Maritime Automation

Maritime automation
Presented by
Saptarshi Basu
Overview
Characteristics
of Automation
Human Performance in Automated Systems

Designing for Effective Human-Automation
Interaction
What is Automation?
A machine or system that accomplishes
(partially or fully) a function that was
previously carried out (partially or fully) by a
human operator
Source: PARASURAMAN, R., & RILEY, V. (1997). Humans and

automation: Use, misuse, disuse, abuse. Human Factors.
Reasons for the March Towards

More Automation
This image cannot currently be displayed.
Cost
Safety?
Technical Capability
Human Factors?
Grounding of the Cruise Ship Royal Majesty,

Nantucket, 1995

Nantucket, 1995
Accident: Grounding of passenger ship on
Rose and Crown shoal near Nantucket Island,
MA
Losses: $2 million structural damage; $5
million lost revenue; no injuries or fatalities
Automation: Autopilot; Automatic Radar
Plotting Aid (ARPA); Global Positioning
System (GPS)

Nantucket, 1995

Nantucket, 1995
NTSB Probable Cause: Over-reliance on
automated features of the integrated
bridge system; management failure to
ensure officers adequately trained in
automated features
Human-Automation Issues: automation
complacency; crew resource
management; training
NTSB Report Conclusions (Extracts)
the GPS receiver antenna cable connection separated

enough that the GPS switched to dead reckoning mode,
and the autopilot.no longer corrected for the effects of
wind, current or sea.
the watch officers monitoring of the status of the
vessels GPS was deficient throughout the voyage
.deliberate cross-checking between the GPS and the
Loran-C to verify positionwas not being performed.
.all the watchstanding officers were overly reliant on the
automated position display.and were, for all intents and
purposes, sailing the map display instead of using
navigation aids or lookout information
Human Performance in Automated Systems
Human Performance
Cognitive Processes
Visual Attention
Mental Workload
Vigilance and Monitoring
Working Memory
Situation Awareness
Decision Making
Social Processes
Trust in Automation
Attitudes
Levels of Automation
HIGH 10. The computer decides everything, acts autonomously, ignoring the human.
9. informs the human only if it, the computer, decides to
8. informs the human only if asked, or
7. executes automatically, then necessarily informs the human, and
6. allows the human a restricted time to veto before automatic execution, or
5. executes that suggestion if the human approves, or
4. suggests one alternative
3. narrows the selection down to a few, or
2. The computer offers a complete set of decision/action alternatives, or
LOW 1. The computer offers no assistance: human takes all decisions and actions.
Human-Automation Interaction:
Some Empirical Methods
Human-in-the-loop Simulation
Human Per for mance Modeling
Quantitative Models
Field Studies
Automation and
Human Performance
Automation can fundamentally change the nature
of the cognitive demands and responsibilities of
the human operators of system--often in ways
that were unintended or unanticipated by
designers
Automation and Human

Performance: Benefits
Improved precision of performance
Operational flexibility
Reduced mental workload
Enhanced safety (automated warning systems)
Automation and Human

Performance: Potential Costs
Unbalanced mental workload
Automation complacency
Loss of situation awareness
Mode error/confusion
Manual skill degradation
Degraded teamwork/communication
Automation: The
Double-Edged Sword
Automation often provides clear benefits
Automation can also lead to novel, unanticipated
and performance costs
Which tasks should be automated and to what level for
performance, and safety?
Technologists: Automate tasks as fully as technically possiblethe
Human factors engineers: Automate to an extent that balances
proper role for the human in the
resulting system
problems
optimal control,
technological imperative
efficiency with safety and ensures a
Automation Can But Does Not Always

Reduce Mental Workload
Clumsy AutomationIncreases mental
workload during high task load, reduces it
during low task load
Cognitive OverheadAutomation is
difficult to engage, adjust, or turn off
Sources: WIENER, C. E. (1988). Cockpit automation. In E. L. Wiener & D. C. Nagel (Eds.)

