conce ntrat ion 1 i m i t s.
The most
recent i nfor mati o n on pr imary stand ards 104) is giv en in
Table 2 4, an d the propos ed CO level (max imum 1 -hour concentration once a ye ar) of 17.2 p pm is part i cul a r 1 y i m portant
when co mpare d to present d e s i g n 1 im its o f 10 to 20 ppm CO.
In view of t he pr oposed Federa 1 sta ndard s f o r autom oti ve
emi ssi n red u c t i o n in t e 1971 -1980 peri od
it appe ars certain th at th e ave rage CO emi ss ion 1 evel wi 11 c o n t i n ue to
decline and with respec t to t his p ollut ant al 1 owa nee must
be made in v entil a t i o n d e s i g n for t his d ecre ase.
H owever
it is a lso v i rtua lly cer tain t hat
as ex haus t contr 01 technology prove s to be effe cti ve in re ducti on o f peak pol 1 utant
1 oading s,
th e all owable i n - 1 u n nel a mbi en t po 1 u t i o n concentration 1 i mi ts wi 11 also be 1 o wered
(
Exhaust Emission Projections

The design basis for the ventilation of vehicular
tunnels is the peak traffic load (exhaust emission rate) plus
It should be noted that
a maximum CO concentration limit.
prevailing vehicular CO emission data obtained from test data
at the time of the ventilation design are now used as the
119
TABLE 24
NATIONAL AIR QUALITY STANDARDS PROPOSED BY EPA
PRIMARY STANDARDS
Air Pollutants
pg/m 3
ppm
000
15,000
11.4
CO
Max. 8-hr. cone, once a year
10,
17.2
HC
Max. 3-hr. cone, from 6 am.
to 9 am. once a year
125
--
NOx
Annual arithmetic mean
24-hr. cone, once a year
100
0.19 (as NO2)
250
0.47 (as NO2)
80
365
0.21 (as SO2)
SOx
Annual arithmetic mean
24-hr. cone, once a year
0.96(asSO2)
Particulate matter annual
geo.
mean
75
260
Photochemical oxidants
125
Adapted from Pollution Engineering, 1971
120
--
1.
Thus, for the

basis for estimating ventilation needs.
CO
Straight Creek Tunnel ventilation system des1gn(l05)
emission test data obtained in 1964 road tests were utilized,
Ventilation needs for the year 1990 were also calculated
Because 1964 is a year
based on these 1964 emission data.
representative of virtually uncontrolled exhaust emissions,
it may serve a conservative design base, but a 26-year extrapolation in the light of the success of source control
techniques represents an unknown degree of over-design.
f
In order to pr operly d e f i n e the tunne 1 air pol 1 ution problem in a t i m e - v a r i a n t frame work
it is nece ssary
f man dated autom otive
to re view and quant ify t he effe cts
Exh aust s ource control
sourc e contro Is on f utur e emiss ions,
techn iques ha ve bee n ope r a t i v e for s evera 1 year s , an d will
be in creasing ly imp lemen ted at highe r eff i c i e n c ies i n the
immed iate f i e-year peri od.
Th e que s t i o n is: h ow mu c h will
this control strate gy af feet tu nnel envi r onment s i n the next
10 ye ars, and will furth e r i n - unnel cont rol be nece ssary?
As no ted abov e
tun nel v e n t i 1 a t ion s ystem s appe ar to be
d e s i g ned for the em i s s i o n s e x i s ting at th e time of d esign
i n i t i at ion,
b ut are then wri tte n off over a 20 to 30 year
i
e
r
o
d
of
dec
reasin g emi s s i o n s
Sys terns amorti zed o ver
p
this period s hould be so design ed as to t ake ad vanta ge of a
decre a s i n g v e n t i 1 a t ion 1 oad.
W ith t he re cent d evelo pment of
val id predi ct ive mo dels, togeth er wi th th e firm ing o f emi ssi on
contr ol timet abl es
course
it i s now p o s s i b le to predi ct th
of fu ture aut omoti e emi ssi ons.
,
Table 25 lists the e xhau st emiss i on st andards proposed by both the Federal gove rnme nt and th e Sta te of C al iforni a.
These standa rds mus t be cons idered te n t a t i v e
i n a smuch
as Fe deral standar ds are prese ntly beinq fo rmul a ted, an d are
expec ted to be ann ounced some time in 1971.
If Califor nia
stand ards prevai 1
then 1 975 m ode! cars w i 1 sho w a dec rease
of 77 .3% in hydroc arbons
47.8 % in CO, and 75% i n N0 X i n
exhau st emissions compare d to 1971 model s
Alth ough Ta ble 25
sizes the Cal iforni a stan dard s
recent news announ cements
indicate tha t the E nvi ro nmen tal Prote c t i o n Agency may
accel erate the Cal i form* a time tabl e in its own F ederal schedule.
Shoul d this be the case
then the schedule indie ated in Table
25 wi 11 prove to b e conse rvati ve, assuming of CO urse, f ull
compl iance by the automot ive i ndus try.
The data of Tab le 25
may b e combined wi th pass enger car (and tru ck) p opul ati on
compo si tion data t o gener ate a qua nti tat ive pred i c t i o n of
f utur e emissions,, a n d t h i s typ e of analysis has been de veloped
in de tail by Blum' 107) in hi s Mode 1 I prese n t a t i on.
,
Previous estimates of future automotive exhuast

8) have made allowance for the projected increase
in the total automobile population.
This is a necessary
approach when computing the net effect of control technology
emi ssions
(1
121
TABLE 25
EXHAUST EMISSION STANDARDS AND GOALS
Emission Levels, Grams per Mile
NOx
Year
HC
CO
1970
2.2
23.0
1971*
2.2*
23.0*
4.0*
1972*
1.5*.
23.0*
3.0*
1973
2.2
23.0
3.0
1974*
1.5*
23.0*
1.3*
1975*
0.5*
12.0*
1.0*
1975
0.5
11.0
0.9
0.1
1980
0,25
0.4
0.03
Evaporation Losses
4.7
6.0 grams per test in 1970 in California

and 1971 nationwide.
California only.
122
Particulate
on atmospheric pollution in
urban areas, and where total

However, vehicular tunnels
emissions are of prime interest.
have a finite length, and a design base maximum traffic
Emissions in tunnels
capacity at a fixed emission level.
will thus be affected only by the age-composition of the
automobile and truck population, and not by the expansion
or gross numbers of the car and truck populations.
Age-composition data have been calculated by

f r om figures published in Automobile Facts and
Figures (' 09) and these data on automobile longevity are
presented in Table 26.
In the absence of information on
changes in ownership patterns or automobile longevity with
economic conditions, it may be assumed that Table 26 represents a composition that will be relatively stable with
time, and that the age distribution of 1963-1964 will continue to hold for the 1970-1980 period.
Blum derived a
statistical model relating the total rate of vehicular
emissions to driving characteristics and vehicle emission
controls, and while this model is best projected by computer,
Table 26 does allow arithmetic approximation of Blum's Model
I
analysis, using the emission control schedules of Table 25.
BlumÔ?)
As Blum points out, T able 26 indicates t hat, while

the averag e age of the automobi le population is ap proximately
6 years, t he media n life of an individual vehicle is 11 years
Further, w hile car s 16 years an d older constitute 1 to 2%
of the tot al car p opulation in any given year, 10% of the
cars produ ced in a model year a re still in use 16 years
later.
Be cause of this longevi ty characteristics, there is
a time- lag in the effect of any change in emission on overall emissi on level s.
Thus, eve n if all cars produ c e d in
1972 were to have little or no emissions, it would be 1978
(6-year av erage ag e) before the 1972 and later mod el cars
would make up 50% of the total car population, 198 1 before
they would make up 75% of the p opulation, and 1986 before
they would have re placed .95% of the older cars.
T ruck replacement is even slower'' 10 / w i th a 50% replaceme nt age of
7 years, 7 5% repla cement time o f 1 3 years
and a 9 5% repi acement of 18 ye ars.
These d ata make no allowan ce for
any in ere se in th e rate of pro duction of new mode Is, and
are thus c onservat ive in terms of the effects of e xhaust
controls
Any inc reases in the rate of new model producti on
(with cont rols) wi 11 be reflect ed in a decrease in average
age and a greater influence on total emissions of the new
,
vehicles.
Combining the above data with the projected control

timetables enables a stepwise arithmetic calculation of comparative CO and HC emissions for the years 1970, 1975 and
1980.
These calculations are presented in the Appendix II
123
TABLE 26
AUTOMOBILE LONGEVITY
"A"
Age of Car
(Years)
Fraction of Cars
(A-l) Years Old in
Preceding Year
Surviving to Become
"A" Years Old in:
i
1964
1963
2
5
6
7
5
6
7
9
10
.999
.999
.990
.974
.957
.936
.906
.856
- 11
.813
10
11 -
12
12
13
13
14
14
15
15
16
16+
Median Automobile Life =
.990
.975
.952
.916
.909
.859
.822
.770
.753
.752
.757
11
"A" Years
in:
1963
1964
.999
.990
.964
.922
.863
.991
.981
.000+
.991
.780
.764
.769
.752
.773
.797
Fraction of Cars
Originally Produced
that had Survived
.781
.669
.544
.424
.324
.249
.731
.187
.145
.825
.116
Years (Approx.)
Average Age of Automobile Population = 6 Years (Approx.)
124
.956
.910
.834
.758
.651
.535
.412
.310
.234
.177
.129
.107
It is obvious
and the results are plotted in Figure 30.
that, despite the time-lag effect, the degree of control
programmed is so sharp that the indicated reductions in
The average hydroaverage emissions are considerable.
carbon emission will be reduced from 660 ppm in 1970 to
156 ppm in 1980, and the average CO emission will decrease
from 25,790 ppm to 6,120 ppm over this same period.
This
calculation makes no assumptions concerning the nature of
the exhaust control technology to be employed, but should
it be of a non-integral nature, such as a catalytic converter, which can be added to older models, then the decrease
in emissions would be even more marked than shown in Figure
30.
The i ndicated four-fold reduction in CO and

hydro carbons in the immediate decade resulting from the
i m p o s i t i o n
of e xhaust controls is substantially equivalent
to a four-fol d increase in tunnel ventilation capacity over
origi n a 1 design levels (discounting the decreases in average
emi ss ion levels that have already occurred in the 1964-1971
The q uestion naturally arises as to whether or
p e r i o d).
not a u x i 1 i a ry t unnel ventilation or pollutant removal measures
are, o r w i 1 1 be
required in view of the apparent effectiveness of the exh aust control approach.
The only answers that
can b e ventured at this time are:
,
1.
2.
If no changes are made in the allowable

ambient tunnel co ncentration levels
used as the initi al ventilation system
design basis, the n additional controls
will not be requi red, and source control will elimina te any excessive
tunnel pollutant loading problems,
Tunnel control te chnology will be needed
only in the event that ambient quality
criteria call for pollutant reductions
in excess of thos e presently scheduled
via source exhaus t controls.
Because national primary ambient air quality

criteria are still in preparation, it will be necessary to
review the control problems at the time these standards have
been formulated and accepted.
Tunnel Air Treatment:
Problem Statement
The design base used in assessing the feasibility

of various tunnel air treatment techniques was a 1-mile long,
single-tube tunnel with a ventilation air rate of 250,000 CFM
Data on the gaseous pollutant volumetric emission rates for
this base tunnel are listed in Table 27.
These values are
125
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O
O
O
o
o
CO
o
o
*0
o
o
<fr
o
o
CM
o
CO
I
o
en
o
o
I
LU
a.
en
re
LU
UJ
CD
<c
a:
LU
o
LU
o
a:
o
CO
cr
CD
._0IX
Wdd VN0N00 00 !SnVHX3 39VU3AV
126
TABLE 27
TUNNEL POLLUTANT LOADINGS

Mile Tunnel Length
Level Single Tube, 2,000 Vehicle/Hr.
40 Mile/Hr. Average Speed
Basis:
Component
Ft. 3 /Hr.< a)
ppm
Carbon Monoxide
2 ,260
Ethylene
Acetylene
Hydro carbon
Nitrogen Dioxide
Nitric Oxide
Acrolein
28
28
68
10
0.67
Formaldehyde
22
1.47
1.07
678
Sulfur Dioxide
Carbon Dioxide
(a)
150
1.86
1.86
4.53
0.53
28
1.86
16
10,
170
Letter from F. Roehlich, MSA Research, March

B. Lerner, Patent Development Associates
(b)
Based on 70F. tunnel temperature
(c)
Assumed mol. wt. =
Assumed
100
Ventilation Air Rate
= 250, 000 cfm.
127
Lbs./Hr.< b)
163.5
2.02
1.88
17.6 < c>
0.95
2.17
1.44
1.70
0.26
1,156
19, 1971 to
also stated in terms of parts per million (volumetric) and

mass rates to provide comparisons with normal industrial
pollution equipment capabilities.
With the exception of
CO, the ppm pollutant concentrations listed in Table 27 are
representative of treated gaseous effluent concentration
levels for most gas processing operations, rather than
concentration inputs to such processes.
A prel imi nary me as ure of the very small mag ni tude
of the pol 1 u tion lo ading rat es may be obtain ed by com paring
the lo a d i n g s to the assumed v e n t i 1 a t i o n air rate, w h i ch is
rel ati vely 1 ow.
Th e ventila tion a ir rate of 250,000 CFM is
Thu s , if
equi va lent t o a wei ght rate of 1 ,1 25,000 lbs /hr.
total air t r eatment is to be c o n s i dered, the n it will be
necess ary to proces s more th an 500 tons/hr o f air in order
to rem ove le ss than 25 Ibs/h r of p ol lutants other tha n CO
and CO Z'
* n
the ca se of the i n d i v idual poll utants, t he
For ex ample
select i vi ty requi re ment is m uch mo re extreme
into rem ove th e eye i rri tants
acrol ein and fo rmal dehyd e
vol ves the r emoval of 3.2 lb s/hr
from the t otal 1 ,12 5,000
lbs/hr air and for NO x
3.0 Ibs/h r
,
Th e com binati on of high total gas proces sing

capaci ty wit h the extre mely low CO ncent ratio n leve Is i n d i
cated in the Tabl e 27 d ata, cal 1 s for a remo val se lecti vi ty
which is h i hly u n i q u e for i ndustr i al a 1 r tr eatmen t techn i ques
and even for mo st sp e c i f i c ally s e n s i tive p ollution
contro 1 oper ati on s such as a dsorpt ion.
The cl oses t processin g anal og wi t h s i m 1 lar select i vi ty requ iremen. ts is
extrac tive m etal 1 urgi ca 1 ope rati on s i nv o 1 v i n g the removal of
a rare metal such as ur a n i u m from a low -cone entrat ion ore,
typi ca lly 0. 5% fo r uran ium o x i d e
In t he la tter c ase ? not
only i s the conce ntrati on 50
to 1 000-f old h 1 g h e r than for
i n d i c a ted
po 1 1 uta nt con centr a t i o n level s i n tunnel venti lat i o n a i r , b u t the cost- benef it rel a t i o n ships for u ranium
whe re the health
are qu i t e d i f fere nt tha n for pol lu tants
b e n e f i ts are stil 1 not fully d e f 1 n ed.
,
The tunnel air treatment problem becomes even

more complex when each pollutant is matched against the removal process judged to be most applicable under normal circumstances.
This has been done in Table 28, which briefly
summarizes the results of an evaluation of the current optimum control process art with respect to each pollutant.
The process
Also given in Table 28 are particulate data.
selections listed are preliminary and "apparent" from an
engineering point of view; they should not be considered
It is obvious from
feasible or recommended at this point.
Table 28 that a combination of processes will be required for
Essentially,
the removal of most or all of the pollutants.
the 1,125,000 lbs/hr of tunnel air must be processed several
128
TABLE 28
PRELIMINARY SINGLE -POLLUTANT OPTIMUM PROCESS INDICATION
Component
Carbon Monoxide
ppm
Process Indication
150
Catalytic Oxidation
Ethylene
1.86
Catalytic Oxidation
Acetylene
1,86
Catalytic Oxidation
Hydrocarbons
4.53
Carbon Adsorption
Nitrogen Dioxide
0.53
Water Absorption
Nitric Oxide
1.86
Zeolite Adsorption
Acrolein
0.67
Water Absorption
Formaldehyde
1.47
Water Absorption
Sulfur Oxide
1.07
Water Absorption
Carbon Dioxide
678
Water Absorption
Particulates( a)
(including benzene
soluble organics) (150)
/V nr
Electrostatic Precipitation
(a)
500
Letter of December 30, 1970 from F. Roehlich, Jr , MSA Research

to B. J. Lerner, Patent Development Associates, Inc.
129
i 1
times to yield multi -pol lutant removal capability.

One
of the hidden difficulties in Table 28 is the fact that
each process was selected for the individual pollutant,
neglecting the interference and interaction effects known
to exist.
For example, gas absorption of NO2 in water is
a standard operation for this component, but it is doubtful
if this soluble acid-gas can be absorbed in the presence
of much higher concentrations of another acid-gas: CO2.
Further, even when considered alone, the concentrations of
NO2 in tunnel gas are far below the concentrations normally
treated in sorption operations, and indeed, below usual
effluent treated gas concentrations.
sele c t i n s listed i n T able 28 a re bas ed entirely

f the nature of th e si ngle pol lut ants withn
Addi ng
f generat ion.
out re feren ce to t heir tunnel s i te
this 1 atter factor lead s direct ly to f easi bi i ty de terminaH owever
ti ns
whic h will be co nsidered i n d e t a i 1 b e 1 ow.
it may be n oted he re th at the c losed -system a spect of a p p 1 i
cation of t unnel a ir tr eatment in si tu immedi ately rules out
some
f the standa rd tr eatment proce sses of T able 2 8
such
as aqu eous a.bsorpt ion.
Re-use of we t-scrubbe d air within
a tunn el wi 11 not be pe rmi ssi bl e bee ause of t he 100 % humidity
charac teri s tic of such treated air.
This p i nts up one of
the pa rticu larly u n i q u e aspects of t he tunnel venti 1 a t i n
proble m; th e conce ntrat ion of p ol 1 ut ants is s
low that impuri ty -cont ri butio n or s u b s t i t u tion by a trea tment operation
c n s t i tutes a seco ndary p 1 1 u t i on pr oblem.
T he
on
con s i
derat
Tunnel Ventilation Costs

