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GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING
(CVE4201 / CVE3225)
Basic Characteristic of Soils
Lecture Week No 1 4
Dr Eric LOH
LEARNING OUTCOMES
On completion of this topic successful
students will be able to:
CO1: Describe and determine geotechnical
properties of soil
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ACTIVITY 1
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Rock is an intact
Erosion is
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Mechanical
b) Exfoliation occurs as
cracks develop parallel to
the
land
surface
a
consequence
of
the
reduction
in
pressure
during uplift and erosion.
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Biological
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Residual Soils
vs
Transported Soils
Residual Soils
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Residual Soils
Transported Soils
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ROCK-SOIL RELATIONSHIP
Igneous Rocks
o Granite silty sands
o Basalts clayey soils
Sedimentary Rocks
o Shales clays and silts
o Sandstone sandy soil
o Limestone coarse/fine grained soils
Metamorphic Rocks
o
o
o
o
20 m
5 m
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Example 1
The result of a dry-sieving test are given below; plot the particle-size distribution curve
and give a classification for the soil. The original weighed quantity was 147.2g
Sieve Size (mm)
20
14.4
1.7
10
2.3
6.3
8.4
5.7
3.35
12.9
3.5
1.18
1.1
0.6
30.5
0.425
45.3
0.212
25.4
0.063
7.4
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% Retained
% Passing
20
0.00
100
14.4
1.7
1.15
98.85
97.28
10
2.3
1.56
6.3
8.4
5.71
91.58
5.7
3.87
87.70
3.35
12.9
8.76
78.94
3.5
2.38
76.56
1.18
1.1
0.75
75.82
0.6
30.5
20.72
55.10
0.425
45.3
30.77
24.32
0.212
25.4
17.26
7.07
0.063
7.4
5.03
2.04
Total
144.2
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0.2
0.6
20
60
100
80
70
60
50
40
30
PERCENTAGE PASSING
90
20
10
0.01
0.1
10
0
100
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d 60
d10
Coefficient of Gradation, Cg =
(d 30 )2
d 60 d10
Uniformly graded soils will tend to have low Cu values (< 3.0 )
Well graded soils having Cu value of > 5.0.
A single sized soil would have a Cu value of 1.0.
Cg values of about 2 are ideal with values between 0.5 and 2.0
indicating a well graded soil.
0.2
0.6
20
60
100
80
70
60
50
40
30
PERCENTAGE PASSING
90
20
10
0.01
0.1
10
0
100
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d 60 0.68
=
= 2.6
d10 0.26
Coefficient of Gradation, Cg =
(d 30 )2
d 60 d10
0.482
= 1.3
0.68 0.26
Uniformly graded soils will tend to have low Cu values (< 3.0 )
Well graded soils having Cu value of > 4.0 for Gravel & > 6.0 for Sand
A single sized soil would have a Cu value of 1.0.
Cg values of about 2.0 are ideal with values between 1.0 and 3.0
indicating a well graded soil.
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Problem 1
The result of a dry-sieving test are given below; plot the particle-size distribution curve
and give a classification for the soil. The original weighed quantity was 306g
Sieve size (mm)
50
37.5
15.5
20
17
14
10
10
11
6.3
33
33.5
3.35
81
18
1.18
31
0.6
32.5
0.212
0.15
0.063
5.5
DETERMINATION OF
CONSISTENCY LIMITS
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Total Volume
Liquid
Brittle solid
Semi
plastic
solid
Plastic
Water content
Total Volume
WS
WP
WL
Water content
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Total Volume
WS
WP
WL
Water content
Total Volume
WS
WP
WL
Water content
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Total Volume
I P = WL WP
WS
WP
WL
Water content
w - WP
w - WP
=
WL WP
IP
Total Volume
WS
WP
WL
Water content
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Dial Gauge
Manual cone
release and
locking device
Cone:
Mass 80g
Length 35mm
Angle 30
Base
DETERMINATION OF
CONSISTENCY LIMITS
(LIQUID LIMIT - penetrometer method)
Firstly the soil is dried and then broken up
using a pestle and mortar. The sample is
then sieved and the material passing the
425 m sieve mixed with distilled water to
a paste of stiff consistency. This is then
left for 24 hours in an air tight container to
allow for the water to fully penetrate the
soil. After this time a portion of the soil is
placed in the penetrometer cup and the
soil struck off level with the top of the cup
(care must be taken not to entrap any air
in the cup when placing the soil). The cup
is then placed on the penetrometer stand
and the point of the cone lowered such
that it just touches and marks the top
surface of the soil sample in the cup.