Human factors in aviation. San Diego: Academic Press.
KIRLIK, A (1993). Modeling strategic behavior in human-automation interaction:
Why an aid can (and should) go unused. Human Factors, 35.
Effects of Level of Automation on

Situation Awareness
Levels of SA
Level 1: Perception
Level 2: Comprehension
Level 3: Projection
Source: Endsley, M., & Kiris, E. (1995). The out-of-the-loop performance

Problem and level of control in automation. Human Factors, 37, 390-398.
EFFECTS OF LEVEL OF AUTOMATION

ON OPERATOR SITUATION AWARENESS
100
90
80
70
Manual
Decision
Support
Consensual
AI
Monitored
AI
LEVEL OF AUTOMATION BEFORE AUTOMATION FAILURE
Full
Automation
Trust Affects Automation Usage

Over-trust (Complacency)Inappropriate
use and over-reliance on automation
Under-trust (Distrust)Disuse or turning
off of automation
The goal is to achieve calibrated trust
that is matched to the situation
Source: LEE, J., & MORAY, N. (1992). Trust, control strategies, and allocation of function
In human-machine systems. Ergonomics.
PARASURAMAN, R., MOLLOY, R., & SINGH, I. L. (1993). Performance
consequences of automation-induced "complacency." International Journal of Aviation
Psychology.
Automation Trust and

Complacency Study
24 Experienced General Aviation Pilots
2 Levels of DifficultySingle and Multiple-Task
2 Levels of Automation (Manual, Automated)
Task: Carry out primary flight and fuel management
tasks manually, monitor automated engine-systems task
Human Operators Are Poor at Monitoring Automated Systems When

They Are Simultaneously Engaged in Other Manual Tasks
MANUAL
AUTOMATED
100
Cost of
Automation
Complacency
80
60
40
20
0
SINGLE-TASK
MULTI-TASK
Effects of Display Integration on HumanAutomation Interaction

100
Cost of Automation
Complacency
80
Eliminated
60
40
MANUAL
AUTOMATED
20
EICAS
(Non-Integrated)
EMACS
(Integrated)
DETECTION RATE OF UNCOMMANDED

AUTOMATION MODE TRANSITIONS (%)
100
Visual Only
Visual+Tactile
80
Tactile Only
60
40
MANUAL
w/ FD
DYNAMIC
AUTOPILOT
Summary of
Human Performance
Certain automation designs can lead to

unbalanced
mental workload, reduced
situation awareness, and miscalibrated trust and
complacency
The irony of automation (Bainbridge, 1983)
highly reliable but imperfect automation has a
greater cost than less reliable automation
when the
automation fails
Some of these costs can be mitigated using
integrated
displays, multi-modality
feedback, ecological
interface design, and
adaptive automation
Evaluative Criteria: Human

Performance
Mental models
Communication and coordination
Mental workload
Situation awareness
Trust and complacency
Cognitive skills
Teamwork
Additional Evaluative Criteria
Production and Operating Costs

Automation Reliability
Costs of Decision/Action Consequences
Efficiency/Safety Tradeoffs
Ease of System Integration
Liability Issues
Implementing Human Factors in Automation Design

TRADITIONAL APPROACH
Design
Development
Fielded System
Operations
Human Factors Fixes
HUMAN-MACHINE SYSTEMS APPROACH
Design
Development
Fielded System
Human Factors Science and Engineering
Operations
INSTRUMENTATION
INTRODUCTION of INSTRUMENTATION
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
FLOW MEASUREMENT
MISCELLANEOUS MEASUREMENT
INTRODUCTION
CHARECTERISTIC
INSTRUMENT
PARAMETER
PRESSURE MEASUREMENT
Bourdon tube type

Diaphragm type
Bellow type
Differential type
Strain gauge
METHOD of PRESSURE
MEASUREMENT
Balancing against a column of liquid known as
density
Balancing against a known force
Balancing the force produced on a known area
against the stress in an elastic medium
Others methods
BALANCING AGAINST DENSITY
SIMPLE U TUBE
MANOMETER
BALANCING AGAINST FORCE