As i ndi ca ted a bove
tunnel a i r
an al t ernate t
treat ment for pol 1 u tant remova 1 is i ncreased tunnel ven t i 1 a tion by m eans of fa n add i t i n
Al th u g h th s latter me thod
may i nvol ve po s s i b 1 e rec onstru ction problems for existi ng
tunne 1 s
such recon struc tion i s much more p r b a b e in t he
This factor
case of p ollut on c ontro 1 e q u i pment i nstal 1 a tion.
aside
th e ass essme nt of i ncre mental tunnel ventilation costs
provi des a yar d s t i c k aga i n s t w h i c h t he compa rative capi tal
and
pera ting costs of a ny ind i v i d u a 1 pollut ion control method
means
can b e me asure d.
W hi le such c ost
c ompari so ns are by n
di rec t, t hey c an se rve a s a pr e i m i n ary guid e
until s u ff i cient
data beco me av a i 1 a b 1 e to permi t v a 1 i d cost-b enefit calc u 1 a t i n s
Tunne 1 ve n t i 1 a ti on base costs provi d e a cons ervative me asure
i n a s m uch
as a 100% incre a s e in venti 1 a t i n f low theoret ically
provi ded for a 50% decre a s e in conce nt rati on for all ai r
pol 1 u tant s i n the t unnel air.
On th e other hand, ~Tn~e p Dilution
contr ol t e c h n i ques c n s i dered be! ow are gene rally selec ti ve
T h i s limited s e ecti vi ty
for
ne
r two spec i f i c c n t a m i n a n t s
prope rty is pa rtly of f se t by t he h i her effi ciency of t he
pol 1 u tion cont rol p roces s
so that d irect co st comparis ons
1
130
.,
at this
stage of changing ambient standards becomes uncertain
Tabl e 29 pre sents a tabul a t i o n of ca p i t a 1 costs of

fan a nd motor combi nat i ons to yield a ne ak ven t i 1 a t i on air
CFM ag a i n s t di f fere nt he ad 1 os ses
It should
rate of 250,00
be no ted that this is an ar bi tra ry examp le and does not
neces sarily ap ply to a 11 ty pes of t unnel s and tunnel v e n t i 1 a These c al cul ations w ere b ased o n the data conti on systems
t a i n e d in Proj ect No. 170-3 (212)
(1 966) Report on Ve n t i 1 a t i o n
Studi es of the Col orad o Dep artment of Hi ghways for t he 1 .6
mi le Strai ght Creek Tu nnel
These latte r data were corrected
to se a level h orsepowe r req ui rement s and corre cted f or the
cost index c h a nges bet ween 1964 and 1970
The basi s for
Table 29 was t he use o f thr ee fans
1
1
exha ust and
su pply
1
sta ndby, eac h of 250 ,000 CFM rati ng, a c h o i c e deli berately
made to provid e a maxi mum ( and thus cons ervati ve ) co st basis.
Add it ional ly
extrapol ated unit p r i ces o f the motor- fan cornb i n a t ions in T able 29 were known to be i n t r i n s ic a 11 y high;
di rec t q u o t a t i on from a man ufacture r on two 12 5,000 CFM vaneaxi al motor-fa n comb in a t i o n s at 1.5 " sta tic he ad i n i cated
T h is co mpares with the
a cos t of $11 , 250 for the p air.
Table 29 value of $18, 500 f or the s ame f low ca pa city at 1"
stati c head.
.
cost of the bl owe r augTa ble 2 9 pro v i d e s a base

men tat i on ro ute o f pro v i d i n g e i t h e r i ncr emental vol urn e or
static head (or b oth).
Thus
to pr ovi de an i n c ement al
250,000 CFM f 1 ow for a n i n i t i a 1 250 ,000 CFM tunn el pe ak
venti 1 a tion rate at a 2" stati c pre ssure head, w oul d requi re
a total capi tal c harge for the addi t i o n a 1 blower s of $102,600.
The new head of 4 .2" W .G. woul d sat i s f y the squa rinq of the
origina 1 hea d req ui rem ent, and the annua 1 capita 1 cha rges
for the adde d sys tern o n a 30-y ear a morti z a t i o n s chedu le would
be $6,6 80.
Addit ional ly, Tabl e 29 may b e used t o est imate
the cap ital costs i ncu rred in incre a s i n g the sta tic h ead at
constan t del i vere d vol ume, a s i t u a t ion t hat woul d res ult from
the use of a f i xe d-bed p o 1 1 u t i on co ntrol unit in a ve nti 1 ati on
tunnel
Tab le 29 show s that a n inc remen tal 3" W .G. h ead would
in vol ve a ca pita! cost increme nt of $26, 100, and an a n n u a 1 i z e d
charge incre ment of $1 ,700.
,
The tunnel ventilation fan operating costs were

also adapted from the Straight Creek Tunnel Design report, and
the electrical energy costs were assumed to be the same as
in the report.
In the absence of a specific reference tunnel
location, the electrical power cost data for any location may
be used as a reference case, provided the detailed cost breakdown is provided, as was the case in the Straight Creek Tunnel
report.
The calculated data are summarized in Table 30, and
attention is called to the assumed operating rate of half-peak
load for 365 days/year plus peak load of 44 hours per week.
131
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It s hould be o b v i o u s at t his p o i n t t h at if l nse rtion

of a pol 1 u t i o n control u nit i n the tunnel v e n t i 1 a t i o n sys tern
incu rs a head loss of 1" or m ore
t hen ad d i t i o n al fa n cap abe r equi red.
city wi 1
Howev er th e use of thi s fan al on e,
with out i nstal 1 a t i o n of the p o 1 1 u t i on con trol u nit, is it self
Thus
capa ble o f red u c i n g the pol 1 u tant c oncent ration 1 eve Is.
the cost- benef it p o t e n t al of pol lu t i o n c ontrol unit wi th
sign i f i ca nt he ad loss mu st ou twei gh not o nly th e cap ital and
oper a t i n g cost s of the a dditi onal f anpowe r requ i r e d
but al so
the pol 1 u ti on improvemen t ben efit o f the v e n t i 1 ati on pote n t i a 1
pres ented by t he fan inc remen t i t s e If.
W hile t his w ill d epend
on t he he ad-ca pa city cur ves o f the origin al fan s i n exist ing
tunn els
pragm a t i c a 11 y t h i s w o u 1 d i n d i c a t e that the head 1 oss
aero ss th e pol 1 u t i o n con trol equipm ent be held to le ss th an
the norma 1 hea d rating o f the o r i g i nal fa n , and pref erabl y to
Ther e are very f ew pol 1 utio n con trol
a ne g i i g i ble h ead loss.
proc esses that have an i nhere ntly 1 ow or n e g 1 i g i ble press ure
loss char acter istic, but in v iew of the i ncreme ntal v e n t i 1 a t i o n
al te mate to h i g h h e a d - oss e quipme nt
th e 1 ow- 1 oss equip ment
will poss ess a two-fold econo m i c ad vantag e.
,
CO and
Hydrocarbons
Be cause the pres ence of CO and hydroca rbons , inng oxyg enated hy droca r b o n s , i s the r esult o f inc omplete
combu sti on
completi o n of combusti on is a n o b v i o us me thod of
Howe ver
al though
remov ing the se pollut ants from tun n e 1 air
CO an d hydro carbons c n s t i tute the major f racti o ns of the
pol 1 u tant lo ad, and o x i d a t ive remo val of these f racti o n s is
of
i n s p e c t i o n
the p referre d i n d u s t r ial t reatment method
Table 27 led to the p rel im i n a ry j u dgement that t herma 1
o x i d a tion wa s not fea s i b 1 e
This concl us ion is based on the
of com b u s t i b 1 es in the
fact that th e concent ratio n 1 eve!
tunne 1 air a re severa 1 ord ers of m a g n i t u d e lower than any
and that
known feed s tream to a the rmal inc i n e r a t i on proc ess
the a mbient temperatu re of the tun n e 1 air presen ts no thermal
All of the energy i npu t and
advan tage fo r such a proce ss.
remov al for the requi red t hernial c ycle mu st be e xtern ally
suppl i e d , an d thermal i n c i nerati on was no t c o n s i dered fea si ble
c
ud
134
However, some preliminary calculations

or treated in depth.
were carried out to assess the magnitude of the economics
of a hypothetical heat/cooling cycle.
Ther e are two types of th ermal o x i d a t i o n pra c t i c e d
Becaus e the p roduc ts of
rect flame a nd i n di re ct hea ting,
combus tion of di rec t fl a me in c i n e r a tion wo uld pro bably add
to the tunnel air p ollu tant c oncent rations of the same or
greate r concen trati on 1 evel s as tho s e o r i g i n a 1 1 y prese nt in
the tu n n e 1 air
thi s me thod w as jud ged not a p p 1 i c able
Assumi n g
in di rect heati ng, and a temp eratu re
ther ef ore
increm ent of 1 000F Pr e 1 i m i n ary he a t i n g a nd cool ing c ost
e s t i m a tes have been mad e.
Fo r the heating p o r t i o n of the
cycle, using a ther mal e f f i c i ency 1 evel of 5 0%, n atura 1 gas
requir ements o f 5.5 6 x 10 5 CF H are indicat ed.
If a co nservati ve estimat e of cool ing cy cl e op era ting costs is ma de,
taking these a s equ al t o the n a t u r a 1 gas c osts fo r hea ting,
then t he minim al an nual opera ting c osts fo r the t herma 1 cycle
operat ion w o u d be $99, 200, b ased o n a tot al annu al op erating
time o f 2,288 hours
E ven wi thout system capital char ges,
this f igure is far i n e xcess of the a u x i 1 i ary ven ti lat ion
costs.
Fur the r, it sho ul d be noted that t he use of 5. 56 x
c
105 CF H of nat ural gas as f ue 1 prod uces a total o f 3.7 6 x 10 6
CFH of combust ion g ases with their own sec ondary pol lu tion
1 o a d i n g.
Thes e wou Id h ave to be ve nted fr om the tunne 1 by
a sepa rate flu e , bu t si nee th ey amo unt to about 2 5% of the
total vent i 1 at ion a ir r ate
p rovi si on for this in exi s ting
tunnel s would i n v o 1 ve c o n s i d e rabl e constru c t i o n
Thus , both
t e c h n i cal and econo mic i n d i c a ti ons for the rmal ox i da ti on
appear to be n e g a t i ve.
;
di
The norma 1 i n d u stri a 1 cataly tic ox idati on pr ocess

employs o perat ing t empera tures several hundr ed de grees lower
than thos e use d in therma 1 oxi d a t i o n t e c h n i q ues
but t hese
neverthel ess w ould consti tute apprecia ble th ermal cycl ing
costs for tunn el ai r trea tment
What is req ui red i s a n
ambient or ne ar-am b i e n t tempe rature c atalyt ic ox idati on
operation to avoid both therm al cycl i ng and the secon dary
pol lutant prob 1 em o f auxi 1 i a ry fuel -bu r n i n g to su pply thermal
energy,
While a 11 teratu re se arch fai led to find any i n d u s trial low -temp eratu re o x d a t i o n proces ses fo r pol lutan t removal
tw o rec ent 1 aborat ory d evelopme nts ap peare d to satisfy
the low-t emper ature requi remen ts.
The first of t hese is a
"commerci al" 6 0% Mn 02/40% CuO catalyst teste d by Canno n (58)
on automo ti ve exhau st and repo rted to have a thre shold acti vity tempe ratur e of 25C.
Desp ite seve ral di rect i n q u i ries
no furthe r i nf ormat ion co uld b e elicit ed on this mater i al
B ecaus e the test
which app ears to be s i m i 1 ar to Hopcal i te.
condition s rep orted for t his c a t a 1 y s t were v ery e ncour aging
c a 1 c u 1 a t i ons o f the requi red c atalyst vol ume and heat loss
were made to d eterm i n e t h e fea si bi 1 i ty of la rge s cale a p p 1 i ,
135
cation to the 250,000 CFM base tunnel air case:

Cannon Catalyst
60 Mn02/40 CuO
Test Conditions: Space Velocity = 10,880 hr

Operating Temperature = 25C
Catalyst Density = 0.88 g/ml
Volumetric Air Flow
250,000 CFM
a.
Catalyst Volume Required
b.
{250,000)(60)
10,880
Pressure Drop
Volume
-,
380 CF
Without information on the physical form of the

catalyst, it is necessary to assume that it would be equivalent to 4-10 mesh granules in fixed-bed form.
Assuming
further a linear velocity of 80 ft/min, typical of granular
fixed-bed gas processing:
Case
Face Velocity
Bed Area
80 FPM
(250,000 CFM)_
Bed Thickness
(80 FPM)
.(Volume)
3>125 ft 2
P?jj?
(3125)
(Area)
0.441
ft
5.3 inches
Weight of Catalyst
=
=
(1380 CF)
7,580 lbs
(0.88)
(62.4 PCF)
From Figure 1, Appendix II:
Pressure Drop/inch depth at 80 FPM = 0.725 in.W.G

Pressure Drop through 5.3-inch bed
= (0.725) (5.3) = 3.84 in. W.G.
The above pressure drop calculation was based on a
normal linear gas flow velocity through a fixed granular bed,
and the AP of 3.84 in. W.G. may be excessive for ventilation
blowers with limited heads.
It is therefore desirable to
calculate bed area and thickness for the case of limited blower
head, and this latter value can now be assumed as not to exceed
1
inch W.G.
136
Face Velocity = 45 FPM (Trial

from Figure 1, Appendix II)
Case II:
Bed Area
25 ????
(45)
Bed Thickness
-(^jj*Jg|
(0.2485)
&
error
5,560 ft 2
=
0.2485 ft
(12)
2.98 inches
From Figure 1, Appendix II, at 45 FPM
Pressure drop/ in. depth = 0.33 in. W.G.

Total Pressure Drop = (2.98) (0.33) = 0.985 in.
The reduct i on in press u re dr op f om 3.8 " to 1" W.G.
ac compl is he d by t he red u c t i o n in fa ce ve loci ty from 80 to
45 FP M, and a simul t aneous decrea se in bed t h i c k n ess f rom 5.3
to 3 inches,
Howeve r , in order t con serve the i n i t i a 1 space
vel oc ity value of 10 ,800 h r-1, th e bed f 1 ow area incre ases
Thi s i s a 783 incre ase i n bed
from 3,125 ft 2 to 5 560 ft 2
area , which wi 11 be ref lee ted in the c a p i t a 1 cost of t he unit
Howe ver, the
in te rms of th e extr a bed constru c t i o n requ ired.
econo mic calcu lation s out! ined be 1 ow d e 1 i b e rately negl e c t this
facto r, to pro vide t he mos t o p t i m i s t i c cost e s t i m ate f or oxid a t i o n.
The o ptimum fixed -bed un it in term s of t he he ad-loss/
bed a rea cap it al cos t rel a t i o n s h i p can be d etermi ned f rom the
c a p i t al and op eratin g cost s diffe rence for the bl owers invol ve d , from t he dat a of T ables 2 9 and 30, should this comp a r i s on be req ui red.
is
Whil e the ambien t-tem perature

MnOo/Cu catalyst
appea rs to off er re asonabl e pro spects o f appiica bil ity to
the t u n n e 1 air prob lem, pe n d i n g further developm ent effort,
there are two a d d i t i o n a 1 a spect s to be considere d.
First,
the C annon tes ts we re made di re ctly on automoti v e exhaust,
and t he concen trati ons of pol lu tants we re approx imately 150
times as great as t hose to be e ncounter e d in tun n e 1 air.
Secon d, there is ev i d e n c e that complete oxidati o n of the hydro
carbo n fractio n by ambient -temp erature catalytic oxidation
may n ot be pos s i b 1 e
and c ertai n partia 1 ly-oxidi zed hydrocarbons
such as acrol e i n and form al dehyde
are eye irri tants
which are much more discern forti ng than their i n e rt precursors.
The t e c h n i c a 1 feasi bil ity of ca t a 1 y t i c oxidation employing
manga nese-copp er ox i d e cat alyst s may be consider ed to be tent a t i v ely promi sing, and fu rther di rect testing a t tunnel air
pol lu tant cone entra t i o n s i s str ongly re commended
,
One of the well-established feasibility factors for

catalytic oxidation of automobile-derived pollutants is the
susceptibility of the catalyst to poisoning by the lead salts
and other particulates present in auto exhaust.
Based on
exhaust catalytic converter experience continuous long term
137
,,
a fixed -bed catalytic o x i d a tion p r ocess is not

feasible w i t h o ut pr o v i s i o n f or pre -remova 1 of parti cul ates
and a co st eva luati on must c n s i d e r the c ombin ed syste m.
This con sidera ti on also appl ies to the se cond
1 owtemperat ure ox i d a t i on ca'taly st dev eloped by Su
wh\ch
consi sts of a trans ition met al oxi de supp orted on acti vated
carbon,
When used on ammoni a synt h e s i s g as
t he lowes t
temperat ure at whic h plus-90 % oxid at ion w as ob tained w as
120C, a 1 thoug h the re were i n d i c a t ions t h at th i s was n ot
the lowe st the rmal activity level a c h i e v a ble.
While t his
catalyst appea rs pr omi sing the da ta prov i ded are labo ratory
scale, w i t h s p ace v e 1 o c i t i e s of on ly 200 hr-1 at ambie nt
pressure
Tes ts at higher p ressur es (400 psi) and hi g her
so
space ve loci ti es of 4800 hr~ 1 show ed only 503 c o n v e r s i on
that ext rapol a ti on to tunnel d e s i g n i s un certa in.
How ever
because of the acti vated car bon ba se for this o x i d a t i o n
catalyst i t i s pro bable tha t the feasibi lity and econ omics
of its a p p 1 i c a tion will clos ely pa rallel that of a c t i v ated
carbon a dsorpt ion treated b el ow.
use of
Price information on the Mn02/Cu0 catalyst tested

by Cannon was not available directly, and it was therefore
assumed that this was a precipitated material.

From published
price data on the component oxides so prepared, it was estimated that the cost of the mixed oxides was approximately
$1.80/1b.
Provided that bulk quantities of this catalyst
could be obtained at this price, the catalyst cost for the
This latter figure
required 7,580 lbs would be $13,644.
involves considerable uncertainty because of the quantity
involved and the. present lack of available information on
commercial sources.
Because of th e sirrn larity b etween f ixed- bed c ataoxid a t i o n op erati ons an d a c t i v a ted carb on ad sorbe rs
i t
w as fel t that a v a i 1 a ble ca pital co sts data for the 1 atter
unit s coul d be app lied to the catalyt ic opera tion, wi th due
B ecause
corr e c t i o n for the cost of ca talyst a nd acces sorie s.
adso rbers (and cat a lyti c oxid a t i o n u n its) 1 a r ger t han 5 0,000
CFM have n ot yet b een b u i 1 1
it is n cessary to ex trapo 1 ate
from the 1 0,000 to 50,0 00 CFM range t o the 25 0,000 CFM 1 eve]
of t unnel air flow of t he pre sent pro blem.
F rom H EW, A P-68U12)
the extrap olated i nstal 1 ed co st of an acti vat ed ca rbon adsorber
trea ting 2 50,000 C FM of ai r
superh eater con denser
i n c 1 u d i n g
deca nter
blower a nd mo tor, c ooling t ower, fi 1 ters
car bon
f 11 er hou sing and vess el
For
wa s est i ma ted to b e $29 5,000
cata lytic oxidatio n
it was a ssumed t hat the acces sory charges
were equiv alent to 50% of the total i nstal led cost
giv i n g an
e s t i mated capital cost of $14 7,000.
However, this f igu re
cont a i n s a carbon charg e of $ 0.45/lb, and cor recti ng f r the
diff erence between this price and the $1.80/1 b cat alyst cost
give s an i ncrement al co st of $10,233, for a t otal of $1 57,233.
lyti
,
,
138
Depending on catalyst life with and without pre-removal

of particulates, a situation that should be experimentally
determined for the low tunnel air particulate loading of
500 yg/m^, it probably would be cheaper to periodically
replace the catalyst rather than install a suitable partic-
ulate-removal device such as an electrostatic precipitator.

Lack of catalyst cost and life data does not allow a firm
estimate at this time, but assuming a 3-year replacement
schedule at the above-estimated catalyst cost, plus 35%
for the labor involved in change-over, the annualized catalyst
charge would then be $4,775.40, and the particulate control
unit is eliminated.
The write-off period for pollution control equipment will vary with the potential corrosion severity of the
process and system handled, but in any event will be faster
than for a purely mechanical unit such as a blower and motor.
For the comparatively mild conditions expected in ambienttemperature catalytic oxidation, a 20-year straight-line
amortization period may be assumed.
The capital and operating
charges for catalytic oxidation may be summarized as follows:
TABLE
31
SUMMARY OF CATALYTIC OXIDATION COSTS
60% Mn0 2 /40% CuO Ambient-Temperature Catalyst
Annual Unit
Capital
Charged)
Annualized
Catalyst
Replacement
Annual Fan
Capital Cost
(Table 29)
Total Annual
Capital
Charges
$4,980
$19,189
Cost
$9,434
(a)
$4,775
Total
Operating
Cost
(Table 30)
$4,095
Including 20% for taxes, insurance and maintenance.
For the removal of small amounts of hydrocarbons

from an air stream, activated carbon adsorption is the method
of choice, primarily because of its selectivity and low-concen
tration capability.
A number of discussions were held with
139
engineering representatives of a major activated carbon

supplier with reference to the practicality of a 250,000
CFM scale of operation, which was known to be roughly 10
times that of a large industrial installation.
The consensus as to economic feasibility was negative, although
technically, there was no indication of scale problems for
adsorbable hydrocarbons, although capacity was questionable
On a preliminary basis, removal of a single component or
pollutant group from the air stream with a high-head loss
fixed-bed operation is an expensive and less-than-i deal
method of partial control.
As shown in T abl e 27, t he con centr ation of hydrocarbo ns in tunnel air a t pea k loa ding, excl u si ve of acetylene and e thylene, i s a bout 7 ppm
Bas ed on adsorpti on
d ata supp lied by Pi ttsbu rgh Ac t i v a t ed Carbon Comi s o t h erm
pany, ther e will b e no ads or pti on of et hylen e, acetylene
or fo rmald ehyde at the 1 or 2 ppm conce ntrat ion levels at
which thes e compon ents are p resen tint unnel air.
Based
on he xane adsorpti on da ta
a t 77 F and
psi a, 30 lbs hexane
wi 1
be ad sorbed n er 10
lbs carb on
so hydr ocarbon adsorption
at 7 ppm ( 6.86 x 1 0-5 p si a) is pr obably feas ible, although at
limit ed ca paci ty.
In o rder to ta ke a c onser vative approach
to th e pre 1 i m i n a ry desi gn, p arti c u 1 a r 1 y i n t he absence of
data on th e hydroc arbon comp o s i t i on in tunne 1 air, it was
deci d ed to utilize n-bu tane adsor p t i o n data,
The n-butane
i s o t h erms
were sup plied by P i 1 1 s b urgh A c t i v a ted Carbon
Compa ny, a nd an ex trapo a t i o n of these i s o t h erms to the
re g i o n of hydrocar bon c oncen t r a t i on in tunne 1 air is presente d i n Figure 2 in A ppend ix II
Fro m thi s basis:
1
Activated Carbon Adsorber Design

Part
I:
Adsorption Cycle
From Figure 2, Appendix
Capacity to saturation
II
=
at
ppm HC:
1.57 lb n-butane/100 lb
carbon
Working Charge, at 50% of saturation capacity
= 0.785 lb n-butane/100 lb
carbon
From Lee (1970) and PACC0 data:
Area of Bed Required

Bed Depth:
Face Velocity
(250,000j.
j 25
ft
80 FPM
In order to avoid the use of a twobed system, and the extreme capital
costs involved, bed depth was selected
by trial and error to yield a single-
140
bed adsorber capable of operating,

with steam regeneration, within a
Design is such that
24-hour cycle.
steam regeneration can be theoretically accomplished in off-peak load
time period.
Bed Depth
Volume of Bed
(3,125)
inches
(1/2)
1,562 CF
Weight of Carbon in Bed (at 30 Ib/CF bulk density)