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DETERMINATION OF
CONSISTENCY LIMITS
(LIQUID LIMIT - penetrometer method)
The dial gauge reading is then taken and
noted and then the clamp released. The
cone is allowed to penetrate the soil
sample for 5 sec. (timed with a stop
watch) after which the clamp is retightened and a second dial gauge
reading taken and again noted. The
difference between the second and first
dial
gauge
readings
gives
the
penetration. The same procedure is
repeated several times on the same soil
sample and an average penetration
computed. A small sample of the soil
sample is then taken for water content
determination.
DETERMINATION OF
CONSISTENCY LIMITS
(LIQUID LIMIT - penetrometer method)
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DETERMINATION OF
CONSISTENCY LIMITS
(LIQUID LIMIT - penetrometer method)
15
x
10
Data points
5
0
0
Liquid Limit
(WL)
Example 1
15.6
34.6
18.2
40.8
21.4
48.2
23.6
53.4
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DETERMINATION OF
CONSISTENCY LIMITS
(PLASTIC LIMIT)
Take approximately 20 g of soil paste (prepared in the same way as for the
liquid limit test) and roll it into a ball in the hands until slight cracks appear in
its surface. Divide the ball into two halves and then one of these halves into
four equal portions. Take one of these portions, roll it into a ball and then into a
thread on a glass plate. When the diameter of the thread becomes 3 mm
knead it again into a ball, this process of handling the soil sample effectively
drying out the soil sample (i.e. decreasing the water content). Again roll the soil
ball out into a thread. Repeat the process of rolling into a ball and then into a
thread until the thread just starts to crumble at the 3 mm dia. Once this has
occurred place the thread pieces into an air tight container. The whole process
should be carried out on the remaining three portions of the first half of the 20g
sample with all thread pieces put into the same container.
The test is then repeated on the other 10g of soil sample.
The water content of the two 10gs is then determined and the average of the
two reported as the plastic limit of the sample ( % ).
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The liquid limit is plotted against the plasticity index of the soil and
depending where this point lies a sub - group for the soil can be
determined. The A line on the plasticity chart gives an arbitrary
division between silts and clays with the vertical lines defining five (5)
levels of plasticity:- low(L), intermediate (I), high (H), very high (V)
and extremely high (E).
Secondary letter
G = GRAVEL
W = well graded
S = SAND
P = poorly graded
Pu = uniformly graded
Pg = gap graded
F = FINES
L = low plasticity
M = SILT
I = intermediate plasticity
C = CLAY
H = high plasticity
V = very high plasticity
E = extremely high plasticity
Organic soils
Pt = PEAT
O = organic
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Determine the liquid limit, the plasticity index and classify the soil
Penetration (mm)
Water Content (%)
15.6
34.6
18.2
40.8
21.4
48.2
23.6
53.4
W p = 33 %
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Problem 1
Determine the liquid limit, the plasticity index and classify
the soil
Penetration (mm)
Water Content (%)
15.6
48.6
18.2
54.8
21.4
62.2
23.6
67.4
Wp = 22 %
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Phase Relationships
Air
Water
Solid
Soil
Phase Diagram
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Ma 0
Va= e(1-S)
Air
e
Mw = wMs = wGsw
Ms = Gsw
Water
Vw= Se = wGs
Solid
Vs = 1
Masses
DEFINITION
Specific Gravity (Gs) is the ratio of the mass of a
given volume of a material to the mass of the
same volume of water
Ma = 0
Mw = wGsw
Ms = Gsw
Air
Va= e(1-S)
Water
Vw= Se = wGs
Solid
Vs = 1
s
Gs =
w
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DEFINITION
Degree of saturation (S) is the fraction of the void
volume filled by water
Ma = 0
Air
Va= e(1-S)
Mw = wGsw
Water
Vw= Se = wGs
Ms = Gsw
Solid
Vs = 1
S=
S=0
S=1
Vw
Vv
DEFINITION
Water content (w) is a measure of the amount of
water present in the soil
Ma = 0
Mw = wGsw
Ms = Gsw
Air
Va= e(1-S)
Water
Vw= Se = wGs
Solid
Vs = 1
M W Se
w=
=
M S Gs
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DEFINITION
Void ratio (e) is a measure of the void volume; it
may be occupied by either water and/or air
Ma = 0
Air
Va= e(1-S)
e
Mw = wGsw
Water
Vw= Se = wGs
Ms = Gsw
Solid
Vs = 1
e=
Va + Vw
Vs
DEFINITION
Porosity (n) is also a measure of the void volume
to the total volume
Ma = 0
Air
Va= e(1-S)
e
Mw = wGsw
Water
Vw= Se = wGs
Ms = Gsw
Solid
Vs = 1
n=
Vv
e
=
V 1+ e
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DEFINITION
=
Mass _ of _ Solid
Total _ Volume
Air
= g = 9.81 10 3
e(1-S)
d =
GS
W
1+ e
e
wGsw
Water
Se = wGs
Gsw
Solid
B =
GS + Se
W
1+ e
sat =
GS + e
W
1+ e
Example 1
In a sample of moist clay soil, the void ratio is 0.788 and the
degree of saturation is 0.93. Assuming Gs = 2.7, determine the
dry density , the bulk density and the water content.