PISTON TYPE PRESSURE GAUGE
RING BALANCE TYPE PRESSURE GAUGE
BELL TYPE PRESURE GAUGE
BALANCING AGAINST THE STRESS in

AN ELASTIC MEDIUM
BOURDON TUBE
DIAPHRAGM TYPES
ABSOLUTE PRESSURE
Is the pressure of the fluid
and not the zero pressure
Zero pressure is the
pressure in a complete
vacuum
If a gauge of any form is
required to measure the
absolute pressure of a
fluid, it must compare the
pressure of the fluid with
the pressure in a
complete vacuum
Vacuum
Fluid whose
absolute
pressure is to
be measured
h1mm
Absolute Pressure = h1mm Hg
GAUGE PRESSURE
Most pressure gauges
measure the difference
Atmospheric pressure
between the absolute
Fluid whose
pressure of a liquid and the
absolute
pressure is to
atmospheric pressure
be measured
Gauge Pressure = Absolute
pressure atmospheric
h mm
pressure (= h2 mm Hg)
Absolute Pressure =
Gauge pressure +
atmospheric pressure
Absolute Pressure = h2mm Hg
2
DIFFERENT PRESSURE
Is measured by comparing
the pressure of two different
fluids
Different pressure = P2 P1 Hg
Where P2 : Pressure of Fluid 2
(greater)
P1 : Pressure of Fluid 1
(smaller)
Fluid at
pressure P1
Fluid at
pressure P2
h3 mm
Diff. Pressure = (P2 P1) Hg

= h3mm Hg
WATER MANOMETER
P2 P1 = gh
Where = Density of the
liquid
h = Diff. In height
of columns
Pressure
Source P2
Atmospheric
P1
40
30
20
10
WELL-TYPE MANOMETERS
Atmospheric P1
P2 P1 = (1+D2/D1)gh
Due to D2/D1 very small
P2 P1 = gh
Where = Density of the
liquid
h = Diff. In height
of columns
Scale
D1
D2
Mercury
P2
INCLINED TUBE MANOMETER

By having the small
diameter limb at an angle,
the length of the scale is
increased for a given
head.
Enables small pressure
differences to be read
P
more accurately
D
2
P1
D1
h
h = L Sin A
P2 P1 = x L Sin Ag
BOURDON TUBE TYPE

C TYPE BOURDON TUBE
SPIRAL TYPE BOURDON TUBE
HELICAL TYPE BOURDON TUBE
C TYPE BOURDON TUBE

Bourdon tube
End piece
Adjusting screw
Connecting link
Shoulder screw
(with nut & washer)
Screwed connection
Spigot
Cha
Chassis of Bourdon gauge
SPRING
This is the commonly used gauge for pressure

measuring.
It consists of oval section, bent in a circular arc as an
elliptical section tube formed into a C-shape and
sealed at one end.
The seal end, which is free to move, has a linkage
arrangement which will move a pointer over a scale.
The quadrant consists of a toothed segment which
engages with the teeth of the central pinion which
rotates the pointer.
The play between quadrant and pinion is taken up
by a fine phosphor-bronze hair-spring.
Cont -
The applied pressure acts within the tube, entering

through the open end which is fixed in place.
The internal pressure tends to change the tube
section from oval to circular, and this tends to
straighten out until an equilibrium condition exists
between them.
The displacement of the tube is then converted into
a reading as a needle movement over the scale.
If measuring pressure less than atmospheric, the
free end of the tube tends to move towards the
boss, so the pointer-operating mechanism reversed
by indication of clockwise direction on the scale
The needle moving linkage as adjustable to enable
calibration adjustment to be made as requirement.
HIGH PRESICIAN TYPE

BOURDON GAUGE
SPIRAL & HELIX BOURDON

TUBE
The amount of movement of the free end of a
bourdon tube varies inversely as the wallthickness and depends upon the crosssectional form of the tube.
It also varies directly with the angle subtended
by the arc through which the tube is bent. By
having an arc of 360o , the tube can be made
in the form of a spiral or helix
SPIRAL BOURDON TUBE

Pinion gear to
pointer
Pen arm
Bourdon Tube
Flexible metal
joint
The spiral bourdon tube used for lower

pressure measurement.
The movement of the free end of the tube
is transmitted to the pen arm or pointer
through a flexible metal connecting strip
which joints the free end to the pointer
shaft
This enables the free end to move freely in
a radial direction as the spiral expands.
Cont -
The spiral is made from chromemolybdenum steel tubing, all joints and
closures are welded and the element heat
treated to removed any stress which may
have been set up in the material.
This ensures uniform elastic properties in
the tube.
The junction between the spiral and the
connecting tube is made by means of a
special compression fitting
HELICAL BOURDON TUBE