=
(1
46,860 lbs
(30)
,562)
Weight of Adsorbate to Breakthrough

=
(46,860)
(0.00785)
368 lbs
0.725 in.W.G.
Lb/Hr of Hydrocarbon (Table 27)

=
17.6 Ib/hr
Duration of Adsorption Cycle

368 )
17.6)
20.8 hours
From Figure 1, Appendix II:
Pressure Drop/inch depth at 80 FPM

Pressure Drop through 6-inch bed
=
(0.725)
(6)
4.35 in.W.G.
The pressure loss through the fixed-bed adsorber

virtually the same as the head capacity of the 4.2" W.G.
blower listed in Tables 29 and 30, and the operating costs
of this unit may be added to those of the adsorption equipment (capital cost estimate for the activated carbon adsorber
includes the blower).
is
In the absence of actual system test data, steam

regeneration cycle requirements for a uniquely low concentration of 7 ppm hydrocarbon of varying composition can at
best be roughly approximated.
Mattia(56) presents dsta for
adsorption of a 20 ppm solvent from a 20,000 CFM stream,
together with steam regeneration time curves for various
blowdown rates.
Taking a value of 128 minutes regeneration
from the Mattia curve at a blowdown rSte of 2000 CFM, and
estrapol ating linearly to the tunnel air adsorption conditions
141
CFM Blowdown Required
(20 ppm)
ppm)
(7
=
(20,000 CFM)
(250,000 CFM)
(2,000 CFM)
8,760 CFM
Steam/Regeneration, assuming 110% blowdown for vessel

heatup
Lb
(492)(128)(18)(1.1)
(359)(7l0)
(8,760)
42,900 lbs/cycle
Assuming 50% operational time requirements:

No.
Cycles/Year
where adsorption time

time =' 2.1 hours
)p2)
182 cycles
20.8 hours, regeneration
and heating-cooling time
1.1
hours
While the s i m i 1 a r fixe d-bed proc esse s of ca talyti c

oxidati on and adsor p t i o n b oth ap pear to be tec h n i c a 1 y feasible
the high flow requi red in the co ntact beds may give r i s e to
space req uirement p roblems
Thi s i s parti cul a rly tru e in the
case of t he adsorpt ion ope ration whi c h req ui re s acces sory
regenerat ion e q u i p.m ent sue h as a 1 arg e ste am b oiler, condenser
and cooli ng water, etc.
A1 so
w hi le catal yti c o x i d a t ion produces no secondary p o 1 1 u t i on pro blem, stea m re generat ion/
condensat ion in an adsorpt ion cy cle p roduc es a hydroc arboncontami na ted water st earn to d i s pose of.
If h o t i n e r t-gas
stripping is used, the hyd rocarb on ca n be burn ed but then
thermal i ncineratio n costs must be ad ded.
The sing! e -bed
conventi o nal steam- regener ated a dsorp ti on syst em out! ined above
appears t o offer th e fewes t prob 1 ems in st rai g htforwa rd
a p p 1 i c a t i on to tunn el
air contro 1
bu t the bas i c a d s o rption/
regenerat ion data r equi red for a more ri no rous determ i n a t i o n
of techni cal feasib i 1 i ty i n the const rai nt s of tunnel i n s t a 1 1 a tions are not avail able.
.
As was noted in the economic workup on fixed-bed

catalytic oxidation, the capacity of the adsorption system
required, 250,000 CFM, far exceeds that of any unit yet
built.
Extrapolation of economic data to this range is exAgain using HEW AP-68C12)
treme, and extremely uncertain.
curves for installed costs, and extrapolating:
Installed Cost, 250,000 CFM Adsorber
142
$295,000
Charges
Capital
Assuming 15-year life, 20% taxes and insurance

=
Annualized Capital Charges

Operating Charges
Steam Costs:
Cost/cycle, at $1.00/M lb steam cost
Cost/Year, 182 cycles

Blower Cost
Annual
$42.90
$7,808
From Table 30,
Total Operating Costs

Total
$23,600
1"
W.G.
$4,095
$11,903
Capital + Operating Charges
$35,503
Ac t i v a t e d carbo n adsor p t i o n systems are particularly

susce pti ble to bind i n g an d deact i v a t on by particulates, and
the e conomi c s of pa rti cul ate rem oval equipment y_s_. periodic
carbo n repla cement are in determi nate without information on
the r ate of loss of adsor p t i o n c a p a c i ty at the 500 yg/m 3
parti cul ate loading
How ever, t he ec onomics already indicated are no t encou raging
compa red w i th the costs of straight'
f orwa rd vent i 1 a t i o n in ere ases as show n in Table 29 and 30.
Addit i on a! ly the c arbon system has t he limited capability
of re movi ng only th e heav ier hyd rocar bon fraction from the
pol lu tant sp ectrum, and n o sorpt ion c apability for the critical 1 ow-wei ght hyd rocarb ons sue h as acetylene, ethylene and
forma ldehyde
Thus
this proces s can not be recommended at
this time.
i
Particulates
ca pa city an d eff l ci ency of e 1 ectros tatic preare enti rely adequat e for treatm ent of tunnel
air.
In co ntras t to the propo sed cat alyti c o x i d a tion or a d sorpti on me thods for tunn el po 1 1 u t i o n cont rol , 1 a rge-scale
commer ci al high- voltage e 1 ectr o s t a t i c prec i pi tat on units
handle gas f 1 ows in the 5 00,00 to 2, 000,0 00 rang e, so that
a 250, 000 C FM ca pacity is not at all unusu al.
Ho wever, when
T he
ta
tors
(ESP)
di rect inqu i r i e s were mad e of several vend ors of ESP equipment r e 1 a t i ve to the tunn el ai r probl em, t here wa s unanimous
doubt expre ssed as to the appl i c a b i 1 i ty of their units to a
gas st ream c o n t a i n i n g the 1 ow parti cu late concent ration of
500 ug /m 3
The reason fo r th s attit ude i s not d ifficult to
.
143
stan dard un its o f grains/CF, 500 ug/m 3

HEW, AP-51 013) in
is e q al to a va 1 ue of 0.00021 9 gr/ CF.
their summa ry on Contro 1 Techn i q u e s for Particulate Air
Pollut ants repor ted an extreme ly lo w exit loading from a
commer ci al ESP u nit to be 0.00 5 gr/ CF.
Thus, the concent r a t i o n of parti cul ates report ed in ambient tunnel air is
only 4 % tha t of an unus ually 1 ow-co ncentration treated gas
stream
It ther efore a ppears that the technical feasibility
of ESP appl i c a t i on to p art cul ate r emoval at the loadings
Prenormal ly en count ered in tunnel ai r is very doubtful.
1 i m i n a ry
te sting would be nece ssary to modify present negative e n g i n e e r i n g judgme nt of t he fe asibility of ESP extrap o 1 a t i on to the highly- dilute regi o n of particulate loadings
determ i ne.
In
t he
Assuming a 150 to 200-fold dilution of automotive

exhaust in tunnel air, the concentration of particulates in
This
the exhaust itself will be of the order of 0.04 gr/CF.
latter concentration is in the range where agglomeration and
inertia! removal are effective, and exhaust source control
of particulates has already proven to be technically feasible, and is most certain to be utilized when standards are
formulated.
The impetus for external control of particulates
therefore would not seem to exist atthis time.
Despite the
present lack of any data on particulate collectibility by
ESP, or the physical nature and properties of the particulates, an exploratory economic analysis of this operation
was carried out.
The economic workup of ESP was carried out using
the procedures outlined in HEW, AP- 51 (113) and the cost data
contained in this publication and in Walker(99)
4
Design Capacity (S), ACFM
250,000
Assuming 50% onstream time requirement:

Annual
Operating Time (H)
4,380 Hours
Purchase Cost (High Efficiency Unit)

Instal
ati on
$180,000
Low
Installation Factor, %
40
Typical
70
High
100
Installation Cost
72,000
$126,000
$180,000
Purchase Cost
$180,000
$180,000
$180,000
$252,000
$306,000
$360,000
Total
Capital
Cost
144
Charges (C)
Annual Capital
The simplifying assumptions used in estimating the

annualized capital costs, in HEW, AP-51 were:
Depreciation of purchase and installation

costs over 15 years.
Straight-line depreciation of 6-2/3% on
installed costs, plus
Capital charges of taxes, interest and
insurance of 6-2/3% of initial capital
costs, to give a total annual charge
of 13-1/3%.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Additionally, the 1968 equipment costs used in AP-51 were

uncorrected to 1971 costs because of the preliminary nature
of the cost estimates made.
(C)
(0.133)(Cost)
Low
(C L
(0.
33) ($252,000)
$33,516
Medium
(C M
(0.
33) ($306 ,000)
$40,698
High
(C
(0.133) ($360 ,000)
$47,880
Power
Maintenance Costs (assuming no extra fan power)
&
Power Costs
(K),
$/kw-hr
Power Requi rements (J)
10"3|<w/ACFM
Maintenance Costs(M), $/ACFM

G
S(JHK
annual operating
design capacity, ACFM
power requirements, kw/ACFM
annual
power cost, $/kw-hr
Low
Typi cal
High
0.005
0.011
0.06
0.19
0.26
0.40
0.01
0.04
0.06
+ M)
where
M =
&
maintenance costs
operating time, 4,380 hours
maintenance costs, $/ACFM
145
Low(G L ), Typical (G M ), and High(Gu) annual operating and

maintenance costs calculated as above are as follows:.
G
$3,540;
$13,130;
Mean Annual
and, Total
Cost
C|^
$41,230
$53,828
Using the square root of the sum of the squares of

the differences, the high (V^) and low(V L ) cost variances are
as
follows:
V
1/2
($7,182) 2 + ($9,590) 2
$11 ,940
$28,950
($7,182)
Therefore
($28,1 00)
1/2
2
)
Lower Cost Limit
$53,828
$41 ,888
Higher Cost Limit* $53,828

=
$11,940
$28,950
$82,778
The high cost variance amounts to more than 50%

of the mean cost of $53,828, so that the chances of exceeding
the mean cost is much better than a cost under-run.
The
annual ESP costs are a good deal higher than those of the
treatment techniques previously estimated, and it may be concluded that, in addition to being technically doubtful, ESP
is apparently prohibitively expensive for the single-component application.
It s hould be n oted that high -vol ta ge ESP units are
normal ly appl i ed to high ly co ncentrate d emis s i o n s
whereas
two-stage low -volt age u nits are used for di lute li quid
aerosol s such as oi 1 smo kes a nd genera 1 air condi ti o n i n g
I t
units.
was real i zed that the low-v ol tage units might be
more appl i c a b 1 e to the t unnel parti cul ate pr oblem, but these
units can not b e use d on solid s
w i t h o u t wash i n g a d a p t a t i o n
Further, the 1 arges t-cap aci ty two-stag e unit for wh ich cost
data are avail able is 10 0,000 ACFM, an d the i nstal 1 ed cost
of this u nit i s abo ut $3 30,00 0, as aga i n s t $ 190,000 for the
Theref ore, the
h i g h - v o 1 age E SP un it of the same capa ci ty
cost situ a t i o n for the t wo- st age low-v ol tage preci p i t a t o r is
even more nega ti ve than for t he ESP un it c a 1 cul ated in detail
above, an d thi s uni t was not reviewed f urthe r.
,
146
Based
Division of Joy
of 16,680 cubic
the requirement
on data provided by Western Precipitation

Manufacturing Company, a precipitator volume
feet was estimated as necessary to handle
of 250,000 ACFM at a 5 ft/sec linear velocity.
W h i 1 e a n umber of di ffere nt ty pes o f we t col 1 ectors

can be used for par t i c u 1 a te co llect ion
a pre 1 imi nary survey
of n ormal c a pa city ranges and head 1 osse s i nd icat e the spray
cham ber to be the
owest headloss
high est t hrou gh-pu t
devi ce.
becau se of the humid i f i c a tion prob 1 em,
Ba s i c a 1 1 y
wet col 1 ect ion devi ces of any sort canno t be used with in a
tunn el for treatmen t of a i r w h i ch w ill b e re- i ntr oduce d into
the tunnel
All we t scru b b i n g devi ces i nhere ntly cont ai n
an i n i t i a 1 a d i a b a t i c gas s a t u r a t i o n zone
and thi s eva poratio n mecha n i s m act ual ly h i n d e rs pa rti cu 1 ate coll e c t i o n becaus e of th e diffus ion of wate r vap or aw ay fr om t he li quid
drop s or su rface (s weep d i f f us ion).
Bee ause of t he sa turation
phen omenon associ at e d wit h wet cont actor s, th ese units can
be e mpl oyed only fo r exha ust a i r tr e a t i n g
an d ca nnot be
cons idered for cont rol of the i n - 1 u nnel atmos pher e.
H owever
many tunnel s have s pray c hambe rs to prot ect t he e xhaus t fans
in t he even t of tun n e 1 f i res
and i t is of di rect i nte rest to
esti mate th e c a p a b i 1 i t i e s of s uch p resen t equ i pme nt f r gross
tunn el emis s i o n con trol.
This pres ent s e c t i o n i s 1 i m i ted to
the c o n s i d e ration o f the a p p 1 i c a t i o n of spray cha mbers to
part i cul ate removal only.
,
A lthough t here are s everal e s t i m a tion t e c h n i q ues

avail able f or calcul a t i o n of c rossf 1 ow spra y chamb er re
ments for p arti cul at e rem oval
the met hods of Ranz and Wongv' 14
have been s uccessful ly em ploye d previo usly for i n d ustri al
d e s i g n prob lems, and thes e wer e used t o obt a i n a p rel im i nary
size esti ma te for sp ray c hambe r volume s.
T hese ca 1 cul a t i o n s
are g i v e n i n detail in th e App e n d i x II and the res ul ts are
prese n t e d i n summary form in T able 32.
The requi r ed ch amber
hoi du p time depends on th e spr ay rate ratio of wat e r / a i r , the
1 i q u i d
drop let size, aero sol p article size and the requ i red
For t he 50 0-mi cro n spr ay
parti cul ate removal e f f i c iency
drops
the requi red res id ence contact time falls o ff ra p i d 1 y
wi th the in crease in aero sol p article size, at any gi ve n
ef f i c i ency 1 eve!
F or th e 90% removal leve 1
the conta ct
time decrea ses from 16.1 secon ds for a 2 -mi cron ae rosol parti c 1 e
to 1 75 second s for a 5- micron p arti c le.
Th e cor resn
d
i
o
vol
ft 3 and
ng
umetric
hambe
rement
s
are
67,000
c
r
req
ui
p
For a decrea se in ef f i ci ency from
7,300 ft 3 respecti v ely.
90% t o 75%, the volu me re quire ments on a 5- micron parti cle
basis chang es from 7 ,300 ft 3 t o 4,400 ft 3
,
As is obvious from Table 32, the governing variable

for particulate removal in a spray system is the size of the
particulate.
As was indicated earlier, more than 95% of the
mass of automotive exhaust fumes is in the plus-1 micron size
147
H
JB
1
>
sco
to
o#
o
o
o
o
o
o
oo
lO
\r>
es
o
2
~
a o
S3
Q
CO
wwwo
ON
*W^
CVJ
JO
JB
2
o u
cl
a, >s
^5
>
CO
o
O
lO
NO
CO
CO
t>
CO
in
CN
VO
r-4
vO
CO
es
m
m
CO
*
LO
vO
CN
CO
"*
IT)
o o
1*1
h
d
w
33 Pi
t-<
ft
xi
r^.
O
2;
Cd
JE5
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CO
-r-
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<=>
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CO
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8
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148
Further, a spray system tends to increase particle

range.
size by agglomeration, so that a degree of particle growth
can be expected.
Also, in the normal spray system, the liquid
is colder than the gas, and a certain amount of condensation
on the aerosol particulates will occur, increasing the particle
size.
The chamber sizes required for the removal of plus-3
micron particulates from 250,000 CFM of air in Table 32 are
reasonable and, given the expected particle size distribution,
the use of spray chambers for removal of particulates from
tunnel exhaust air at good efficiency (75-90%) apnears to
be technically feasible.
Because water spray scrubbing was under consideration as a tunnel exhaust treatment technique, a detailed
estimate was not attempted, and the preliminary costs were
calculated under the assumptions and the data of HEW, AP- 51,
as outlined previously.
Using the wet scrubber cost data
for a 250,000 CFM unit:
Annual
Capital
Cost
Purchase Cost
$32,000
Installation Cost(0 100%)

Total
and
Annual
Annual
G
Installed Cost
Capital
Cost
$32,000
$64,000
33) ($64 ,000)
(0.
$8,512
Operating and Maintenance Cost,

=
S(0.7457HK(Z
Qh/1980)
(G)
WHL + M)
where
Val ue
250,000
Design capacity, ACFM
Annual operating time, at 50%, hours/year
4,380
Power costs, $/kw-hr (typical)
0.011
Contacting power, HP/ACFM (low)
0.0013
Liquor circulation rate, gal /ACFM(low)
0.001
head required, ft of water (high)
Make-up water, gal/ACFM
149
60
0.0005
Water cost, $/gal
Maintenance cost, $/ACFM(low)
now
(Z
and
WHL
Qh/1980)
.+
10~3(typi cal
0.50
0.02
0.00133
(0.005) (4,380) (0.
0.001096
10"
3
)
(250, 000)(0.7457)(4,380)(0.011)(0.00133) + (0. 0211)
$17,250
Total
Annual
Cost
$8,510
$25,760
$17,250
The annual operating and maintenance costs are on the

high side because of the use of generalized wet scrubber cost
data.
The spray chamber is the simplest device of all wet
contacting units, but the absence of specific unit operating
If more
cost information prevents a more rigorous analysis.
definitive costs are required, a reassessment of operating
costs is recommended for a specific tunnel location and a
localized cost structure.
Water Solubles
nspec ti on of Table 27 s hows that the water-soluble

i n c
u de th e oxygen a ted hydrocarbons, primarily
formal dehyd e and aero 1 e i n
n i troge n dioxide, sulfur dioxide
and ca rbon d i o x i de.
Other th an th e fact that the oxygenated
hydroc arbon s are eye irritant s
th e use of a wet scrubbing
operat ion w ould not a ppear to be w arranted for removal of
these compo nents at t he conce ntrat ion levels indicated.
However, prope rly-d e s i g n ed spray cham bers have the capability of
remova 1 of c a r c i nogen s of the benz o-(a)-pyrene typevllS) anc
they h ave a lso b een f ound to
irly effective in the removal
).
of eve n rat her i nsol u ble gase
The only valid basis for
evalua tion of we t scr u b b i n g a s an exhaust pollution control
t e c h n i que i s exp erime ntal wor k on the pollution system representat i ve o f dil uted automoti ve ex haust.
For the present,
feasi b i 1 i ty may be on 1 y indie ated
not calculated.
I
pol lut ants
\hU
The primary indicators of the feasibility of wet

scrubber or spray chamber application to tunnel exhaust
cleaning are the size of the unit to be required, and its
probable efficiency.
Spray chamber capacities and efficiencies
were investigated by Pigford(80)
an d mass gas flow rates of
2000 lbs/hr/ft^ were reported as being achievable in cyclonic
}
150
a
h
, i
entra nee un its w it h c entra 1 core sprays, or in counterwith good mist enmiltactors vnth
elimicurre nt or cross curre nt co ntactors
Fo r air
the base ventilation flow rate of 15 x
n a t i o n.
106 C FH wou Id re qui re a cr o_
)SS-sectional flow area of 562
'hr/ft^ mass rate.
This area i
sq ft to ma tch t he 20 00- lb /hr/ft^
dia meter of about 27 ft, which is
equi v al ent to a vesse
However, units of
rough ly the size of a two- 1 ane tunnel
this size a re no t unc ommon in industry, and since it could
be bu i 1 ex terna 1 to the t unnel proper, the diameter needed
does not ap pear impra c t i c a 1.
Again, the benefits of exhaust pol 1 u tant remov al re qui re further definition both on
a hea 1 th an d nui sance basi s
,
exten sive data of P igford^ 80 on spray chamber

absor ption show tha t from 1 to 3 transfer units are a v a i a b 1 e
in su ch equ i pment
depending on t he design
Th is con tact
ef f c i ency is a d e q ate for s olubl e gases w i th f avorab le
e q u i 1 i b r i u m r e 1 a t i o n s h i p s at the low conce ntrat ion
e vel s
Cal cu 1 a t i o n s
n d i c a te that a 11 of the oxyg enate d hydr ocarbons
can b e remo ved by w et scrubb ing
as can a s i g n i f i c a n t porti on
of th e n i t r ogen and sul fur o x i d e s
The ex tent of rem oval of
the 1 atter compound s
as wel
as that of a dditi onal m ateri al
depen ds on the w a t e r/gas rat i o
t he liquid temp eratur e
and
the d egree of water recycl e.
Exp eri mental data are r equi red
to de fine t he s p e c f c pol
tant removal e ffici e n c i e s as a
funct ion of these p arameters
and the pres ent f e a s i b i lity
must be reg arded as uncertai n.
T he
'
in
The economics of spray scrubbing have been reviewed

the previous section.
General
Feasibility:
Recycle
&
Compartmental i zati on
un e of th
i on
of th
t i o n s , in w ich the
in wh ole or part, t
l
nves t i
gat
tunne 1
Fun damenta
the a ccumul t i o n an
While a theo r e t i c a 1
more i n s t r u c t i v e to
model
and t he 2260
the e ffect o f diffe
trati on leve Is, as
.
by
Assuming now a tunnel, or tunnel section, T, followed

treatment process, P, for the removal of CO at an effici-
ency of
Er
151
cc
TUNNEL, T
i
1
WC E C
__
as*
RECYCLE,
where
F
fresh air rate, CFH
recycle air rate, CFH
Wc
rate of CO generation in T, CFH
Cc
concentration of CO leaving process,
C'
c
concentration of CO entering tunnel, T, ppm
concentration of CO leaving tunnel, T, ppm
CJ1
P,
ppm
Assuming there is no CO content in fresh ambient air, and

taking a process, effi ciency of 90%:
R
R/F
15
10 b
CFH
Let:
Substituting
F
Recycle ratio
in
the above equation:
15
10 6
(1
x)
At steady-state conditions,
so:
FC C =
Wc
FC C
2260
Cc
226/F
(1
(1
CO input
and
0.9)
152
CO output from system,
u
c
Now from CO balance around the bleed point:

(R +
and
(C c
F)
"
C + W c
2
C c)
(1
Assuming val ue s of
l0 6
6
'
F)
(R +
15-1
Cc
ppm
the co ncentr ations

This has been
of CO lea ving the tu nnel can now be ca 1 culated.
done for val ue s of x from 0.5 to 4, an d the res ul ts a re tabula ted in Table 33.
Wit ho ut any recycl e air, t h e cone entration
of CO lea ving the tu nnel is the base v alue of 1 50 ppm
which
is simply the genera ti on rate (2 260 CF H ) divide d by t he tunnel
v e n t i 1 a t i on ra te of 15 x 10 6 CFH
It is o b v i o s that any and
all val ue s of recycl e ser ves to increa se the CO conce ntrati on
of t u n n e
Further ,
ai r above the b ase val u e wit hout recy cle.
even if t he pr ocess remov al effi ciency is incre ased t o 100%,
the tunne 1 CO concen t r a t i on then only becomes e qual t o the
base 150 ppm v al ue.
For any pro cess r emoval ef f i ci en cy of
less than 100%
the tunne 1 conce ntrati on must i ncreas e above
the base val ue of 15
ppm CO wit h any finite v a 1 ue fo r recycle.
I f
the re wer e no piston effect , it must be co nd uded
that recy cle a ir ope rati o n in tu nnel v e n t i 1 a t i o n i s c ompletely
impracti c al
a nd wou 1 d on ly resu It in higher p o 1 lutan t concentratio ns th an wou Id be the ca s e wit hout recy cle.
However,
since a p i s t o n ef fee t doe s exist
and is in f a t impo s s i b 1 e
to e 1 i m i n ate
recycl e cou Id prov e to b e a feasi ble al though
highly ex p e n s i ve pro cess.
t
he
re cycle
r atio
x,
A glance at the model used for the above calculation

show that it applies equally well to internal recycle
operations between sections of a tunnel as well as to a complete tunnel system.
Thus, no matter where the recycle is
placed, the pollutant concentration increase will occur.
An
examination of the assumptions made in the derivation of the
data of Table 33 show that these are not limiting, and the
above conclusions are general for any pollutant generated at
any rate.
will
In the lat ter p art of the fea si bi 1 ity prog ram, it

was requeste d that t he po s s i b i 1 i ty of c ompar tmental i z a t i o n of
sect i onal iza t i o n of tunne 1 air t reatmen t be exami ned
One of
the u n d e r 1 y i ng assum p t i o n s of th e contr ol pr ocesses previously
cons idered i n this r eport was th at they woul d have t o operate
with a (pol 1 u t e d ) a i r int a k e int ermedia te in tunnel location,
Beca use it w ould mak e lit tie sen se for this air i n t a ke to be
loca ted at t he norma 1 poi nt of m ax i mum pol 1 u tant con centration
(too late) o r at the i nle t (too soon) , it wa s o b v i o u s that the
loca t i o n wou Id be de termi ned by pol 1 uta nt co ncentrat ion gradient
with d i s t a n c e, and t he de sired 1 i m i t i n g val u e.
Howe ver, in any
even t, the b a s i c ass umpti on of i ntake 1 o c a t i on was o ne of a twosect ion comp artmenta 1 i z a t ion of the tun nel
The two -section
.
153
o
in
bo
ai
tI
in
r-'
i*
in
\o
^
o
oo
f*
-<
o
co
in
I
iI
ii
cn
ej\
iI
rH
CN
581
CO
CO
UJ
J
ca
O
g
<
B
2
w
o
2
o
o
u
2
o
w
J
s
o
X
fa
o
o
w
1
in
in
X
Hi
vO
.vO
CN
CN
14
N
II
fl
C
o
fa
o
TO
H
H
C
to
<D
O
o
1-1
tf
<
fa
13
o
w
u
2
w
D
J
CN
O
O
U
O
o O
OU
S
a.
Ou
b
Oh
bo
1
l
vO
00
CN
CN
CN
O
CO
in
CO
"#
o
vO
m
CN
a
in
!>
TO
VO
o
.
(D
<1)
TO
PL,
ce,
in
>
CN
m
O
vO
in
3 * X
TO
fa
in
in
CO
CN
CO
pL,
S< u
fa
<u
.2
ps
.Jj
in
m
II
-<
154
CO
compartmental izati on requires the use of one control process

installation, and generalizing, the breaking of the tunnel
into r^ treating sections requires the use of (n_-l) process
units.
The estimated annual costs for the various pollution

control processes evaluated in this study are summarized in
Table 34.
This tabulation permits a cost comparison of the
alternate control techniques, and in purely economic terms,
it appears that augmentation of tunnel ventilation is the most
attractive control measure.
This would be particularly true
for existing low head-loss tunnel ventilation systems, in the
range of 1" to 2" W.G.
However, for the higher initial headloss tunnel systems above 2" W.G. the increase in annual
power costs required for significant flow augmentation would
bring the total cost of this method above that of catalytic
oxidation or spray scrubbing.
As indicated in Table 34, when feasibility factors
are added to the economic considerations, then there appears
to be no secondary pollution control technique with the costeffectiveness capability of ventilation blower addition or
substitution at the present time.
However, the desirability
of additional development work on catalytic oxidation and spray
scrubbing is definitely indicated by the data of Table 34, and
it is recommended that additional laboratory and pilot work
155
"3
g
c
/9-
a
*->
m
eo
no
On
oo
CM
oC
oo*
cm*
cm
CO
cm
m
CO
Os o
o
"Tn
On
11
in
oo
CM
t^t cm
vo
-*
o o o
On
OO
to
CO lO
t<
ir,
co
4->
CO
o
in
oo
CM
oo
\o
in
CO
CO
in
in
cs
CO
o
CO
o
in
<**-
3
r
CO
tH
en
<!
O
ON
CM
CO
<d
CO
OO lO oo
On CM NO
13
OS
CO
=5-
i
d-
Ctf
CS
g o
a o
"41
ft
o
o
NO
ON
NO NO
CO
CM
oo
ON
NO
CM
ID
oo
-1
9
<
H
en
O
u
to
to
u
o
S
Pm
u
o
o
o
o
CO
-a
J->
co
rH
p-i
4->
(D
o 3
cT
->
CO
13
CO
-a
T3
00
& T3
CO
-8
rt
a)
0-.
3
8
Oh
in
CM
Oh-
Ph
3,
Oh
Cm
8
C!
O
rH
Cm
0-.
CO
-=f
$ ^
CO
o
o
Oh
bo
*rt
*w
NJ
-H
O
rH
+J
Q.
&
O
-a
<
156
13
J8
&
rH
0)
.8
CO
i
4
O
cu
M
Cm
O
CO
O
Jh
o
X!
O
H
I
O
*->
l-H
Oh
CQ
Oh
CO
rt
Based on the process

on these operations be undertaken.
review and analyses carried out in this study, the following
conclusions may be drawn:
Both exhaust source control and tunnel ventila1.
tion augmentation appear to be either more effective or more
economical pollutant control strategies than secondary processing of vehicular tunnel atmospheres.
Projections of
exhaust emissions under presently-mandated standards and
source controls and correcting for auto population age, indicates a reduction in average hydrocarbon emission from 660
ppm to 156 ppm in the period 1970-1980, and a corresponding
reduction in average CO emission from 25,790 ppm to 6,120
Thus, the problem of tunnel atmosphere pollution appears
ppm.
to be one of decreasing severity, and secondary controls may
not be reguired.
2.
Tunnel ventilation augmentation appears to be
economically and technically more attractive than any secondary pollution control process.
Both catalytic oxidation,
and carbon adsorption control operations are fixed-bed units
reguiring supplemental blower head additions to force air
through the process.
This creates the anomaly that tunnel
ventilation augmentation must be used in conjunction with
any fixed-bed control process, but the potential direct
ventilation increase benefits are nullified by the process
use.
temperature catalytic oxidation appears

attractive secondary control process.
Further development is reguired to assess its capability for CO and hydrocarbon removal at the low concentrations
existing in tunnel air, and to yield more complete data for
3.
AmbieHfc
to be potentially the most
desi gn.
4.
Spray scrubbing has apparent application to the
control of gross tunnel exhaust emissions, and if localized
control is necessary or desirable, further study of the full
capability of this operation should be undertaken.
This and
other wet scrubbing methods are not suitable for in-tunnel
use because of the accompanying gas saturation and the resultant in-tunnel fog possibilities.
5.
Investigation of conventional electrostatic
precipitation for the removal of the particulates from tunnel
air showed this process to be of doubtful feasibility because
of the extremely low particle concentration.
Further, cost
studies showed it to be the most expensive control method of
those reviewed.
157
6.
A study of recycle operations shows that any
degree of processed air recycle around the tunnel or any part
of the tunnel will yield higher in-tunnel pollutant concentration levels than would be the case for once-through air
ventilation.
However, the injection of fresh air into a
tunnel by the piston effect could compensate for the buildup of pollutants.
Selection of Control Techniques to be Evaluated

Gen era! Discussion - A s i g n i f i c ant amou nt of work
has been and is be i n g don e on pol 1 ut ion c ontrol t e c h n i ques
and d e v i ces f or in d u s t r i a 1 ope ration s
po wer plan ts an d automobile e xhaus t sys terns
In th ese ty p,es o f pol 1 ut ant s ources
the effl uent gas s tream i s at an ele vated tempera ture and the
concentr a t i o n of p ol 1 utan ts is high,
As an examp le
m otor
vehicle exhau st em i s s i o n conce n t r a t i on ra nges to 3% CO (30,000
ppm) and 0.5% H-C (5000 p pm) a nd tern perat ures ran ge f om 150F
to 1500 F.
C onver sely, t unnel atmos phere s genera ily r ange to
maximum pol 1 u ti on concent ratio ns of 250 p pm CO an d 50 ppm H-C,
It
with n e a r amb ient tempera tures r a n g i ng f om 20F to 90 F.
is o b v i o us f om th is comp ari so n that many of the contr ol techniques w h i c h have been de vel op ed rec ently are not nece ssari ly
a p p 1 i c a b le to tunn el poll u t i o n contr ol.
,
'
The constraints imposed by a tunnel atmosphere

dictates and limits the types of purification processes which
These constraints include:
can be used.
1.
2.
Relatively low ambient temperature

Relatively low pollutant concentration
3.
4.
levels
High throughput rates
Low exit concentrations.
Additonal constraints are imposed depending upon whether

the tunnel atmosphere is to be recycled (either completely
or in a compartmentalized fashion) or merely exhausted to the
In recycle, consideration must be given to
atmosphere.
CO2
cooling,
removal, water removal and perhaps oxygen make-up
These constraints are not imposed where the air is to be purified prior to exhaust to the atmosphere.
On the basis of recommendations for allowable impurity limits in tunnels along with the current Environmental
Protection Agency national air quality standards, removal
systems for the following pollutants must be considered:
1.
CO
2.
H-C
3.
4.
N0-N0 2
Particulates
158
The EPA has also established limits for SO2 and photochemical
oxidants, but these do not appear to be problems in vehicular
tunnels based on measurements which have been made.
Ca rbon Monoxide Remo val Systems - A r e v l e w of the
tera ture r eveal ed two potent i a 1 1 y p romi s i no m eans of CO removal
based on t empera ture re qui reme nts a nd th rough put rate.
these two ge neral cl ass es of c a t a 1 y t i c oxi d i z e r s i nc 1 uded
mangan ese-co pper oxide and tra n s i t i n met a 1 oxi des
n acti A revi ew by Can non and Well inq ( 58) 1 n d i c a t e d
vated carbon
that 6 0% MnO 2-40% CuO c omplete 1 y
x i d i zed a gas mixt ure conbal an c e n i troge n at 25C
t a i n i n g 3% C 0,1% H 2
.1% gas 1 i n e
with a stand ard s pace v e 1 c i ty of 18, 800 h r~
The other
cataly st res u 1 1 e d in on % x i d a t i n of CO a t 120 C at a space
v e 1 c i ty of 200 h r"
However at s ace v e 1 c i ties of
f these
4800 h r
on ly 50 % conv ersi on of CO w as at t a i n e d.
tWO C5 talyst s, th e Mn02 -CuO ca talyst appea red t
be more
promi s i n g on the basis of both temper ature and throu ghput rate
and th erefor e was selec ted for smal 1 scale eval u a t i n of its
effect i venes s on di 1 ute d auto exhaust
1 i
'
'
'
Hydrocarbons
Catalytic oxidation or the rmal after'
burni ng bo th can be used to oxidize hydrocarbons,
These
metho ds mu st be ess e n t i a 1 ly 100% efficient otherwis e the
parti ally oxidized hydroc arbons may be more toxic a nd/or
n xi
us th an the in i t i a 1 hydrocarbon.
To assure 10 0% conversi on
h igh tempe rature s must be used, hence oxid ation was
felt to be an i n a p ropri a te means of hydrocarbon re moval
Acti v ated carbon ap peared to be the most promising technigue
for r emova 1 of hydr ocarbo ns.
Activated carbon will remove
the h e a v i e r and mos t of t he partially oxidized hydr ocarbons
at am b i e n t temperat ures
Activated carbon will als
remove
N0 2
anoth er of the impur i ties selected for conside rati on
for r emova 1 from tu nnel a tmospheres.
An attractive feature
of ac ti vat ed carbon is th at it can be regenerated, preferab ly wi th steam, and t herefore the maintenance
r replace ment problems are mi nimized.
Because of the p romi sing
outl ok fo r a c t i v a t ed car bon for removal of both hy drocarbon
and N 0.
t was sel ected for study on diluted autom b i 1 e ex,
h a us t
As stated earlier, activated

carbon will remove NTTjT
However, it is ineffective for removal
of NO, which accounts for ^80% of the total oxides of nitrogen
emitted from auto exhaust.
Thermodynami cally the conversion
of NO into O2 and N2 is favorable, but no catalysts have been
found which will effect this decomposition at reasonable
rates or temperatures.
Unfortunately, catalytic removal of
N0 X from gas streams requires a reducing atmosphere, a conConversely,
dition which does not exist in polluted tunnel air.
proprietary information exists which indicates that M0 can be
Oxi des
of Nj trogen
159
o
r
cata lytic al ly ox i d i z e d t o the ni tr ate f rm.

It ha sals
been
repo rted that NO can be o x i d i zed t o N0 2 whi c h cou Id be sorbed
on a c t i v a ted car bon, but the proce ss req u i r e s a ga s dew poi nt
of - 60F.
The p s s i b i 1 i ty of 1 iqu id s c u b b i n q anp eared to
be o f que s t i o n a b 1 e a p p 1 i c a b i 1 i ty i n 1 i g h t of the N
con cenI n
trat ions in t u n el atmos phere s.
summ ary
the r emova 1 of
NO s eemed to be the majo r pro blem of tun nel p ollut ant p uri fi ca t i o n
The D OT Techn i cal Offic er in d i s c u s s i o n with
Marb on Ch emi cal Division of B org-W arner Corpo ratio n sug gested
that Pura fil, a chemi sor bent imp re gnated with KMnO 4 mig ht
remo ve NO x from the atmo spher e.
I t
shou Id be note d tha t this
mate rial f unctio ns by ch emi ca 1 rea c t i o n rathe r tha n cat a 1 y t i c
acti on an d would therefo re ha ve to be re pi ace d per iodic ally.
Howe ver
since o ther met hods seeme d impr a c t i c al an d sin ce MSAR
had a sup ply of this mat e r i a 1 on h and, i t was deci ded t hat
Pura f i 1 w ould be eval uat ed on di 1 u ted au to ex haust
,
Parti culates
Typical means of removal of particulates from gas streams include mechanical separators such
as cyclones, wet collectors, electrostatic precipitation and
filtration.
The efficiency of each of these methods depends
upon such factors as particle size, density, concentration
and electrical resistivity as well as moisture content of the
gas and physio-chemical characteristics of the gas.
Cyclone
separators are not particularly efficient for the size range
(<1 y to 5 y) of particles in tunnels and in general require
With
large energy inputs with attendent high pressure drops.
the present state-of-the-art of wet collectors, efficiencies
at the anticipated particulate levels and particle sizes in
tunnels would likely be quite low.
Electrostatic precipitation and filtration may be apolicable to the problem.
Howfor
these
types
ever, since manufacturer's data are available
of particulate removal systems as well as for wet scrubbing
systems, it was decided that no laboratory work on particulate
removal would be performed.
Purification Test System

3
Figure 31 is a schematic diagram of a 4300 ft

chamber at MSAR.
The chamber is leak-tight and is made of
carbon steel with the inside walls coated with aluminum paint.
The chamber is fitted with an air blower with a capacity of
80 cfm.
Minor modification to the chamber included installation
of an inlet port for injection of auto exhaust.
Major modifications to the chamber involved installation of monitoring equi pment, test beds and a gas stream
The monitors which were used included:
heater (Fig. 31).
160
Temperature
()
Carbon dioxide
Pressure
(7)
Oxygen
Relative humidity
(8)
Particulates
(4)
Carbon monoxide
(9)
Nitrogen oxides
(5)
Total
Q)
Air sample for GC
hydrocarbons
Heater
O0(5>
Flow Meter
Bed
-Bed
II
^)0
s>-
Test Chamber
4300 ft 3
r^ Exhaust Inlet
FIGURE
31
AUTOMOTIVE EXHAUST PURIFICATION TEST CHAMBER
161
Instrument
Impuri ty
MSA Lira Model 200 (IR)
CO
Total
Range
MSA Total
H-C
H-C Analyzer
MSA Lira Model 200

Biomarine 0M-300 Analyzer
C0 2
2
Motometer RH Indicator
Particulates Royco Model 200 PC
H2.O
Wet chemical; Saltzman

Method
NO-NO,
0-300; 0-500 ppm

Ful 1 Seal e
0-5; 0-15; 0-3D;
0-60 ppm
0-0.5%
0-100/
0-100%
0-54 u to 5.0 u;
100 particles/cc
0.01-10 ppm
fan was installed inside the chamber to assure rapid mixing

of the contaminated gas.
In most runs, the auto exhaust was
provided by a 1963 Chevrolet Impala with 103,000 miles on it;
the source of auto exhaust for the first two runs was a 1967
Chevelle with 33,000 miles on it.