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Problem 1
A specimen of clay was tested in the laboratory and the
following data were collected:
Mass of wet specimen,
M1 = 148.8g
Mass of dry specimen,
M2 = 106.2g
Volume of wet specimen, V = 86.2 cm3
Specific gravity
Gs = 2.70
Determine:
a) the water content
b) the bulk and dry densities
c) the void ratio and porosity
d) the degree of saturation
Problem 2
A cylindrical specimen of moist clay has a diameter of 38 mm,
height of 76 mm and mass of 174.2 grams. After drying in the
oven at 105oC for about 24 hours, the mass is reduced to
148.4 grams. Find the dry density, bulk density and water
content of the clay. Assuming the specific gravity of the soil
grains as 2.71, find the degree of saturation.
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Problem 3
It is known that the natural soil at a construction site has a void
ratio of 0.92. At the end of compaction, the in-place void ratio
was found to be 0.65. If the moisture content remains
unchanged, determine:
a) Percent decrease in the total volume of the soil due to
compaction
b) Percent increase in the field unit weight
c) Percent change in the degree o saturation
a) 14.0% decrease
b) 16.3% increase
c) 41.5% increase
Soil Compactions
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WHAT IS COMPACTION?
Compaction is the application of mechanical energy, to a
soil in order to rearrange the soil particles and thus get
them to pack closer together - reducing the void ratio.
The smallest possible void ratio is generally aimed for
when undertaking construction works on or in a soil or
when placing fill material. Why???
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FORMULAE
d =
d =
b
1+ w
G s w (1 Av )
1 + (w Gs )
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Example 1
In a BS compaction test the following data were collected:
Bulk
Density
(kgm-3)
1952
2006
2069
2099
2091
2081
Water
Content
(%)
12.5
13.4
14.8
16.2
17.4
18.4
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36
GM
GC
SW
SP
SM
SC
GP
Example:
Silty sand, gravelly; about 20%
hard angular gravel particles
12.5mm maximum size; rounded
and subangular sand grains
coarse to fine, about 15% nonplastic lines with low dry
strength; well compacted and
moist in places; alluvial sand;
(SM)
OH
Pt
Example
Clayey silt, brown: slightly plastic:
small percentage of fine sand:
numerous vertical root holes: firm
and dry in places; loess; (ML)
None to
slight
Quick to
slow
None
ML
Medium to
high
None to very
slow
Medium
CL,CI
Slight to
medium
Slow
Slight
Slight to
medium
Slow to
none
High to very
high
None
Medium to
high
None to very
high
Slight to
medium
High
Slight to
medium
OL
MH
CH
For undisturbed soils add information on structure, stratification, consistency and undisturbed and remoulded states,
moisture and drainage conditions
Laboratory classification
criteria
D
C U = --- 60 Greater than 4
D10
2
(D )
--------- Between 1 and 3
C c = ------------30
D10 x D60
Not meeting all gradation requirements for GW
Above "A" line with
PI between 4 and 7
are borderline cases
Atterberg limits above "A" requiring use of dual
line with PI greater than 7 symbols
Atterberg limits below
"A" line or PI less than 4
D
C U =--- 60 Greater than 6
D 10
(D )2
--------- Between 1 and 3
C c = ------------30
D 10 x D60
Not meeting all gradation requirements for SW
Above "A" line with
PI between 4 and 7
are borderline cases
Atterberg limits above "A" requiring use of dual
line with PI greater than 7 symbols
Atterberg limits below
"A" line or PI less than 4
60
Comparing soils at equal liquid limit
Toughness and dry strength increase
50
GW
Gravels
More than half of coarse
fraction is larger than
2.36mm
Sands
More than half of coarse
fraction is smaller than
2.36mm
Typical names
Use grain size curve in identifying the fractions as given under field identification
Group
symbols
1
"A
40
in
"l
CH
CI
30
OH
20
10
CL-ML
0
or
CL
10
20
OL
or
MH
ML
30
40 50 60
Liquid limit
70
80
90
Plasticity chart
for laboratory classification of fine grained soils
100
50 40 30
52
36 25
"
"
2"
"
"
2"
20
60
/16"
/8"
/8"
100
Percent Finer
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.001
Clay
0.002
0.006
Fine
0.01
Medium
Silt
0.02
0.6
0.1 0.2
1
Equivalent Particle Size (mm)
0.06
Coarse
Medium
Sand
Fine
Coarse
Fine
10
Medium
Gravel
Coarse
Stone or
Boulder