Flexible metal
joint
Pen arm
Pinion gear to
pointer
Bourdon
tube
The helix bourdon tube used for higher

pressure measurement.
The motion of the end of the helix is
communicated to the pen in the same way
as for spiral element.
The helical element is used in applications
where multiple records are made on the
same chart, such as measuring gas flow
involves the pressure and differential
produced across an orifice.
Cont -
The material used for seamless tube from which

the helix is wound is determined by the nature of
fluid being metered and the range of the
instrument;- Special bronze alloy - 1 40 Bar g
- Beryllium-copper - 40 700 Bar g
- Chrome-molybdenum steel - 7 300 Bar g
Stainless steel particularly in used in petroleum
industries where bronze is affected by corrosive
compounds in the oils
In general, bronze elements used for steam, water,
air, nitrogen and similar gases.
No Corrosion-Tube Ranges
Solid drawn phosphor-bronze tube with soft
soldered or brazed joints 1 to 70 Bar g.
Solid drawn heat-treated beryllium-copper
tube with brazed joints up to 350 Bar g.
Solid drawn alloy steel tube with screwed and
welded joints 70 to 6000 Bar g.
Corrosion-Tube Ranges
Solid drawn carbon steel tubes with soft
soldered or welded joints 1 to 35 Bar g.
Solid drawn stainless steel tube with welded
joints 2 to 70 Bar g.
Solid drawn K monel tubes with screwed and
welded joints 70 to 1400 Bar g.
DIAPHRAGM GAUGE
Diaphragm element may be of two forms:1. Stiff metallic diaphragms or bellows
&
2. Slack Diaphragms and drive plate
Schaffer diagram gauge
High precision capsule type
Geared sector
STIFF METALLIC DIAPHRAGM

ELEMENTS
It consists of a hardened and tempered
stainless-steel corrugated diaphragm of
about 65 mm diameter held between two
flanges known as Schaffer diaphragm gauge
Pressure is applied to underside in the
chamber, and movement of the centre of
the diaphragm is transmitted through the
ball-and socket joint and high magnification
link to the pointer as in Bourdon Gauge.
Cont -
The upper flange is flat to prevent further

movement of the diaphragm when the
pointer has reach the end of the scale thus
the diaphragm not damaged by excessive
pressure.
When it to be used on corrosive fluids the
chamber is made from a corrosionresistance material such as Meehanite cast
iron, Manganese bronze or Stainless steel.
In additional the diaphragm is protected by
coating the underside with thin disc of
silver.
Cont -
Its used for measuring pressures which are

either greater or less than atmospheric, but
it is more difficult to protect the diaphragm
of the gauges for pressure less than
atmospheric pressure because of the
tendency for diaphragm and protective
coating to part under the influence of the
reduced pressure.
This type gives better and more positive
indication than Bourdon type for lowpressure ranges, particularly for gauges
graduated below 1 Bar.
It also suitable for measuring fluctuating
pressures.
Servo-operated pressure mechanism
Bellows
Strain Gauge
STRAIN GAUGE METHOD

The pressure acting on a diaphragm may be
measured in terms of a change of electrical
signal by means of the pressure transducer as
shown.
The pressure to be measured is applied to a
stainless steel diaphragm which moves until
the force acting on the diaphragm is balanced
by the force produced by the deflected spring
element.
STRAIN GAUGE METHOD

The resulting flexure of the spring element
tilts the sapphire posts on which the strain
gauge windings are mounted increasing the
strain, and hence the resistance in the two
windings at one ends of the posts, and
decreasing the strain and hence the resistance
in the windings on the other end.
This changes in resistance produce
unbalanced in the Wheatstone bridge.
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT

-
Liquid expansion type

Gas expansion type
Metal expansion typeBi-metal type
Resistance & thermocouples types
Pyrometer
Temperature measurement by instruments

will give a value in degrees Celsius (oC).
This scale of measurement is normally used
for all reading and temperature values
required except when dealing with theoretical
calculation involving the gas law, when
absolute values are required
The degree of hotness or coldness of a body

related to some zero value known as
temperature.
The Celsius scale measure in oC simply relates
to the freezing and boiling points of water
dividing the distance shown on a
thermometer into 100 equal divisions.
Cont-
As absolute scale has been devised based on a

point 273.16 Kelvin (0.01 oC) which is the
triple point of water such as ice, water and
water vapour.
The unit of absolute scale is the Kelvin. The
unit values in the Kelvin and Celsius scales are
equal and the measurements of temperature
are related, as ..
o
x
C = ( x C + 273 ) K
o
or y K = ( y K 273 )
CLASSIFICATION OF EXPANSION
THERMOMETERS
Expansion of solids
Expansion of liquids
Expansion of gases
EXPANSION OF SOLIDS
Solid rod thermometers
Bimetallic strip thermometers
SOLID ROD THERMOMETERS