A
typical
run was as
follows:
1.
Run automobile engine for 1.5 min; car
2.
in drive; accelerator slightly depressed;

brakes on.
Circulate contaminated air for 5 min to
assure complete mixing within the chamber.
Turn on blower and set to desired flow
3.
rate.
4.
Collect monitor readings at various intervals depending upon the type of

removal system and rate of removal.
The first run was a blank run to determine whether the test
chamber and associated equipment resulted in change in concentration of any of the contaminants during circulation
without any purification system on line.
The results indicated no change in concentration with time except for the
particulates.
Table 35 is a summary of the runs which were made.
Results of each run are discussed in the following subsections
Run No.
Blank
Run No. 1 was a blank run although a fiber glass mat

was placed in one of the purification canisters to provide a
The vehicle used for the
pressure drop across the system.
pollutant source was a 1967 Chevelle and was run at idle for
5 min.
Small differences can be seen in the CO inlet (300
ppm) versus the CO outlet (285 ppm) and the HC inlet (78 ppm)
162
TABLE 35
Bed
Run
Type of
No
Purification
Wt.
lbs
Blank
HA
12.0
Hopcal 1 te
(Cold)
12.0
Bed
Temp.
F
SUMMARY OF PURIFICATION SYSTEMS
Res dence
Space
Pres.s
Vehicle
Time
Flow Drop 1n Run Time
Velocity
Water
Mln.
hr-'
CFM
sec.
1
CO
ppm
lii
Out
H-C
ppm
(n Out
NO
HO 2
oom
oom
Out
In
In
CO,
Out
In
y Out
RH
85
HA
NA
82
3.3
300 285
78
61 0.051 0.048 0.029 0.011 0.10 0.10
92
17,100
0.21
84
3.6
2.5
280 215
1"!
41
0.14
0.006 0.069 0.08
0.12 0.12
52
92
12,100
0.30
60
2.0
...
205 190
41
41
0.04
0.02
0.10
0.12 0.12
52
2.5
300 + 300 + 84
22 4.03
4.47
1.38
0.24 0.24
90
300 + 300 + 60
20
3.16
3.68
1.05
0.23 0.23
90
HA
0.12
Ac tt vated
3
Carbon
Purafll
20 hr total
Hopcal
(Hot)
0.21
84
3.0
4,100
0.88
20
3.0
92
8,200
0.44
40
---
...
300 + 300 + 60
20
0.23 0.23
90
90
17,100
0.21
84
2.0
1.5
357
320
56
47 0.93
0.30
0.44
1.26
0.11 0.11
85
12.0
93
8,500
0.42
42
0.5
...
320 320
48
38 0.26
0.10
0.63
0.57
0.11
0.11
85
12.0
95
17,100
0.21
84
2.0
...
270 270
25
24 0.00
0.00
0.018 0.018 0.10 0.10
85
.0
95
9,500
0.04
38
18.2
1.5
287 230
til
53
.55
0.89
0.14
2.49
0.13 0.13
65
1.0
0.13 -.13
64
te
Hopcal te
1635 watts
1635 watts
2620 watts
1080 watts
96
4,700
0.08
19
8.8
1.0 175
4,700
0.08
19
10.7
1.0 240
4,700
0.08
19
12.0
...
4,700
0.08
19
11.9
0.02
0.02
0.015
0.015
0.04
20
20
30
30
10
3.6
6.0
6.1
6.4
1.8
>dty
too h1g
2.0
1.0
17,100
92
8.0
Hopca
te
Silica gel
1
92
12.0
700 watts
Input
1650 watts
Input
6
8.0
8.0
0.25
90
167
275
227
260
276
18,800
18,800
28,200
28.200
9,400
235 223
59
55
220
30
O'l
38 1.43
0.15
0.30
0.66
-.13 0.16
63
117
50
29
.48
0.69
0.44
0.22
0.14 0.16
61
.5
500 480
61
61
0.56
0.52
0.12
0.23
0.09 0.08
89
1.5
203 147
147
20
141
63
50
86
43
124
102
38
8
31
38
47
30 0.91
36
29 0.99
24 0.89
0.61
349
42
l.Ot
0.20
0.02
.09
0.15
0.13
0.03
0.02
0.10 0.10
0.11 0.12
o.ll 0.12
0.11 0.12
0.10 0.11
life
8b
85
84
Parti cula te
8
Filter
65% efficiency
Resu
Particulate
Filter
99.5%
ef f 1
..
void;
ts
Res ilts void
face vel
face ve oclt)
too hi
Jh
dency
60% Mn02 +
40% CuO
750 watts
1700 watts
Charcoal
Hopcal te
86
2,350
0.16
10
3.3
346
53
53 0.39
0.51
0.04
0.06
0.11
201
2.?50
2,350
0.16
0.16
10
10
4.0
4.4
i2!L ?97
325 297
52
5? 0.41
52 0.47
0.89
0.94
0.03
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.12 0.12
0.12 0.12
,750
0.03
50
5.6
487 474
50
23 0.36
0.22
0.22
0.14
0.04
0.11
0.10 0.10
0.10
247
1
94
11
1.5
S3
70"
4"67J
750 watts
134
11
,750
0.03
50
5.6
36 426
2620 watts
265
11,750
0.03
50
356 351
5.9
23
261
4,700
0.08
20
2.0
318 318
22
-*TJ-
2700 watts
311
2,350
0.16
10
293 293
2.0
Hopcal
12
te
1700 watts
1100 watts
93
4,700
0.08
20
2.6
1.5
0.10 0.10
0.12
17
0.10 0.10
0.12
17
TE"
2?
T7"
Charcoal +
Moisture
Tolerant
0.10 0.10
0.10
T7
T37
2620 watts
18 ....
T7
4T4"
15 0.16
TT
445 445
T59
48
400 395
23 0.52
23
0.10
0.22
0.08
0.00
0.02
0.10 0.10
0.28
0.09
0.00
0.1
o.n
0.41
0.1
o"7T
280
240
4,700
4,700
0.08
0.08
20
20
2.9
3.9
290 290
32
23 0.33
0.21
77
0,62
0.09
0.00
6.61
185
4,700
0.08
20
3.2
248 248
8
163
31
21
76"
0.10 0.10
0.14
0.12 0.12
21
70"
600 watts
0.11
071
0.20
0.13
0.03
0.04
0.00
O.o2
0.12 0.12
0.14
68
versus the HC outlet (61 ppm).

This could be attributed to
A slight reduction
physical sorption on the fiber glass mat.
in NO and a large reduction in NO? concentration was also
noted, but problems existed with the NO-NO2 analyses at that
time, so these differences may not be real.
The difference
in the concentration of particulates greater than 1 micron,
550/cc versus 60/cc was probably due to the filtration effect
of the fiber glass mat.
Run No.
Cold Hopcalite
I nit i al ly
it was intend ed to use the 60% Mn02-40%
CuO c atalyst r eport ed by Can non an d Welling to be effective
for C
at 25C (77 F).
No c ommerc ial source of this catalyst
could be 1 ocat ed so H p c a 1 i t e
a c oprecipitated 70% f1n02~
30% C uO cataly st wa s s u b s t i t u t e d i n its place.
The bed was
Again
run a t 92 F.
a 1967 Chevel le was used at idle, but
idle time was 2.5 m in.
At a space velocity of 17,100 hr" 1
(resi dence tim e of 0.21 sec)
no s ignificant reduction was
obser ved for C or HC.
The oxides of nitrogen did appear to
under go x i d a ion i n that th e i n 1 e t NO was 0.14 ppm and the
outl e t NO was 0.006 ppm.
Th is w u Id indicate oxidation of
NO to N0 2
Fu rther veri f i ca t i n
f this is the fact that
the
utlet N0 2 (0.0 8 ppm) wa s high er than the inlet NO?
At a space vel oci ty of 12,100 hr"' (residence
(0.06 9 ppm).
time of 0.30 s ec)
the CO an d HC w ere not changed, but again
it ap peared th at NO was b e i n g part ial 1 y oxidized to NO2.
,
Run No.
Activated Carbon
In th s run
as in al 1 su bsequent runs, a 1963
Chevrolet Impal a was us ed as a pol 1 utant source and was run
under load condi t i n s
Cocon ut bas ed activated charcoal was
used as th e puri f icati n medi a.
Th e CO concentration was off
scale, but it is known that c harcoa 1 is ineffective for CO
,
At a s pace ve 1 oci ty of 17 ,100 hr" 1 (RT = 0.21 sec),

a s i g n i f i c ant re d u c t i n was
bserve d in the H-C level and the
NO2 level
The H-C con centra tion w as reduced from 84 ppm to
22 ppm (74 % remo val ) an d the N0
co ncentration was reduced
2
from 1 38 ppm to zero p pm.
T he str earn was tested upstream
and downst ream
f the t est be d for odor.
The upstream odor
was typica 1 of t he odor s in t unnel s while the downstream was
F i g u r e 32 is a chr omatoq ram of an upstream and
odorless,
downstream sampl e showi ng tha t the heavy hydrocarbons (which
Additare the mo re tox i c and more
dorous ) had been removed.
ional test s at s pace ve 1 c i t i es of 8,200 (RT = 0.44 sec) and
4,100 (RT = 0.88 sec) w ere ma de on the same pollutant charge,
67% and 100% of
Again a ma jor fr action of the hydro carbons
the NO2 wa s remo ved.
T he app arent reduced removal rate of
hydrocarbo ns at these 1 ower s pace v elocities is due only to
the fact t hat a portion of th e heav ier hydrocarbons had been
removal
164
Chromatograph Hewlett Packard Model 5750

dual
Columns
Carrier gas
Temperature
Light Hydrocarbons
column.
1/0" stainless steel

10% UC-W98
6*
Helium 40 cc/mln
30C temp, program to 230*C

at 20C/min
^230 cc of air. Hydrocarbons

trapped on 12" x 1/0" stainless
steel pre-column at -197C
packed with 45-60 mesh
Chromosorb P
Detectors - Flame Ionization
Sample
Light Hydrocarbons
Start temperature program

(Room temp, to 230C)
IL
Start temperature program
Sample Upstream of Carbon Bed
FIGURE 32
-*A-
Sample Downstream of Carbon Bed
REMOVAL OF HYDROCARBONS BY ACTIVATED CARBON

165
removed during the earlier part of the test thus increasing

the ratio of light to heavy hydrocarbons.
Run No.
Purafil
Purafil acts as a chemisorbent using KMn04 on a -sub

strat e of activated alumina.
Purafil had no effect on the CO
conce ntrat ion but did reduce part of the hydrocarbon fraction
At a space velocity of 17,100 hr" 1 (RT = 0.21
as we 11 as NO.
sec) hydro carbons were reduced by 18% and NO was reduced by
68%.
At a space velocity of 8,500 hr"" 1 (RT = 0.42 sec)
hydro carbo ns were reduced by 21% and MO was reduced by 61%.
The s ystem was allowed to run overnight and the following
morni ng
a fter a total
run time of 20 hrs, the NO concentrati on ha d been reduced to zero and the NO^ concentration
was d own t o 0.018.
After 20 hrs of operation, the Purafil
did n ot ap pear to be removing any hydrocarbons, indicating
that those hydrocarbons which are reactive with Purafil had
been remov ed.
Total reduction in hydrocarbon content was
,
57%.
Run No.
Hot Hopcalite
Thi s run was m a d e wit h hot Hopcalite with the

At 95F, a
ef f i c iency me asure d at v ari ous temperatures.
smal 1 reducti on in CO (2 0%) and HC (13%) was observed, while
NO wa s reduce d by 43%.
At 175 F, the CO was reduced by 86%
The NO was reand t he hydro carbo ns wer e reduc ed by 30%.
duced by 90%.
At 240F, the CO was nearly completely removed (97% re moval ) and the hyd rocarbons were reduced by
42%.
The beh a v i o r of th e oxide s of nitrogen at this temperature is diffi cult to exp lain si nce NO removal did not seem
to be as e f f c i e n t
How ever, t he removal of NO2 was observed
for t he first time indie a t i n g p ossible oxidation to the n i
trate
It sh ould be not ed that the significant reduction in
CO an d HC res ulted in an i ncrea se of C0 9 from 0.13% to 0.16%.
.
Run No.
Silica Gel -Hopcal i te
this run, a silica gel bed was installed upstream

of the Hopcalite bed in hopes that Hopcalite would be effective at ambient temperature if the stream were free of moisture
No significant improvement was noted in the removal of CO, HC
or NO/NO2.
More effective drying agents might be considered,
but for a system to be economical, the dryer must be regenerable.
Those dryers which can be used only once and then
discarded would increase both the replacement and maintenance
Of course, these costs have to be weighed against the
costs.
cost of heating the air stream to ^225F, in the case of
Hopcalite.
In
166
R un
No.
Hopcalite
This run was made with a 0.25 pound Hopcalite bed

opposed to the 1.0 pound beds used in earlier runs.
At
identical flow rates, the residence time was reduced by a
factor of 4 while the space velocity was increased by a factor
of 4.
At a space velocity of 4,700 hr 1 and a residence time
of 0.08 seconds used in earlier runs, the exit concentration
CO was <1.5% (3 ppm) of the inlet concentration (117 ppm);
this was accomplished at a temperature of 240F.
In this run,
with a lower residence time and a hiqher space velocity, the
CO was reduced by only 86%.
as
Runs 8 and
Filter Media
These two runs were made with particulate filter

media with efficiencies of 67% and 99% for 0.3 micron particles
The results from these two runs were considered unreliable because of the high face velocity at the filter, and the face
velocity could not be reduced due to the performance characteristics of the air blower.
Therefore, manufacturers data
will have to be used for prediction of filter performance.
Inquiries were sent to manufacturers of electrostatic precipitators, also.
Run
No.
10
MnQ ? -CuQ
This run was made using an admixture of 60% MnO

and 40% CuO as described by Cannon and Welling.
The two
materials were mixed, about 10% water was added and the
moist mix was pressed into a solid cake.
The cake was dried
and then sieved to 4-8 mesh granule size.
The test showed
little activity of the catalyst for CO.
Run No.
11
Charcoal
Plus Hopcalite
This run was made to de t e rm i n e the overall performanc e of tw o se 1 ecte d met hods of tunne 1 air purification,
The cha rcoal b ed w as lo cated upst ream of the Hopcalite bed,
but in actual prac tice, i t w ould be more sensible to locate
the cha rcoal b ed d ownst ream of th e Hopcal ite bed since NO
is conv erted t o NO 2 in the H opcal ite bed.
However, since no
cool ing was pr ovi d ed fo r the Hope a 1 i t e be d outlet stream,
the opt imum co nf i g urati on co uld n ot be us ed in the test
system,
At 31 1F, the CO wa s red uced by greater than 90%
and the charco al r emove d ess entia lly 100% of the NO2.
The
charcoa 1 al so remo ved a frac ti on of the h ydrocarbons gas
chromat ographi c an alyse s ind icate d that t he heavy hydrocarbons
were re moved.
;
167
Run No.
12
Charcoal
Plus Moisture Tolerant Hopcalite
This run was made with moisture tolerant Hopcalite

since it is less susceptible to powdering than standard
Hopcalite, thus providing a lower pressure drop across the
Information was acquired during this run on the effect
system.
of temperature on CO removal and the results are shown in
These results indicate that at a space velocity
Figure 33.
of 9400 hr"l, a residence time of 0.04 sec and a temperature
of 225F, complete removal of CO can be expected.
Purification Systems for Tunnels

Th e 1 ab orato ry wo rk perfo rmed under this program
demo nstrated that the techn ology ex ists for purification of
tunn el atmos phere s.
A p p 1 i c a t i o n of these principals and
meth ods to t unnel atmo spher e p u r i f i cation requires a signifi
cant degree of sy stem scale -up as w ell as an economic evaluati on of sy stems requ i red for hand ling large volumes of
tunn el air.
An e a r 1 i e r sec tion of this report includes an
eval uation o f the cost requ i rements for such systems, but it
shou Id be ke pt in mind that the fea sibility and economic
stud ies were made prio r to the labo ratory studies.
Because
of t his fact , som e add i t i o n al comme nts are warranted.
First, ambient temperature catalytic oxidation

proved to be an unattainable goal.
The laboratory studies
indicated that a temperature of ^225F would be required
for oxidation of CO using the best commercially available
catalyst.
As a result of this temperature requirement, an
engineering design estimate of size and heat requirements
for a 200,000 cfm unit with a regenerative heat exchanger
was made.
The results were as follows:
Heat requirements - 1.63x10^ Btu/hr
No. of plates in heat exchanger - 200
Size of plates - 80 ft x 20 ft
Spacing between plates - 1/8 in.
Velocity through plates - 22 ft/sec
AP across heat exchanger - 4.7 in. H2O
The second comment concerns the use of electrostatic
precipitators to remove particulates.
Inquiries were sent to
a number of manufacturers of electrostatic precipitation units
requesting performance characteristics and price.
In regard
to performance characteristics, the answers varied from - "it
cannot be done by electrostatic precipitation" to "our units
will reduce the particulate loading from 5 mg/m 3 down to
0.1 mg/m 3
Prices ranged from ^$81,000 for a 50,000 cfm unit
and $164,000 for a 250,000 cfm unit to $1,000,000 plus for a
250,000 cfm unit.
.
168
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activated carbon
The electrostatic precipitator would be periodically cleaned

by back washing; this could be done during an off-peak time.
Activated carbon would require periodic regeneration with
steam.
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properly protected from particulate contaminant, particularly
lead.
The electrostatic precipitator upstream of the catalyst
bed should provide this protection.
The question arises as to the anticipated lifetimes
the purification system components, as well as the reThese
generation frequency and maintenance requirements.
questions cannot be answered at this time.
It is recommended
that a small scale (perhaps 5000 cfm) system be fabricated
The information
and tested under actual tunnel conditions.
acquired from such tests would reveal not only the removal
efficiency of the system but also the lifetime of the components and the required maintenance and regeneration frequency.
of all
appa rent as a result o f this study that the

cost of a vehi cular tu nnel a i r p u r i f i c a t i o n
syst em wi 11 be high,
In addit ion to t he cap ital co st, the
powe r req ui rem ents w ill a 1 so b e high d ue to the hea ting reFo r mainquir ement s and press ure d rop a cross th e syst em.
i t
wo uld be
tain ing t he qu a 1 i ty of ai r wit h i n the tunnel
sign i f i c a ntly 1 ess e xpens i ve t o increa se the size o f the
tunnel s
vent i 1 a t i ng ai r syst em.
Howev e r , if i n the future
must comp ly wi th EPA stan dards for emi s s i o n from st ationary
sour ces
then p u r i f i c a t i o n sys terns on the ex haust s tack will
be r equi r ed an d syst ems t o per form thi s trea tment h ave been
esta blish ed as a res ul t o f thi s study.
It
ini t ial
cap
ta
170
TUNNEL INSTRUMENTATION
The present emphasis on air quality and monitoring

of atmosp heric pollutants has accelerated the development of
i nstrumen t a t i o n
capable of continuous monitoring of low level
impuri tie s in the atmosphere.
Many of these instruments have
combined class ical, chemical and physical analytical techniques
used in t he 1 a boratories with automated industrial process
instrumen tati o n.
The resulting array of available instrumentati on runs the gamut of sophisticated computerized mass
The
spectrome ters to simple rugged temperature indicators.
appl icabi lity of these instruments in monitoring the air
quality o f veh icular tunnels must be considered within the
f ol lowing cons traints
:
1.
2.
3.
adequate sensitivity and specific

response to the pollutants of interest,
operation and maintenance requirements,
capabilities of operating and maintenance
personnel
real-time data output,
reliable and reproducible operation.
,
4.
5.
Table 36 summarizes the types of instrumentation

which are currently available for monitoring vehicular exhaust impurities.
This table shows the principle of operation
along with approximate cost ranges for each type of monitoring
system.
Carbon Monoxide
Two general types of instruments are available for
continuous monitoring of CO.
These are the Hopcalite type
and the non-dispersive infrared type of instrument.
In
general, the Hopcalite type has been used almost exclusively
in tunnel monitoring applications.
This instrument is rugged,
The
inexpensive, simple and requires very little maintenance.
non-dispersive infrared type of instrument is more expensive
171
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and does require a more sophisticated type of maintenance

program.
However, the NDIR instrument has faster rise and
response time characteristics:
Initial
Hopcalite
NDIR
Rise
Time (sec)
Response
Time (sec)
100
20
10
Furthermore, the NDIR instrument has lower sensitivity (2 ppm

2 ppm) compared to the Hopcalite instrument (10 ppm 5 ppm).
Either instrument can be used to automatically control ventilation rates by feeding the signal output to an automatic
fan control system.
For general monitoring of tunnel atmospheres, adoptmanned tunnel limit of 75 ppm and an unmanned tunnel
limit of 500 ppm, the Hopcalite system should continue to
satisfy the monitoring requirements.
If in-tunnel purification
is required, where the CO outlet from the purification system
must be at or near zero, then the NDIR system should be used
due to its lower limit of detection.
The same reasoning holds
true for the case of purifying the tunnel exhaust air where
the outlet concentration set by EPA is less than 10 ppm CO.
ing
Smoke or Haze
Smoke or haze in tunnels is a nuisance factor and

with the increased use of diesel powered trucks and buses
smoke has become a problem in tunnels.
Because the CO/smoke
ratio is different in gasoline powered vehicles versus diesel
powered vehicles, no correlation can be made between the two
contaminants.
In conversations with control room operators
at the tunnels which were visited, these personnel have
learned to anticipate the increase in diesel traffic and the
concommi ttant increase in smoke level and therefore increase
the ventilation rate regardless of the CO monitor readings.
An outstanding example of this 1s the evening rush hour
diesel bus traffic from New York City.
No tunnels in the U.S. have installed smoke meters,
few in Europe have(^) installed such Instruments.
Since there is essentially no information available on the
performance of smoke meters 1n tunnels, no recommendations
It
can be made on an acceptable smoke monitoring system.
is recommended that typical instruments be evaluated in a
tunnel environment to determine the applicability of these
instruments for monitoring smoke in tunnels and to determine
the effects of the tunnel environment (fog, oil mist, particulates) on the performance characteristics and maintenance
but
173
requirements for such instruments.
Other Monitors
Nitrogen Oxides - Simple, reliable monitors for

oxides of nitrogen at the levels anticipated have been developed recently.
Most of the monitors currently on the market use a gas phase chemiluminescent reaction principle.
Typical ranges for these instruments are 0-0. 02 ppm, 0-0,2
ppm and 0-2 ppm.
These are ranges which would be applicable
for monitoring N0 X in vehicular tunnels,
Some models can
differentiate between the NO and NO2 content of the atmosphere.
Total Al dehydes - Aldehyde monitors currently on
the market are based on wet chemical techniques requiring
Although
chemical reactants to be used in the instrument.
the instruments are automated frequent replacement of the
reactants is required.
Furthermore, current models are not
specific for formaldehyde which accounts for the major
The EPA
fraction of aldehyde emissions from auto exhaust.
is funding work on a formaldehyde monitor and an acceptable
instrument may be available in the future.
Carbon Dioxide and Oxygen - Monitors for these

constituents need only be considered if recycling of the
tunnel atmosphere is used instead of ventilation.
Carbon
dioxide can be reliably measured using NDIR which is specific
for CO2.
Oxygen monitors generally are based on the paramagnetic characteristics of O2.
Instruments are commercially
available which are specific for 03, rugged and require little
maintenance.
Recommendations for Tunnel
Instrumentation
It is recommended that measurement of CO in tunnels

For both manned and unmanned
be continued on a routine basis.
tunnels, the Hopcal i te-type device should serve as a reliable
In the case of automeans of monitoring CO concentration.
matic control of tunnel ventilation equipment, the NDIR or
Hopcalite instrument can be used to control ventilation rates.
174
If the tunnel air is to be recycled, the NDIR type of

instrument should be used since a lower level of detection
can be attained and the response time is better.
Monitors for smoke or haze should be installed in

tunnels, particularly those subjected to heavy diesel traffic.
At the present time no recommendations can be made on the
Specific
specific type of instrument which should be used.
types of instruments should be tested under actual tunnel
conditions with the objective being to select an optimum
type of instrument.
175
CONCLUSIONS
As a result of this study on vehicular tunnel
ventilation and air pollution treatment, the following
conclusions have been made:
1.
The major impurities in tunnels with

respect to safety and comfort level
are CO, N0 X
HC and particulates.
CO
levels may run as high as 350 ppm
during rush hour traffic.
N0 X and HC,
particularly partially oxidized HC, are
generally in the few ppm range, a level
high enough to cause eye irritation and
odor.
Particulates have been found at
the 2-5 mg/m^ level which causes a reduction in visibility.
Other impurities
are present in tunnels but these are
present at levels which are not harmful
or irritating to the tunnel worker or
transient.
Lead and cadmium, two air
contaminants which are of current concern with respect to public health and
welfare, are orders of magnitude below
the standard Threshold Limit Values.
,
2.
Concentrations of various impurities

as a function of vehicle velocity, type
of vehicle, road gradient, ventilation
rate and so on can be predicted by a
computer model developed under this
A copy of the program on
program.
punched paper tape has been delivered
to DOT.
The information derived from
the model can be used to estimate
ventilation requirements and to indicate optimized locations for tunnel
impurity monitors.
3.
Recommended limits for comfort and

safety levels for CO, N0 X HC and
particulates have been set as a result
of this study.
These limits have been
catagorized according to safety levels
for manned and unmanned tunnels as well
as comfort levels for unmanned tunnels.
,
177
Manned
Tunnel s
Pollutant
75 ppm
CO
NO
N0 2
N.R.
500 ppm
37.5 ppm
5 ppm
6 ppm
37.5 ppm
10 ppm
6 ppm
HCRO
Particulates
(1)
Unmanned Tunnel s
Safety Level
Comfort Level
10 rag/m*5
-
mg/m~
1000 ppm
25 ppm
1
ppm
N.R.
U)
No recommendation due to insufficient
information.
The levels which have been selected are
quite frequently exceeded in manned
tunnels.
A review of the literature indicates
that the technology exists to purify
tunnel air either on a recycle basis
or on a ventilation exhaust stack gas
Recommended methods include:
basis.
CO
Catalytic combustion with Hopcalite
at 250F.
N0 X - Conversion of NO to NO? by catalytic
oxidation.
Sorption of N0 2 on
activated charcoal.
Activated carbon.
Particulates - Electrostatic precipitation.
HC
Altho ugh t his was a feas ibility study

rathe r tha n a desi gn stu dy econ omi c
eval u ation of the proces ses for the
vol urn e of gases to be ha ndled, b ased
on a hypot hetical tunnel
indica tes
that both capital equipm ent cost s and
opera ting costs wo uld be quite h igh
and
that when pos sible 9 higher ventilatio n rat es are t he les s expens ive
route to b etter tu nnel a ir qua! ty.
,
As has been done in the past, CO should

be continuously monitored and used as an
Conindicator for ventilation rates.

sideration should be given to the use
of non-dispersive infrared CO monitors
rather than the Hopcal i te-type monitors
because of the faster response and rise
In
time of this type of instrument.
178
addition to CO, smoke or haze should

be monitored, also, particularly in
those tunnels which have a heavy conInstrucentration of diesel traffic.
mentation would also be required if
purification systems are used to assure
that the various components of the
system are functioning properly.
We believe there are three areas which require
additional study:
1.
Various smoke meters should be tested

under actual tunnel conditions to
establish the reliability of such
instrumental
2.
on.
prototype purification system should
be tested under actual tunnel conditions

to establish lifetime of the components
and maintenance and replacement frequency.
3.
Study of air recirculation at portals

should be done to determine the extent
of and means for minimizing or preventinq
reci rculati on.
179
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of Nitric Oxide in Automotive Exhaust", SAE Conqress, Detroit,
January 10-14, 1966.
Coulehan, B.A., Lang, H.W., "Rapid Determination of Nitrogen Oxides

with Use of Phenoldisulfonic Acid", Env. Sci. & Tech., Vol. 5,
No.
2,
Feb.
1971
pp
163-4.
Dailey, W.V., et al., "Analyzers for Monitoring Air Quality in

Pollution", MSA.
Dimitriades, B.
Seizinger, D.E., "A Procedure for Routine Use in
Chromatographic Analysis of Automotive Hydrocarbon Emissions",
Env. Sci. & Tech., Vol. 5, No. 3, March 1971.
,
Fracehia, M.F., et al., "A Method for Sampling and Determination of

Organic Carbonyl Compounds in Automobile Exhaust", Environ.
Sci. Technol. 1, 1967, p 915-922.
Freedman, R.W., et al., "Gas Chrom. Analysis of the Principal Constituents of Mine Atmospheres", BuMines RI 71 80 September
,
1968.
Gorden, R.J., et al., "Cp-Cc Hydrocarbons in the Los Angeles Atmosphere", Environ. Sci. Technol. 2, 1968, p 1117-1120.
Habibi, K.
"Characterization of Particulate Lead in Vehicle ExhaustExperimental Techniques", Environmental Science & Technology,
4, No. 3, Mar. 1970, p 239-253.
,
Heylin,
M.
15,
"Pollution Control
Instrumentation",
8.
News, Feb.
1971.
Instruments, "Tunnel
Instrumentation", V24,
1180.
Krizek, J., "Determination of Nitrogen Oxides in Small Concentrations

Chemicky Prumysl
Vol. 16, No. 9, 1966, pp 558-9.
,
205
H.
Pollutant Monitoring cont.
Lang, H.W., et al., "Continuous Monitoring of Diesel Exhaust Gas

for COo, CO,
N0 X
CH*", Bureau of Mines Report 7241,
?
March T969.
,
Lang, H.W., et al., "Continuous Monitoring of Diesel

Instr. & Contr. Systems. April 1970, p 127-30.
Exhaust",
Levy, A., Wilson, W.E., Jr., Miller, S.E., "Solving the Riddle of
Smog", Battelle Research Outlook, Vol. 2, No. 3, 1970, pp
17-20.
Lieberman, A., Schipma, P., "Air Pollution Monitoring Instrumentation - A Survey", NASA SP-5072, 1969, 74 pages.
Lonneman, W.A., et al., "Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Atmosphere
of the Los Angeles Basin", Current Research 2, 1963, p 10171020.
Malanchuk, M.
"Continuous Automatic Determination of Sulfur
Dioxide in the Presence of Auto Engine Exhaust", Amer. Indust.
Hygiene Assoc. J., Jan-Feb 1967, p 76-82.
,
Mick, S.H., et al., "Use of Constant Volume Sampler to Weigh Exhaust

Emissions Poses Variety of Problems", SAE Journal, Dec. 1969,
p 34-37.
Mine Safety Appliances Co., "Detectors, Reagents and Accessories for

MSA Unive Testing Kits -- Summary Data Sheet", Jan. 1969.
Mine Safety Appliances Co.,
(brochure), 1970.
"MSA Air Pollution Instrumentation",
Mueller, P.K., "Aerosol Investigations - California State Dept. of

Public Health", J. Air Poll. Control Assoc. 17, 1967, p 583584.
Papa, L.J., et al.,
Hydrocarbons
p 270-279.
"Gas Chromatographic Determination of C-| to C^

in Automotive Exhaust", J. Gas Chrom. 6, 1968,
"Colorimetri c Determination of Carbonyl Compounds in

Environ.
Automotive Exhaust as 2-4 Dini trophenyl hydrazones"
397-398.
Sci. Technol., 3, 1969, p
Papa, L.J.,
Pharmacien, M.C., "Detection and Measurement of Carbon Monoxide",

Unpublished article, Sept. 1958.
Rost, G.A., "Recent Improvements in Hypoxia Warning Systems", Aerospace Med. 41, 1970, p 865-868.
206
H.
Pollutant Monitoring cont.
Safety Maintenance, "CO Control Now

p 42-43.
Full-Time Battle", July 1967,
Shaffer, R.F., Mine Safety Appliances Co., List (partial) of tunnels

equipped with MSA CO recorders.
Singh, T., et al., "Rapid Continuous Determination of Nitric Oxide
Concentration in Exhaust Gases", J. Air Poll. Control Assoc.
18, 1968, p 102-105.
Stratman, H.
"The Measurement of Nitrogen Oxide in the Atmosphere",
Research Report, Landesanstal t fur Immissions und Bodennutzungsshutz, Essen, W. Germany.
No date (/-v^1968).
,
The Journal of Teflon,

11, No. 5, 1970,
"How Do You Weigh Airborne Particles", Vol.

10-11.
Tippetts Report, "CO Sampling, Analyzing and Recording System", Dec.

1966.
Tippetts, et al., "CO Recorder/Control Systems for Vehicular Tunnels",

Report for J.F.K. Airport Tunnel.
Wolf, P.C., "CO Measurement and Monitoring in Urban Air", Env.
& Tech., Vol. 5, No. 3, March 1971, pp 212-218.
Sci
207
APPENDIX
FINAL REPORT
INDUSTRIAL HEALTH FOUNDATION
209
FINAL REPORT
Subcontract No. D-24437

under
Contract No. FH 11-7597
TUNNEL VENTILATION AND AIR POLLUTION TREATMENT
Prepared for
MSA Research Corporation
Evans City, Pennsylvania
March
31
1971
Bowman, Project Director

P. deTreville, M.D.
Sc.D
C. Braun, M.D.
J. A. Jurgiel
M. C. Carey
H.
R.
D.
210
M.
T.
APPENDIX
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
I.
II.
III.
Introduction
212
Work Statement
212
Tunnel
A.
B.
C.
D.
E.
F.
IV.
V.
Pollutants
213
Measured Concentrations in Tunnels

Health Effects
Other Physiological Effects
Synergism
Criteria for Recommending Limits
Time-Concentration Effects
215
216
226
228
228
230
Conclusions and Recommendations
231
References Cited
237
List of Tables
Table 1 - Emission Factors

Table 2 - Automobile Exhaust Products
Table 3 - Exhaust Gas Analysis
Table 4 - Exhaust Constituents
Table 5 - Measured Tunnel Contaminants
Table 6 - CO in Air and Toxic Symptoms
Table 7 - COHb and Symptoms
Table 8 - CO Time-Concentration-Effect
Table 9 - Effects of NO2 on Man
Table 10- SO? Concentration and Response
Table 11- Aldehyde Toxicity
Table 12- Tunnel Contaminants vs Existing
Limits
213
214
214
215
215
217
218
218
220
222
223
232
List of Illustrations
Figure
Figure
and Effects
Percent COHb (CO Time-Exposure
Effect)
CO Exposures
211
235
236
I.
INTRODUCTION
This report represents a culmination of the

efforts expended by Industrial Health Foundation's (IHF)
staff personnel and science advisors in eliciting the
physiological effects of atmospheric contaminants generated
by vehicular traffic whether alone or in synergism and the
relation of those effects with time-concentration exposures.
Wherever possible, criteria are developed for

recommending desirable time-concentration limits along with
the reasoning behind such criteria.
The bases are directed toward, but not necessarily
limited to, effects on vehicular tunnel transient users and
tunnel employees.
II.
WORK STATEMENT
The work statement as described in the subject

subcontract is quoted below:
A.
Using its best efforts within the time and
funds allotted, based on information provided by the Contractor, the Subcontractor will classify each impurity generated by vehicular traffic into a category which will
identify the effect of each impurity upon the various tunnel
users, i.e., transients as well as maintenance personnel.
For each, the degree of toxicity, irritation
and visibility
reduction shall be established with consideration of concentration levels and exposure times.
An attempt will be made
to rate odors in a relative basis.
Typical impurities will
include but not be limited to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
CO
C0 2
NO?
8.
9.
Other oxides of nitrogen

Sulfates
Nitrates
S0 2
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
Aliphatic aldehydes
Polycyclic hydrocarbons
Particulates
Benzene soluble organics
Lead and other metals
Gasoline additives
Asbestos
B.
The Subcontractor shall develop criteria for
recommending desirable and allowable time concentration limits
of the pertinent impurities for the maintenance of a safe and
comfortable tunnel atmosphere for various conditions with due
consideration to operating personnel as well as the traveling
public.
Reasoning behind the criteria shall be formulated.
212
C.
Consideration should be given to the possible
synergistic effects of one impurity in the presence of another
impurity.
The effect of pressure (sea level, 5,000 ft and
10,000 ft) shall be considered for those contaminants whose
pulmonary behavior is dictated by pressure.
III.
TUNNEL POLLUTANTS
The primary emphasis in determining the materials

to be studied in this program is on those vehicular exhaust,
blow-by and evaporative products emanating from both gasoline
and diesel powered vehicles reported to be identified and
measured in vehicular tunnels.
The secondary but also important consideration is

the full spectrum of exhaust blow-by and evaporative products
from gasoline and diesel motors whether in or out of vehicular
tunnels.
There are several references to ,yehicul ar contri bution to atmospheric pollution.

Rossano (Y! listed the emission
factors for gasoline and diesel engines (in pounds per thousand
gal Ions) (Table 1 )
TABLE
Emission Factors
Pol lutant
Aldehydes
Benzo(a)pyrene
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of nitrogen
Oxides of sulfur
Ammoni a
Organic acids
Particulates
(a)
(b)
(c)
Gasoline Engines
4
0.3 gm
2910
524 (b)
113
9
2
4
11
Diesel
Engines
10
0.4 gm
60 (a)
180
222
40
N.A. (c)
31
110
Includes blow-by emissions, but not evaporative losses

Includes 128. lb/1000 gal. blow-by emissions
Not available
Rossano's tabulation does not mention carbon dioxide, nitrogen,

water vapor, oxygen or lead compounds as have been listed by
Goldsmith and Rogers(2) who presented the automobile exhaust
products (Table 2) as a per cent of concentration with minimum
and maximum values.
213
TABLE
Automobile Exhaust Products

Per Cent of Concentration
Constituent
Aldehydes
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons
Oxides of nitrogen
Sulfur dioxide
Carbon dioxide
Hydrogen
Lead compounds
Nitrogen
Oxygen
Water vapor
1.
2.
Minimum
0.0
0.2
0.01
0.0
See note
5.0
0.0
See note
78.0
0.0
5.0
(Vol. /Vol.)
Maximum
0.3
12.0
2.0
0.4
See note
15.0
4.0
See note
85.0
4.0
15.0
Depends on sulfur content of fuel

Depends on lead additives
Atkinson et al'^) presented a tabulation (Table 3)

showing exhaust gas analyses from gasoline and diesel engines,
quoting from a Swiss report by Stahel et al
in undiluted
exhaust.
,
TABLE
Exhaust Gas Analysis
Gasoline
Formaldehyde
Aldehydes
Carbon monoxide
Oxides of nitrogen
Sulfur dioxide
Carbon dioxide
40
30,000
600
ppm
Diesel
1 1
ppm
20
200-1000
60
400
200
132,000
90,000
Caplan' ' presented a gas chromatographic analysis

of exhaust gas hydrocarbons for a specific engine operating
condition and fuel, primarily to exhibit the complexity of
About sixty components
identification and potential effects.
Elliott et an 5 )
are listed with approximate concentrations.
showed a list of constituents (Table 4) of internal combustion
engine exhaust gases, divided into major (greater than 1%)
and minor (less than 1%) constituents.
214
TABLE
Exhaust Constituents
Minor
Major
Water
Oxides of sulfur
Oxides of nitrogen
Aldehydes
Organic acids
Alcohols
Smoke
CO2
N2
O2
H?
CO
(a)
CO
H2
Spark ignition engine

Diesel engine
(a)
(b)
A.
(b)
(b)
Measured Concentrations in Tunnels
A compilation of contaminants measured in five tunnels

was presented in the first quarterly progress report of this
The list is
program (p. 11) by MSA Research Corporation.^)
not complete and any attempt to compare the tunnels is inappropriate since the conditions under which the values were obtained
were not comparable.
The ranges of values measured for the
contaminants are given in Table 5.
TABLE
Measured Tunnel Contaminants
Contaminant
54-170
CO
N0 2
NOv
ppm
0.05-0.43 ppm
0.2-1.63 ppm
0.05-0.12 ppm
0.04-<0.05 ppm
0.424-2.350 mg/m 3
Aldehydes
SO?
Total
Particulates
Polycyclic hydrocarbons
Pyrene
Benzo(a)pyrene
Coronene
Benzperylene
Metals
0.04-1 .20 yg/m 3

0.03-0.69 yg/m 3
0.03-0.53 yg/m 3
0.09-0.99 yq/m 3
9.5-44.5 yg/m 3
9.5-23.4 yg/m 3
2.2 yg/m 3
0.04-0.6 yg/m 3
Lead
Iron
Zinc
Cadmium
215
Additional identified vehicular tunnel "pollutants"

f uoranthene
include carbon dioxide; anthanthrene
several
metals such as titanium, chromium, vanadium, nickel; asbestos
Although not in the inventory of "chemical" polluand salts.
tants, mention should be made here of noise and thermal
pollution whether or not measurements of them have been documented.
;
B.
Health Effects
The primary concern of the work scope of this effort

stated as the classification of each impurity generated by
vehicular traffic to identify the effect of each impurity on
the various tunnel users (transient and employed).
is
There is a wide variety of source material and

information regarding health effects of many of the contaminants reported to be found in vehicular tunnels and those
emanating from vehicles, resulting in a variety of versions.
Unfortunately there are many voids in dose-response data.
Hence, not all of the tunnel contaminants can be discussed
with the same degree of confidence regarding their health
effects.
Later in this report we will attempt to develop
time-concentration effects for as many of the "contaminants"
as available information will allow.
1.
Carbon Monoxide
There are many treatises on the subject of carbon

monoxide, its health effects and its control in the literature.
Sievers et al (7a, 8) stated that examination of a group of onehundred fifty-six Holland Tunnel traffic officers exposed
throughout a period of thirteen years to an occupational CO
exposure averaging 70 ppm did not reveal any evidence of injury to health attributable to carbon monoxide.
Their eighthour day was divided into alternating two-hour periods of
service at tunnel exits or plazas and in the tunnel.
For
those who were non-smokers, data indicated that on the average
1.71 per cent of their hemoglobin was combined with carbon
monoxide.
For those who smoked more than one pack of cigarettes
a day data indicated 5.35% of their hemoglobin combined with
These were values for men who had not been
carbon monoxide.
on duty in the tunnel recently.
'
According to von Oettingen 9a Henderson et al
relationship between CO in the air and toxic symptoms
,
gave a
(Table 6).
216
TABLE
CO in Air and Toxic Symptoms

CO
(ppm)
TOO
Concentration allowable for an exposure
400-500
Concentration which can be inhaled for