A temperature-controlling device may be
designed using the principle that some metals
expand more than others for the same range
temperature.
An example of such a device is the thermostat
used with water heater consists of an invar
rod encased in a concentric brass tube. Other
electric ovens using aluminium-bronze tube
with an inner nickel-iron rod.
ROD TYPE THERMOSTAT
The lower end of the invar rod is hardsoldered to the containing tube.
When this combination, or stem, is heated,
the brass rod ( = 19 x 10-6) will expand more
than the invar rod ( = 1.5 x 10-6) so that the
position of the free end of the rod relative to
the end of the tube will change.
Cont-
This change in relative position is used to

operate a sensitive misrogap switch.
The temperature change or stem differential
required to change the position of the switch
from ON to OFF depends upon the length of
the stem.
The portion of the switch relate to the invar
rod can be adjusted by means of a small knob
as per required temperature.
Cont-
BIMETALLIC STRIP THERMOMETER
Bimetal strip consist of strips of two metals

such as invar and brass welded together to
form a cantilever.
When heated, both metals expand, but the
brass expands much more than the invar
resulting the cantilever curls upwards.
SIMPLE BIMETAL STRIP
L metal such as invar, having a low

coefficient of expansion.
H metal such as brass, having a
high coefficient expansion
L
H
L
H
Bimetal strips are often used in instruments to

compensate for the effects due to changes in
ambient temperature at the instruments.
Instead of the free end of the Helical Bourdon
tubes and Aneroid barometers being
connected directly to the pointer operating
mechanism via bimetal strips.
Cont-
Bimetallic strip thermometer

Pointer
Helical bimetallic
Casing
strip
Fixed end
End fixed to
spindle
Guide
Spindle
Scale
Range -40oC to 320oC (Approximately)
Expansion of solids
Watches are compensated for the effects of
temperature changes by making the balance
wheel in the form of two curved bimetal
strips.
The metal with the grater coefficient of
expansion is put on the outside so that when
the temperature rises the strips curl, moving
part of the mass of the rim towards the centre
of the balance wheel and reducing its moment
of inertia.
Cont-
Expansion of solids
This effect can be arranged to counter balance
the effect due to the changes in elastic
properties of the hair spring and main spring
s
H
L
s
s
s
s
s
L
H
Temperature compensated balance wheel
Thermocouple
Millivoltmeter
If junctions A and B are

maintained at the
same temperature, no
current will flow
If A is heated to a
higher temperature,
then B the current will
flow
Copper wire
Copper wire
Constantine wire
Third wire can be introduced AB and AC from the

couple wire.
Couple wire AB and AC made of various metals and
alloys depending upon the temperature of
operation
B
A
Copper wire
Cold junction
Hot junction
C
Millivoltmenter
Thermocouple
EXPANSION of LIQUID
Liquid-in-glass Thermometer
Liquid in-metal Thermometer
LIQUID-IN-GLASS THERMOMETER
Most common liquid used is mercury
The coefficient of cubical expansion or
volumetric expansion of mercury is about
eight times greater than that of glass.
It consists simply of a stem of suitable
glass tubing having a very small but
uniform bore and a thin walled glass bulb
at the bottom of the stem.
The bulb either cylindrical or spherical
shape and has a capacity many times
larger than the bore of stem.
Cont-
The bulb and bore completely filled

with mercury and the open end of the
bore sealed off either at high
temperature or under vacuum.
This type suitable for temperature in
the range of, -38oC (freezing point of
mercury) to 350oC.
The boiling point of mercury is 357oC
at atmospheric pressure.
For higher temperature measurements,

the top end of the bore is enlarged into a
bulb having a capacity of about 20 times
that of the bore of the stem.
This bulb together with the bore above
the mercury is then filled with nitrogen or
CO2 at a high pressure to suppress the
boiling of the mercury.
The fluid is contained in a sealed glass
bulb and the temperature is read using a
scale etched along the stem of the
thermometer.
A mercury-in-glass thermometer has a

fairly large thermal capacity (requires
quite an appreciable amount of heat to
change its temperature by one degree),
and glass is not a very good conductor
of heat and have a definite thermal lag.
Tendency for vapourization of mercury
at high temperatures and condense on
the cooler portions of the stem in the
form of minute globules, will not join
up again is advisable to expose to high
temperature prolonged periods
Use of liquids other than mercury