1
hour without appreciable effect
Concentration causing just appreciable
effects after 1 hour of exposure
Concentration causing unpleasant but
not dangerous symptoms after 1 hour
of exposure
Concentration dangerous with exposure for
1
hour
Concentrations which are fatal in exposures
of several
600-700
1000-1200
1500-2000
4000 and above
hours
for less than
hour
One of the initial symptoms of CO poisoning is

headache which is associated sooner or later with irritability,
fatigue and progressive weakness.
One of the most characteristic findings in acute
CO poisoning resulting in unconsciousness is a complete amnesia
for the time of the accident.
Psychoses as sequelae of CO poisoning have been

observ ed repeatedly.
Usually they develop after apparent
recove ry from the acute exposure.
Despite some degree of
contro versy, evidence is lacking 1) that CO as such or in
comb in ation with other compounds remains in the tissue for
any co nsiderable time, and 2) that concentrations of CO which
cause no acute subjective or objective symptoms will affect
any st ructure of the organism in such a way as may lead to
functi onal or permanent injury.
It is generally believed that
concen trations of up to 100 ppm of CO in air cause no subjective
It
or obj ective toxic effects even with continued exposure.
has al so been demonstrated that such exposure will not cause
any si gns or symptoms of chronic CO poi soning. (7a ,7b ,7c ,8 ,9a
9b,9c)
Carbon monoxide exerts its effects on man by combining with the hemoglobin of the blood and interrupting the
normal oxygen supply to the body tissues.
Although this
asphyxia, neverchemical
resultant deficiency is a reversible
theless, damage done by severe anoxia from any cause may not
be reversible. (10)
217
Table 7 reflects the symptoms caused by various

amounts of carbon monoxide hemoglobin in the blood. HO]
TABLE
COHb and Symptoms
Blood Saturation
CO Hemoglobin
0-10
10-20
Symptoms
No symptom s
Tightness aero ss forehead, possible
slight he adac he, dilation of cutaneous
blood ves sel s
Headache a nd t hrobbing in temples
Severe hea dach e, weakness, dizziness,
dimness o f vi si on, nausea, vomiting
and colla pse
Same as ab ove, more collapse possibill ty
respiration and
i ncre ased
20-30
30-40
40-50
pul se
50-60
Above plus coma with intermittent

convulsi o ns
Above plus depressed heart action
and res pi ration and possibly death
Weak pulse and slow respiration,
respirato ry failure and death
60-70
70-80
The degree of harm from carbon monoxide is a product

of concentration times the length of exposure.
Henderson and
Haggard(H) proposed the following equation (Table 8) as a
rough guide in estimating probable effects - it does not apply
to exposures longer than a few hours.
TABLE
CO Time-Concentration-Effect
Hours
PPM
Effect
No perceptible effect
Just perceptible effect
Headache and nausea
Dangerous to life
300
600
900
1500
Satisfactory evidence has not been presented to

indicate that any permanent ill effects in men or animals are
to be expected from a single acute exposure to carbon monoxide
where the exposed person or animal remains conscious throughout
(9a ,9b ,9c)
218
based on
Figure 1 presents a series of curves
effects
of
CO
with
time and
relate
which
Table
data in
8,
level.
exposure
,
The signs and symptoms of acute CO intoxication

only appear with carboxyhemogl obin (COHb) levels above 101. ^'^
These levels are apparently hardly ever found in subjects exFisher and Hasse(13a) reported that
posed to traffic exhaust.
by inhalation of CO in conproduced
in moderate CO poisoning
540
ppm
over
a period of 40 to 60
centrations of 200 to
minutes, the labyrinth in most instances showed an increased
excitability, as indicated by the lowering of the threshold
for electric stimuli.
,
Ze nk03b) reported that "chronic carbon monoxide

i n
twel ve cases showed a slowly increasing hearing
loss in the higher frequency areas".
poi
som ng
Zo rn<14) reported increased sensitivity to noise

and inc rease d psych ic irritability in blast furnace workshops
where C exp osure w as experienced.
Ten to twenty per cent
COHb wa s mea sured.
C.K. Drinker(lS) reported dimness of
vision above 1000
m for one hour associated with COHb greater
P etryH I? concludes from an extensive review of the
than 30 %.
worl d'
lite rature that carbon monoxide doses below 50 ppm do
not imp air h eal th.
Miranda et alH7a) state that the effects
of carb on mo noxide from smoking and exposure to ambient carbon mon oxide are no t additive.
If a person has 7% carboxyhemoglo bin i n his b lood and is exposed to 25 ppm of CO, he
will ac tuall y excre te CO.
If exposed to 50 ppm, there will
be no u ptake , and i f exposed to 100 ppm, the uptake will be
quite
low.
The Aero Medical Association^^) states that the

tolerance for COHb in the blood is less at high altitude than
at sea level; for example, 3% COHb at 15,000 feet produces
effects equal to that caused by 20% COHb at sea level.
A
tabulation relating CO exposure concentration and time to
reach 7% COHb at sea level when light work is being done
showed 100 ppm requiring 88 minutes, 300 ppm requiring 29
minutes, and 500 ppm requiring 18 minutes to reach 7% COHb.
According to the Documentation for Short Term

Exposure Limits, 08) a concentration of 1000 ppm CO could
exist without creating physiologically unacceptable conditions
This
when exposed to such a level for as long as ten minutes.
1 )
Data in
is roughly comparable to Henderson's equation.
Reference 18 relate carboxyhemogl obi n levels with CO concentrations and exposure time.
They are consistent with data
shown in Reference 17a in which equations are postulated for
COHb determination and suggest that if the COHb level in the
219
person who is normally healthy is maintained below 14%, this

is a physiologically acceptable level.
2.
Nitrogen Dioxide
ppm have been
Industrial
ited States
reported
Disease
does no
Men observed working 6 to 8 hours daily in nitric

acid recovery and fortification plants, where exposures ranged
from 5 to 30 ppm and averaged 10 to 20 ppm, for periods up to
18 months, evidenced no significant ill health nor were any
characteristic adverse effects detected by periodic medical
examinations. U0)
The Association of Casualty and Surety Companies

(Chemical Hazard Bulletin) states that 10 to 20 ppm can be
endured with no discomfort.
The Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District

established a concentration of 3 ppm for the first alert. 5 ppm
for the second alert, and 10 ppm for the third alert. (19)
Cooper et al,(20) i n reviewing literature on the

effects of NO2 on man, developed a tabulation which is abstract'
ed in Table 9.
They also state that there is no evidence for
any carcinogenic effects of NO2 in man and that there is too
little evidence on which to base any conclusions regarding
They conclude that this is an
NO2 adsorbed on particulates.
area requiring long-term research experiments before any
definitive data will be available.
TABLE
Effects of NO2 on Man

PPM
0.2
0.5
1-3
Effect or Comment
Calculated limit for space travel

Submarine maximum for 90 day dive
Odor threshold
220
TABLE
cont.
Effects of NO2 on Man
Effect or Comment
PPM
Thresho Id 1 i mi t for occupational exposure (8 hr

day, 5 day wk )
Exposur e of on e asthmatic and one pilocarpinized
volunt eer for five minutes; no effects noted
60 Minu te emer gency exposure level for occupational
exposu re
Maximum permi t ted in submarine for one hour
Normal vol unte ers exposed for 60 minutes - not
showi n g pulmo nary function impairment
8 Volun teers
3 had eye irritation; 7, nasal
i rri ta t i
4
n
pulmonary discomfort; 6 olfactory
c g n i t ion; al 1 predominantly slight
Workers in HN0 3 recovery plants reportedly exposed
to lev els ave raging up to 20 ppm for up to 18
months showed no ill effects
Emergen cy expo sure limit for 30 minute exposure
Emergen cy expo sure limit for 15 minute exposure
Workers expose d in 30-35 ppm of nitrous gases over
severa 1 years had no ill effects
Emergen cy expo sure level for 5 minutes
7 Human volunt eers exposed for one minute; 3 had
pulmon ary dis comfort and nasal irritation
In 3 to 5 minu tes volunteers got tightness of
the ch est
Produce d marke d irritation of larynx and cough
in vol unteers
Few min utes ex posure will cause bronchopneumonia
5
5
10
10
10
13
20
20
25
30- 35
35
50
80
100
300 -400
and de ath
In animal research Gross et al'^1) concluded that
long-term exposure of hamsters to NO2 did not cause emphysema
at an average concentration of 22 ppm (ranging from 10 to 34
ppm) exposed for two hours per day, five days per week for
three consecutive weeks.
3.
Sulfur Dioxide
Sulfur dioxide is an irritant gas; 6 to 12 ppm

About 20 ppm
causes immediate irritation to nose and throat.
its inhalation
is the least amount irritating to the eyes. (10)
affects chiefly the upper respiratory tract, trachea and bronchi
The strong sensory stimulation often causes spasm of the glottis
which protects the deeper passages.
Recovery from the effects
of short exposure is rapid. (22)
221
'
Association of Casualty and Surety Companies

(Chemical Hazards Bulletin 1952) show the data in Table 10.
t' 8
'
TABLE 10
SO2 Concentration and Response
Response
so 2 - PPM
3-5
8-12
Least dete ctable odor

Least amou nt causing immediate throat
10
Maxim urn co ncentration allowable for prolong ed ex posure

Least amou nt causing coughing and immediate
eye 1 r r i t ation
Maxim urn co ncentration allowable for 1/2 to
1
ho ur ex posure
Dange rous for even short exposures
20
50-100
400- 500
rri t a t i
Sim and Pattle^ 23 ) reported that with dosages

equivalent to 30 ppm for 10 minutes little change was noted
either clinically or by me surement of lung resistance to
air flow.
With dosages of 50 ppm for 10 minutes the lung
resistance increased sign if icantly above normal in 50% of
the people exposed.
i
21) st ates that "populati ons exposed to
Batti gel 1
SO2 at signific ant le vel s
rangi ng f om 0.5 to 2 ppm and even
higher, do not presen t dire ct ev idenc e of i n c eased susceptib i 1 i ty to respi ratory inf ec tion deri v ing from the effects of
S0 2
I n d u s t r i a 1
expe rience prov i des a definit e negative
The sea rch fo r an a ccept able rationale , or for reasonreply,
able ev idence d ocumen ting a toxi colog ical rele vance of SO?
levels, as thes e are encoun tered in u rban air pollution, has
thus fa r failed
If urban pol lu tion has a mea surable effect
on the health a n d d i s ease
f exp osed p p u 1 a t i ns, as it appears
to have , on the basis of av a i 1 a b le in formation , this phenomenon d oes not appear to in vol ve S0 2 in its me c h a n i s m "
.
S0 2 , in its various forms and metabolic products,

does not accumulate in the human system and does not accumulate
in the atmosphere. (25)
There is a threshold level below which
no detectable response to S0 2 that might conceivably be healthrelated occurs.
This threshold response is 1 to 2 ppm in the
most sensitive individuals.
4.
Aliphatic Aldehydes and Formaldehyde
Formaldehyde and acrolein have been identified as
222
Others may be present

components of automobile exhaust fumes.
such as crotonaldehyde and saturated aldehydes.
the toxicity of the saturated aldehydes
The unsaturated
decreases with increasing molecular weight.
The irritant nature of
aldehydes are extremely irritating.
aldehydes, from human experience, provides sufficient warning
This may explain the paucity
to prevent serious health effects.
of information regarding the experimental toxicology of chronic
In general,
aldehyde exposure. (26)

The systemic toxicity of formaldehyde is relatively
It irritates the mucous membranes via hardening the
tissues on local contact.
All organic aldehydes are reported
to be irritant.
The toxic effects of acrolein consist chiefly
in strong irritation of the skin and exposed mucosae.
No
other chronic ill effects have been reported. (22)
low.
The relative acute toxicity of aliphatic aldehydes

tabulated by Skog, reported in reference 26, is shown in
Table 11.
TABLE
11
Aldehyde Toxicity
Aldehyde
Rat Inhalation LC gn
Acrolein
Formaldehyde
Crotonaldehyde
Acetaldehyde
Propi onaldehyde
Butyraldehyde
(ppm)
(30 min)
131
815
1,396
20,572
26,164
59,160
exthe experience of Barnes and Speicher(

posure to 20 ppm of formaldehyde produced lacrimation in 15
to 30 seconds, irritation of the nose and throat at the end
of 30 seconds, and sneezing in 1 or 2 minutes
In
'
Sim and Pattle(^3) exposed human volunteers to

Forvapors of several aldehydes for from 5 to 30 minutes.
maldehyde caused irritation of mucous membranes and lacrimation at 13.8 ppm; acrolein was violently irritating and
lacrimatory at .8 and 1.2 ppm, crotonaldehyde was irritant
and lacrimatory at 4.1 ppm; acetaldehyde produced slight
irritation to the upper respiratory tract at 134 ppm; propronaldehyde, butyraldehyde and i sobutyraldehyde were nonirritating at concentrations of 134 ppm, 230 ppm and 207 ppm,
respectively.
223
Henderso-n and Haggard^'"' state that 1 ppm acrolein

air is immediately detectable, that 5.5 ppm causes intense
irritation and that 10 ppm is lethal in a short time.
in
Elkinsv 28 ) reports that 5-6 ppm causes eye irritation

in persons acclimatized to formaldehyde and at lower concentraFive ppm prevents respiratory
tions in those not acclimatized.
Cases of itching eyes have been
injury, but not irritation.
noted at concentrations of 1 to 2 ppm.
5.
Hydrocarbons
Although polycyclic hydrocarbons produce tumors

when painted on the skin of susceptible animals, their inhala
tion has resulted in no experimental lung cancer
MV
6.
MetalsO)
A variety of metals have been reported as having

been found in vehicular tunnel atmospheres, all in ug/m^
Their physical nature has not been elicited,
quantities.
but none of those reported even approaches the TLV (timeweighted average for eight hours per day, five days per week,
exposure)
224
Chromium - Chromium salts, including Cr203, are

b.
ascribed a low order of toxicity and have caused no significant
On the other hand, chromates are reported
industrial illness.
to be systemically toxic and carcinogenic.
Copper - Repeated exposure to Cu fume levels up
c.
400
caused
no complaints and brief exposures to conyg/m3
to
centrations of 1 to 3 mg/nw resulted in no other discomfort
than a sweet taste.
Iron - Siderosis, or iron pigmentation, is
iron
d.
a.
reported to occur at exposure levels above 10 mg/m 3 of Fe
oxide fume, which is a relatively low order of toxicity.
Physical examinations and tests of work capacity of welder s
with Fe pigmentation show that it causes little or no disa bil
ity.
Nickel - Apart from the possible malignant

e.
effects of nickel carbonyl
dermatitis constitutes the only
other serious nickel exposure hazard.
,
f.
Titanium - The physiological history of Ti02
one of inertness.
No significant pulmonary alterations
were observed among workmen employed in enclosed workshops
with Ti O2 dust.
is
Vanadium - In a study to test experimentally

in animals the suitability of a threshold limit for V0O5 of
500 yg/m 3 recommended by the Russians, it was found that
dogs, rats, guinea pigs, and rabbits tolerated V2O5 dust
exposure at this level for 6 months of daily 6-hour exposures
without evidence of histological change referable to inhalation
g.
of the dust.
No effects except lowered serum cholesterol levels
were seen among vanadium processing workers in Colorado who
were exposed to vanadium levels of from 100 to 300 yg/m 3
.
Lead - Inorganic lead has not been reported as

a cause of acute reactions even at the highest airborne concentrations.
No harmful effects to humans have been reported
at the highest ambient concentrations.
"Measured concentrations
of organic lead are very low, so low in fact that it is not
necessary to consider organic lead as a practical constituent
of the atmosphere. " (30)
h.
7.
Particulates
Hoffman et al^ 29 ) discussed the analysis of the

Among about 30 isolated
exhaust tar from gasoline engines.
and identified polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) were
225
10 components which are carcinogenic to the experimental

It must, however, be here reiterated, as stated by
animal.
Goldsmith and Rogers, (2) that carcinogenic activity has only
No experimental lung
been detected with dermal application.
cancer has resulted from inhalation of these compounds.
Lyons(31) reported PAH compounds in diesel exhausts of which
several are reportedly carcinogenic to experimental animals
via dermal application.
Waller et al 32 ) ma de observations on the size and

shape of particles in the atmosphere of London and a number
of samples were collected in the Blackwall Tunnel.
Nearly
all the particles were small smoke aggregates, with a mass
The forms were typical of those
median diameter of 1 micron.
produced by the incomplete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels.
All were small enough to stay in suspension indefinitely and
they were well within the respirable size range.
The maximum
concentration of smoke occurs when the number of diesel vehicles
is highest.
(
C.
Other Physiological
1.
Effects
Irritation
Eye irritation is by far the most noticeable and

obnoxious symptom of smog as far as the public is concerned.
The identity of the exact compounds produced in smog reactions,
which are responsible for eye irritation, have not been
established.
Formaldehyde, acrolein, and peroxyacyl nitrate
(PAN) have been variously reported as being involved, but
there is no general acceptance of this.
Actual measurements
in the Los Angeles atmosphere have failed to demonstrate that
such compounds are present in sufficient amounts, alone or
together, to cause eye i rri tation. (33)
Oxides of nitrogen are suspected of contributing

to eye irritation caused by vehicular exhaust but insufficient
specific information has been developed to formally indict
them.
The low molecular weight aldehydes, formaldehyde

and acrolein, cause eye reaction at as low as 0.01 ppm exposure level, which is below the odor threshold for both.
However, acrolein produces only mild sensory irritation at
0.25 ppm while formaldehyde produces mild irritation of the
The higher aliphatic aldehydes
eyes and nose at 2 to 3 ppm.
have much higher irritation thresholds.
Aromatic hydrocarbons (benzene, toluene, xylene,

etc.) can cause irritability but not without chronic exposure
or relatively high acute exposure.
226
Exposure- to the levels of paraffin hydrocarbons

found in automotive exhausts, particularly in vehicular
tunnel atmospheres, are likely to be entirely free from any
The oxides of sulfur may cause throat
irritant effect.
irritation, but such is not likely to be encountered in
tunnel atmospheres unless there is a significant build-up
The same may be said for oxides of
of oxides of sulfur.
nitrogen.
Carbon monoxide, while not an irritant in the true

sense can cause headache and irritability.
Carbon dioxide, which has not heretofore been
mentioned in this report, is a product of automotive exhaust.
Its only significant effect, if in large enough concentration,
is as a toxicant contributor to respiration difficulty and
as such could add to the respiratory burden of ill persons.
Such levels are virtually impossible to attain in tunnel atmospheres.
Information on irritant effects, other than dermatologic, of polycycllc hydrocarbons is inconclusive and i nsuf f i c
ient on which to base any comment.
2.
Odor
There have been many conflicting reports related

to the specific sources and causes of odors which have been
purported to result from vehicular exhaust, to the point that
there appear to be more areas of lack of agreement than of
agreement.
For example, acrolein and formaldehyde, which do
have low odor thresholds, have been cited as contributors to
automotive exhaust odors.

The odor threshold for formaldehyde
is reported to be from 0.05 to 1.0 ppm while for acrolein it
is reported to be from 0.21 to 1.8 ppm, depending on the
source. (34)
The present state of knowledge is too scanty and

contradictory to utilize the available data on odor thresholds
with any degree of confidence.
The odor of NO2 is characteristic and distinct in
concentrations as low as 5 ppm.
SO2 has an easily noticeable
odor at 3 ppm, while some can detect at concentrations as low
CO, of
as 0.3 ppm (probably more by taste than by odor).
course, is odorless.
Because of the chemical complexity of the particulates, odor is not a likely means of identification nor would
it be one of the attributes to consider controlling.
227
3.
Visibility
Addressing these remarks to vehicular tunnel

atmospheres, we can for the most part ignore photochemical
smog because of the minimum amount of radiant energy availThe visibility problem(s) then relate to clarity of
able.
the atmosphere, i.e., suspended particulates (smoke) and those
tunnel contaminants which affect visual acuity, whether through
lachrimatory or other processes.
Concerning particulates, not only do they alone
contribute to visibility reduction, but the added effect of
droplets (vapors) of the oxides of nitrogen, the oxides of
sulfur and the unburned hydrocarbons from blow-by, evaporation
and incomplete combustion contribute to a haze effect.
Reduction of particulates, which in themselves may

not be significant health hazards, would reduce the "plating
out" effect of vapors on them.
D.
Synergism
The first thought might well be photochemical

reactivity, but in tunnel atmospheres this is minimized.
There are, however, interacting forces, as for

example the effect of carbon monoxide on normally healthy
tunnel users or employees vs. the effect of CO on heavy smokers
Addition
and/or on those who have cardiopulmonary deficiencies.
ally, there can be the effect of humidity on the exhaust
products and their relative toxic, irritant or nuisance value,
and the difference in effects of exhaust emissions at or near
Although not
sea level vs. those at higher elevations.
chemical pollutants, both noise and temperature can have
effects on tunnel users and employees.
is
E.
It has been reliably reported that carbon.

on mpi
monoxide
not oxidized by ozone at ordinary temperatures .(35)
Criteria for Recommending Limits
There are several bases for concern and consideration

of desirable improvements in the ambient atmosphere in operative
vehicular tunnels: health, safety, comfort, traffic flow,
maintenance, disaster control, ease of facility design and
construction, effect on the outside atmosphere, aesthetics
and economics, and perhaps others.
There are probably as many defensible ways to rank
these bases as there are people of differing backgrounds and
interests who set themselves to the task of such ranking.
228
The rationale used in our deliberations is that

the health of the transient users and of the tunnel work
force are necessary prerequisites to virtually all the others.
If these are considered as the top priority and are adequately
effected, then safety and disaster control will be more readily
If the second priority
effected as second priority subjects.
items are well under control, then maintenance of the tunnels
and traffic flow will be made easier as third priority considerations.
It is difficult to divorce economics from any
of the bases because of the obvious and necessary intermeshing.
Consequently, economics, although here relegated to a relatively
low order of priority, must be considered along with each of
the concerns here listed.
Closely related to economics is the ease of facility

design and construction, whether it is to improve existing
tunnels or to construct new tunnels.
While comfort and aesthetics are quite desirable,
they are assigned the lowest priority of those elements of
concern in this listing since their consideration and implementation will require the utilization of funds which must
first be earmarked for concerns of higher priority.
Based on an extensive review of literature and data,
both published and unpublished, there are several gaps in
information and data which preclude any possibility of recommending unequivocal criteria for setting limits or establishing
standards for vehicular tunnel atmospheres.
Throughout this report, reference has been made

frequently to threshold limit values, short term limits,
contaminant concentrations in parts per million, milligrams
per cubic meter or micrograms per cubic meter.
There have
been references to measured as well as to estimated values.
Not all the values are readily comparable one with the other
since the bases for establishing limits, for example, are
quite different even within the same set of limits such as
TLV's.
Consequently, any attempt to develop time-dose
relationships for tunnel contaminants will of necessity be
empirical at best and of extremely limited use.
A representative example will show this problem
quite clearly.
There have been proposed for carbon monoxide
a threshold limit value, short term limit and emergency
exposure limits by the Pennsylvania Department of Public
Health.
229
CO:
TLV
STL
EEL
50 ppm
400
400
800
1500
ppm
ppm
ppm
ppm
hr day
(8
(15
(60
(30
(10
day week)
minutes)
minutes)
minutes)
minutes)
The TLV and STL are purportedly safe limits which

will result in no deleterious health effects to the normal
They do not take into account those people who have
person.
health deficiencies.
The EEL values were established for military and

short
space
term inhalation standards at which some degree
of intoxication, though temporary, may result.
F.
Time Concentration Effects
A reasonably valid assumption is that, for transient

tunnel users and for tunnel employees who alternate periods of
work in the tunnel with periods of work outside the tunnel, if
the pollutant concentration in the tunnel does not exceed the
TLV for that pollutant, the probability of n_o adverse health
effect from that pollutant is very high.
We may go further and assume that normally the short

term limits can apply as far as transient users of the tunnels
are concerned.
However, here we may be assuming too much if
there are long traffic delays which would exceed the short
term limit peri od.
The Community Air Quality Guides for Al dehydes (34)

presents a series of concentrations for formaldehyde and the
effects experienced.
Comparing them with TLV and STL, we
find the following:
HCH0:
TLV
STL
AQG
ppm
ppm (5 minutes)
2-3 ppm - repeated 8 hour exposures;
mild irritation; discomfort
4-5 ppm - tolerate up to 30 minutes;
5
5
10 ppm
lachrymation
borne with difficulty; profuse lachrymation
Here again, any attempt to develop meaningful timeconcentration relationships is fraught with hazard and uncer-
tainty.
Figures 1 and 2 are graphic representations of data

concerning time-concentration relationships for carbon monoxide
Even here the data in the literature are not fully consistent.
230
In summarizing important engineering developments

from 1965-68, (in Volume 1 of Industrial Hygiene Highlights
Bloomfield quotes and endorses Miranda as follows:
"High altitude, coupled with the presence of

carbon monoxide, serves to deprive the blood
of its oxygen carrying capacity.
An evaluation
of the physiologic and ventilation control
problems associated with a 1.6 mile tunnel at
an elevation of 11,000 feet was made in order
to develop recommendations concerning tunnel
ventilation and tunnel use.
It was
1.
recommended that:
The CO concentration in the tunnel be
maintained below 25 ppm with one hour
averages no higher than 50 ppm, and short
term peaks no higher than 75 ppm.
231
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2.
Signs be placed on the route to warn

sensitive individuals of the dangers
of high elevations and smoking and to
suggest possible alternate lower
routes
Oxygen masks be provided at the tunnel
for emergency use.
Construction workers involved in
building the tunnel be screened for
cardiopulmonary abnormalities, as
well as blood dyscrasias (sickle
cell anemia).
They should also be
acclimatized to the high altitude
through progressively increased
exercises. "(38)
.
3.
4.
An additional practical and easy to adopt measure

would be installation of an audio-visual warning (based on
either CO quantitation or SOP or both) which would require
turning off auto ignition in case of traffic stoppage.
There are certain other methods for improvement

tunnels also to be considered, either for existing or new
tunnel s
in
1.
Pre-employment physical examinations for tunnel
employees and frequent periodic physical examinations to
document any or no changes.
2.
Develop traffic control systems which will
activate during serious traffic tie-ups or tunnel area disasters.
3.
Develop driver education programs for sound
guidance specifically for tunnel traffic driving.
4.
Develop improved methods for detecting pollutants
identifying and quantifying them.
5.
Develop appropriate research programs to fill
the gaps and to determine the effects of several levels of

pollutant concentrations for several time periods.
Develop appropriate research programs to determine the nature and extent of synergistic effects.
6.
Develop suitable methods for reducing suspended

particulates in tunnels.
7.
233
Determine the true priorities for tunnel atmos8.

phere improvement considering health, safety, engineering
design and maintainability.
Initiate a program to determine the accident
9.
rates in tunnels over an extended period of time with particular emphasis on the causes of the accidents.
Initiate a program to determine the contribution

equipment, materials and road bed erosion to the
pollutant inventory.
10.
of tunnel
11.
Study the tunnel lighting to consider the optimum
lighting for users and employees.
Undoubtedly, the 1971 Automotive Air Pollution Research

Symposium sponsored by the Coordinating Research Council, Inc.,
on May 3-5, 1971, at the Ambassador West Hotel, Chicago, Illinois
will present additional data and concepts which should be taken
into consideration when they become available along with the
contents of this report.
234
FIGURE
CO
EXPOSURES AND EFFECTS
lOOOr
Hours
235
FIGURE
PERCENT COHb (CO TIME-EXPOSURE EFFECT)
100Q
90C
80C
700
600
500
400
300
200
100
236
V.
1.
Air Pollution Control: Guidebook

Rossano, Jr., A.T.
Environmental Sciences Service Division,
for Management.
E.R. A.
Inc.
1969, p 16.
,
2.
Health Hazards of
Goldsmith, J.R. and Rogers, L.H.
Public Health Report, June, 1959,
Automobile Exhaust.
p
3.
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552.
B.R.; Statham, C.F.

Atkinson, F.S.; Pursall
The VentiJ.I.H.V.E., September,
lation of Vehicular Road Tunnels.
,
1962,
197.
Causes and Control of Automotive Emissions.

Mech. Engrs., No. 7, 1962-63, p 246.
4.
Caplan, J.D.
Proc. Instr.
5.
Elliott, M.A.; Nebel

G.J.; Rounds, E.G.
The Composition
of Exhaust Gases from Diesel, Gasoline and Propane Powered
Motor Coaches.
J.A.P.C.A., August, 1955, p 103.
6.
First Quarterly Progress Report (Contract FH 11-7597-DOT).

MSAR, October, 1970.
7a.
Sievers, R.F.; Edwards, T.I.; Murray, A.L.; and Schrenk,

Effect of Exposure to Known Concentrations of
Carbon Monoxide.
J. A.M. A., Feb. 21, 1942, p 585 ff.
H.H.
7b.
Johnstone, R.T. and Miller, S.E.

Occupational Diseases
and Industrial
Medicine
W.B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia,
.
1960,
110.
Physicians
7c.
Ross, W.D.
Practical Psychiatry for Industrial
C.C. Thomas, Springfield, 111., 1956, p 249.
8.
Sievers, R.F.; Edwards, T.I.; and Murray, A.L.

A Medical
Study of Men Exposed to Measured Amounts of Carbon Monoxide
in
the Holland Tunnel for 13 Years.
Public Health Bulletin
No. 278, U.S.P.H.S.
1942.
,
9a.
von Oettingen, W.F.

Carbon Monoxide: Its Hazards and the
Mechanism of Its Action.
Public Health Bulletin No. 290,
U.S.P.H.S.
1944, p 50.
,
9b.
Grut, A.
"Chronic CO Poisoning".
hagen, 1949 (quoted in Patty, Vol.
9c.
Lewey, F.H. and Drabkin, D.C.

1944.
(Quoted in Patty, Vol.
237
Enjer Munksgard, CopenII, 2nd ed., p 931).
Am. J. Med.
II, 2nd ed.,
208:502,
93277"
Sci
p
10.
Industrial Hygiene and Toxicology, Volume

Patty, F.A.
II
Interscience Publishers, New York, 1962.
.
11.
Noxious Gases
Henderson, Y. and Haggard, H.W.
Reinhold, New York, 1943.
Edition.
12.
deBruin,
Exhaust.
2nd
Carboxyhemoglobin Levels Due to Traffic

Environ. Health, Sept. 1967, p 384 ff.
A.
Arch.
13a.
Fisher, I. and Hasse, A.

The Danger of CO Poisoning in
Motor Vehicles.
Arbeits physiol., p 249, 1932-33.
13b.
Zenk, H.
Carbon Monoxide Poisoning in Otological
Industrial and Medical Expert Testimony Practice.
Int.
Arch, fur Gewerbepathol ogie und Gerverbehygiene
p 432
ff.
May, 1964.
,
14.
Zorn, H.
The Diagnosis of Carbon Monoxide Poisoning.
Russ. Med. Ind., p 325 ff , May-Aug., 1964.
.
15.
Drinker, C.K.
Carbon Monoxide Asphyxia
sity Press, New York, 1938.
16.
Petry, H.
nedizin
,
17a.
17b.
18.
Oxford Univer-
Chronic Carbon Monoxide Poisoning.

p
ff
Arbeitso-
1953.
Miranda, J.M.; Konopinski, V.J.; and Larsen, R.I.

Carbon Monoxide Control in a High Highway Tunnel.
Environ. Health, July, 1967, p 16 ff.
Aero Medical Association.
Aviation Toxicology
Blakiston Co., 1953, pp 12-13.
Arch.
The
Short Term Limits for Exposure to Airborne Contaminants:

Documentation.
Penna. Dept. of Health, Division of
Occupational Health.
Clinical Toxicology
19.
Thienes, C.H. and Haley, T.J.

Philadelphia, 1964, p 259.
20.
Biologic Effects of
Cooper, W.C. and Tabershaw, I.R.
Arch. Environ.
NO? in Relation to Air Quality Standards.
Health, April, 1966, p 522 ff.
21.
Gross, P.; deTreville, R.T.P.; Babyak, M.A.; Kaschak, M.

Arch. Environ.
and Tolker, E.
Experimental Emphysema.
Health, Jan.
1968, p 51 ff.
22.
Sollmann,
1942,
T.
A Manual
of Pharmacology
145.
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Philadelphia,
Effect of Possible Smoq

and Pattle, R.E.
J. A.M. A., Dec. 14, 1957,
Irritants on Human Subjects.
1908-13.
pp
23.
Sim, V.M.
24.
Sulfur Dioxide and Acute Effects of

Battigelli, M.C.
J.O.M., Sept., 1968, pp 500 ff.
Air Pollution.
25.
Global Gaseous Pollutant Emissions

Robinson and Moser.
Presented at 2nd Clean Air
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A Report of
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The Determination of
Barnes, E.C. and Speicher, H.W.
J. Ind. Hyg. Toxicol. 24:10, 1942.
Formaldehyde in Air.
28.
El kins.
The Chemistry of Industrial Toxicology
York, 1959.
29.
Hoffmann, D.
Studies on
Theisz, E. and Wynder, E.L.
J.A.P.C.A.,
the Carcinogenicity of Gasoline Exhaust.
April
1965, p 162 ff.
New
30.
Community Air Quality Guides

1969,
p 95
Lead.
A.I.H.A. Journal,
ff.
31.
Lyons, M.J.
Vehicular Exhausts: Identification of Further Carcinogens of the PAH Class.
Brit. J. Cancer,
126
ff.
1959, p
32.
Air
Waller, R.E.; Commins, R.T.; and Lawther, P.J.
Med.,
Pollution in Road Tunnels.
Brit. J. Industr.
1961
p 250 ff.
,
33.
Hamming, W.J. and MacPhee, R.D.

Relationship of Nitrogen Oxides in Auto Exhaust to Eye Irritation - Further
Results of Chamber Studies.
Atmospheric Environment,
1967, p 577 ff.
34.
Community Air Quality Guides

Journal
1968, p 505 ff
Aldehydes.
A.I.H.A.
and the Mechanism of Its Action.

Health Bulletin No. 290, 1944, p 166.
Its Hazards
Public
35.
CO:
36.
Pathophysiologic Determinants of Community

Dinman, B.D.
J.O.M., Sept.,
Air Quality Standards for Carbon Monoxide.
1968, p 446 ff.
239
37.
Air Quality Criteria.

Scientific
Middleton, J. T.
J.O.M.,
Cornerstones of the 1967 Air Quality Act.
Sept.
38.
1968,
535 ff.
Industrial Hygiene Highlights, Volume

Bloomfield, B.D.
Foundation, Pittsburgh, 1968,
Health
Industrial
1.
112-113.
p
240
APPENDIX
II
Pollutant Removal Process Calculations

from Final Report - Patent Development
Associates, Inc.
(See page 8l)
241
APPENDIX
II
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
I.
II.
III.
Calculations of Average Emissions of CO

and Hydrocarbons from Automobiles in 1970,
1975, and 1980
Thermal
Incineration
243
246
Spray Chamber Calculations: Particulate

Removal
247
List of Illustrations
Figure
Figure
Pressure Drop Through Carbon

Beds
250
n-Butane Adsorption Isotherm

on BPL Carbon
251
242
CALCULATIONS OF AVERAGE EMISSIONS OF CO AND HYDROCARBONS

FROM AUTOMOBILES IN 1970, 1975 AND 1980.
A.
Automotive age percentiles calculated from Blum

(1967).
B.
Emission data taken from Ai r Pol 1 ution

Stern (ed.) p 76, (1968).
Vol
A.C.
YEAR 1970
1970 AUTOMOBILE POPULATION:
Vehicles 1954 to 1964

standards of:
HC
900 ppm
HC
63.40% with emission

CO

standards of:
.

CO
275 ppm
32,000 ppm
15,000 ppm
therefore, average automobile exhaust during

1970 will have:
HC
CO
900
560 + 100
660 ppm
32,000
0.634
20,300
5,466
25,790 ppm
0.634
275
0.366
15,000
0.366
YEAR 1975

standards of:
HC
900 ppm

CO

standards of:
HC
275 ppm
32,000 ppm

CO
243
15,000 ppm
Ill
Vehicles -1970 to 1974

standards of:
HC
180 ppm

CO
10,000 ppm

1975 will
have:
HC = 900 x 0.1708 + 275 x 0.4632 + 180

x
0.366
153 + 127 + 68
348 ppm
CO = 32,000 x 0.1708 + 15,000

+
10,000
0.4632
0.366
5,460 + 6,950
16,070 ppm
3,660
YEAR 1980
Vehicles to 1964
standards of:
HC
1.34% with emission
900 ppm
CO

standards of:
HC = 275 ppm
-
HC = 180 ppm
50 ppm
15,000 ppm

CO =

standards of:
32,000 ppm

CO =

standards of:
HC
10,000 ppm

CO
5,000 ppm

1980 will
have:
HC = 900 x 0.0134 + 275 x 0.1574 + 180

x 0.4632 + 50 x 0.3660
244
CO
12 + 43 +
156 ppm
83 + 18
32,000 x 0.0134 + 15,000 x 0.1574

10,000 x 0.4632 + 5,000 x 0.3660
230 + 4,630 +
430
6,120 ppm
245
,830
II.
THERMAL INCINERATION
Based on HEW, AP-51
Assume Direct Flame, with Heat Exchange

Annual Capital
Charge
Installed Cost (with Exchanger)

Annual Capital Charges
Annual Operating
G
S[l95.5
&
x
$220,000
33) ($220 ,000)
(0.
$29,260
Maintenance Charges (G)

10-6 phk + M + HFl
Val ue
H
K
=
=
M =
F
=
=
Design Capacity, CFM

Gas pressure drop, inches
of H 2
Annual operating hours
250,000
1
4,380
0.011
0.06
0.23/1000
Power costs, $/kw-hr

Maintenance cost, $/ACFM
Fuel Cost, $/Hr/ACFM
0"
6
250,000 [(195.5 x 1
+ (4, 380)(0. 23/1000)]
250,000 LI. 0768]
$269,200
Total Annual
Cost
( 1
(4
380) (0. 01
$29,620 + $269,200
$298,460
Major part of operating cost is in fuel cost.
246
0.06
III.
SPRAY CHAMBER CALCULATIONS: PARTICULATE REMOVAL
Spray density
Water droplet size
Particulate size
Removal efficiency
20 lb water/100 cu ft air
500 microns
to
(a)
(b)
microns
90%
75%
Nomencl ature
Pa
density of air at 70F
Pw
density of water at 70F
pp
density of particulate
viscosity of air
Dp
diameter of particulate, cm
diameter of collector drop, cm
drag coeff i cient
terminal velocity of spherical particle

settling in air at 70F, cm/sec
inertia! parameter
holdup time, sec
concentration of spray droplets per

unit volume of air
efficiency of impaction
n
n
fraction of particles remaining
no
N
concentration of spray droplet/unit

volume of air
20 lb water
1000 cu ft air
20 lb x 454.5 gm/lb
1000 cu ft
=
3.14
28317 cc/cu ft
10" 4 gm/cc
Volume of one drop of water (500 microns in diameter)

=
1/6
tt
Dc 3
247
6.55
10" 5 cc
Weight of one drop of water

=
6.55
10" 5 cc x 0.981
6.41
10" 5 gm
gm/cc
therefore
N
drops f water/cc of air
ln -5
IrTT
4.90 drops of water/cc of air

CASE
Dust Removal
I .:
1
100
no
Efficiency
90%
0.1
For a unit volume of dusty air, the time rate of

change of particle concentration in the spray
region is:
dn
nvNnirD c
It
Integrating
Jl
no
V4
exp(-tvNnirD u 2/4)
-2.05 tn
In 0.1
In
or
0.1
2.3026
2.05n
-2.05n
1.125
Terminal velocity, v, of spherical particle of

unit density settling in air at 70F
=
213.4 cm/sec
For spherical
is known
_C
^ gy(fiP-pa
3p*a v J
Re
=
0.0170
From Perry,
C
particle when terminal velocity
1.24
(1963)
and
Re
248
74.45
Now, the inertial
Cpp v D p 2
H
18y D C
vu
<F
1.63
TO 6
[1.63
10
MV*
parameter, V,
1.275
Dp 2
D
]V2
10 3 D n
Dp Microns
efficiency
0.1275
CASE
II
0.25
or In 0.25
or
0.002
0.2550
0.07
0.004
0.3825
0.355
0.006
0.5100
0.54
0.008
0.6375
0.64
0.01
Dust Removal
no
/D
of impaction
25
100
Efficiency
75%
=0.25
exp(-2 tn)
-2.05 tn
0.25
-2.05n
In
2.3026 x 0.6020
2.05n
249
0.68
FIGURE
PRESSURE DROP THROUGH

CARBON BEDS
SOURCE -Y0C0M *
(1970)
7
6
5
4
3
o.
UJ
o
Q
UJ
03
u.
o
u.
1.0
0.9
0.3
0.7
O.S
n
o
c:
o
O.b
0.4
UJ
tn
z>
(/>
0,3
<r>
UJ
cc
a.
0.2
0.U
3
20
10
30
40 50 60
80
LINEAR VELOCITY, FT./MIN.

*
Yocum, J. E. and Duffee, R. A., Chem. Eng. 77, No. 13, 160-168,
June 15, 1970.
250
100
FIGURE 2
n-BUTANE ADSORPTION
ISOTHERM ON BPL CARBON
79F.
0.2
2x10"
IxlO" 4
BUTANE PRESSURE, PSIA
GPO
29-931
251
Ix!
DOT LIBRARY
00362944
R&D

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DEPARTMENT OF

leport No. FHWA-RD-72-15

Tunnel Ventilation and

Mine Safety Appliance Research Corporation

June 30, 1970

FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION

Washington, D.C. 20590

The contents of this report reflect the views of the

Government Accession No.

Tunnel Ventilation and Air Pollution Treatment

Ferdinand Roehlich, Jr.,

Performing Organization Code

Performing Organization Report No.

Work Unit No.

Mine Safety Appliance Research Corporation

Contract or Grant No.

Name and Address

of Report and Period

U.S. Department of Transportation

Federal Highway Administration

Sponsoring Agency Code

Security Classif. (of this report)

Security Classif. (of this page)

Identify the types and quantities

Evaluate the physiological effects

Establish air quality criteria for

Determine available methods for

Perform laboratory tests to demonstrate the applicability of selected

Recommend instrumentation for

Phase 1 consisted primarily of a literature

Phase 2 involved a survey of the literature to

Phase 3 evolved as a result of the

Industrial Hygienists, the EPA standards as set forth 1n

RESULTS OF THE PROGRAM

Identification of Types and Quantities of

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF TUNNEL CONTAMINANTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Conclusions of Alternative Control Technologies

Purification Systems for Tunnels

TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)

Pollutant Removal Proceas Calculations

Mean Hourly Traffic Flow Through

Mean Soiling Index at Sumner Tunnel

Mean CO Concentration at Sumner Tunnel

Mean Daily Concentration of Gaseous

Carbon Monoxide Profile

Carbon Monoxide Profile

Carbon Monoxide Profile

Carbon Monoxide Profile

Effect of Air-Fuel Ratio on Automotive

CO Output vs Vehicle Velocity

Multiplication Factor for Gradient

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS (Continued)

Multiplication Factor for Gradient

Ventilation Rates and Roadway Gradient

Actual Trace of CO Monitor Readings in

Computer Predicted CO Profile-Baltimore

Calculated and Actual CO Concentration

Ventilation Rates and Roadway Gradient

Computed Traffic Conditions for

Carbon Monoxide Profile Lincoln TunnelNorth Tube

Actual and Calculated CO Values for the

Actual and Calculated CO Values for the