Mercury --- -35 to + 510oC
normal range -38 to 350oC
Alcohol --- -80 to + 70oC
Toluene --- -80 to + 100oC
Pentane --- -200 to + 30oC
Creosote --- -5 to + 200oC
LIQUID-IN-METAL THERMOMETER
Two disadvantages of liquid-in glass
thermometers in industry
i) Glass is very fragile
ii) The position of the thermometer
for accurate temperature measurement
is not always the best position for
reading scale of the thermometer
Liquid-in metal thermometer use to
overcome this difficulties by replaced
glass to stainless steel bulb
The liquid no longer visible, a Bourdon

tube is used to measure the change in
mercury volume/expansion by
completely filled the bulb, capillary
tube and bourdon tube with mercury.
The capillary tube may be of
considerable length so the indicator
operated by the bourdon tube may be
some distance away from the bulb thus
it is considered as distant reading or
transmitting type
Thermometer bulbs
Having a large variety of forms depending upon the use to which it
is put.
If the average temperature of a large enclosure is required (gases),
the bulb may take the form of a considerable length of tube of
small diameter either arranged as U or wound into a spiral
The bulb is cylindrical in shape and has a robust wall: the size of
the cylinder depends upon many factors, such as the type of filling
medium and the temperature range of the instrument,
However.In all cases, the ratio of
surface area
volume
Is kept at a maximum to reduce the time lag in the response of the
reading
The flange for attaching the bulb to the

vessel in which it is placed also has a
variety of forms depending upon
whether the junction has to be gastight or other factors
Thermometer-wells, pockets or
sheaths
Prevent the bulb being subjected to high pressure

Will enable change the bulb without shutting down
the plants
Prevent from direct contact to corrosive action. In
addition, the pocket may be coated either by lead,
glass or refractory sheaths on the outside to give
better protection
The response might be slower than unprotected
bulb can be rectified by keeping the clearance
down to absolute minimum and filling the space
with oil, mercury, powered metal or carbon
Thermometer-wells, pockets or
sheaths
Filling liquids in the bulbs
Mercury --- -39 to + 650oC

Xylene --- - 40 to + 400oC
Alcohol --- -46 to + 150oC
Ether
--- +20 to + 90oC
Other organic liquids
--- -87 to + 260oC
EXPANSION OF GASES
The principle of gas filled thermometer is the
pressure increases with temperature, if the
volume is maintained constant. If therefore, a
certain volume of inert gas is enclosed in a
bulb, capillary tube and Bourdon tube, and
most of the gas is in the bulb, then the
pressure as indicated by Bourdon tube, may be
calibrated in terms of the temperature of the
bulb
EXPANSION OF GASES
Since the pressure of a gas maintained at
constant volume, the scale will be linear
provided the increase in volume of the
Bourdon tube, as it uncurls, can be neglected
in comparison with the total volume of gas
An advantage is that the gas in the bulb has a
lower thermal capacity than a similar
quantity of liquid, so the response of the
thermometer to temperature changes will be
more rapid with a bulb of same size and
shape
EXPANSION OF GASES
The coefficient of cubical expansion of a gas is many

times larger than that of a liquid or solid (air,0.0037;
mercury,0.00018; stainless steel, 0.00003)thus bulb
size would be smaller
However, the bulb must have a cubical capacity

many time larger than that of the capillary tube
and Bourdon tube due to the effects of ambient
temperature changes upon the system
Resistance type pyrometers

In the modern world, mercury and spirit-filled
thermometers have largely given way to
electrical devices, which can be digitized and
automated.
Platinum resistance thermometers are
electrical thermometers which make use of
the variation of resistance of high-purity
platinum wire with temperature.
This variation is predictable, enabling accurate
measurements to be performed.
They are sensitive and, with sophisticated
equipment, measurements, can routinely be
made to better than a thousandth part of 1 C.
Ranges
Copper --- -50 to 250oC
Nickel --- -200 to 350oC
Platinum up to 800oC Standard material used in
the resistance thermometer that defines the
International Practical Temperature scale because
of its stability, accuracy and adequate in use even
having the highest possible coefficient of resistance
Degree of accuracy + 0.75 % of scale range. If
special precaution are taken to avoid strains due to
vibration, range may extended to 1100oC
Resistance bulbs
Platinum resistance sensors may be
designed for any range within the limits of
15K and 800oC and capable of withstanding
pressure up to 600 bar and vibration up to
60gs, or more, at frequencies up to 2000
Hz.
Size of 2mm diameter by 8mm long, in the
case of the miniature fast response
elements, to 6mm diameter by 50mm long
Resistance bulbs
The ceramic formers are virtually silica-free
and the resistance element is sealed in with
high temperature glass to form an
impervious (prevent from liquid or gases
getting thru) sheath which is unaffected by
most gases and hydrocarbons.
The external leads which are silver or
platinum of a diameter much larger than
the wire of the resistance element are
welded to the fine platinum wire wholly
inside the glass steel
Resistance bulbs
High temperature form in which the spiral

platinum coil is bonded at one edge of each
turn with high temperature glass inside
cylindrical holes in a ceramic rod.
Resistance bulbs
In the high accuracy type used mainly for

laboratory work the coil is not secured at
each end but left free to ensure complete
strain-free mounting
Resistance bulbs
A robust form suitable for used in aircraft

and missiles or any severe vibration
condition is required a ceramic is in solid
rod form and the bifilar wound platinum
coil is sealed to the rod by a glass coating
Resistance bulbs
The sensor is intended for use for

measuring surface temperatures
Resistance bulbs
An open-wire element suitable for

applications on clean electrically nonconducting liquids or gases where a very
quick response is required
Resistance bulbs
A complete construction of a complete

thermometer bulb suitable for three-wire
connection
Dynatherm resistance bulb

Foxboro Dynatherm resistance bulb shown
the resistance wire which is insulated
nickel, is wound on a silver core.
A spring presses the bulb down into the
protective well so that this core is pressed
on metal foil which is in contact with the
bottom of the well thus increase the rate of
heat transfer and reduce time lag
Temperature range up to 310oC
The Dynatherm resistance bulb - Foxboro
THERMISTORS
As a thermally sensitive resistors whose prime
function is to exhibit a large, predictable and precise
change in electrical resistance when subjected to a
corresponding change in body temperature.
Its consists of an element of semiconductor which has
a Negative Temperature Coefficient (NTC) thermistors
exhibit a decrease in electrical resistance when
subjected to an increase in body temperature about
ten times greater than that of copper or platinum.
Positive Temperature Coefficient (PTC) thermistors
exhibit an increase in electrical resistance when
subjected to an increase in body temperature.
THERMISTORS
More sensitive and having higher resistivity material with a
very small in size thus giving the speed of response
Range usually 300oC and may up to 900oC
Thermistors made from metal oxides or mixtures of metal
oxides. The oxides used are the oxides of cobalt, copper,
iron, magnesium, manganese, nickel, tin, titanium, uranium
and zinc.
The oxides in powder form are usually compressed into the
desired shaped and then heated to a temperature
sufficiently high to recrystallise them, resulting in a dense or
compact ceramic body
Electrical contacts are made with the thermistor by mean of
wire embedded before the firing, by plating. Or by metal
ceramic coating baked on
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT USING RTD/ PT 100

O/P SIGNAL
MEASUREMENT
IN mA
RTD SENSOR
100%
0%
R
B
OUTPUT
R
24 V DC
RTD SENSOR
Internally connected
RTD/PT 100 SENSOR
MULTIFUNCTION TRAINER
MULTIFUNCTION
TRAINER
TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT USING THERMOCOUPLE

O/P SIGNAL
MEASUREMENT
IN mA
THERMOCOUPLE
100%
0%
R
B
OUTPUT
R
24 V DC
THERMOCOUPLE
THERMOCOUPLE
MULTIFUNCTION
TRAINER
PROXIMITY SWITCH (AC) WIRING AND OPERATION
MULTIFUNCTION
TRAINER
230 V AC
PROXIMITY
SWITCH AC
FLAME EYE
SENSOR
A1
A15
A1
A15
PROXIMITY SWITCH
FLAME EYE SENSOR WIRING AND OPERATION
FLAMEEYE SENSOR
NO
NC
FLAME RELAY OUTPUT
MULTIFUNCTION
TRAINER
230 V AC
PROXIMITY
SWITCH AC
FLAME EYE
SENSOR
A1
A15
A1
A15
FLAMEEYE SENSOR
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Bubbler Type
Diaphragm type
Pneumecator
Differential Type
Distance reading
LEVEL MEASUREMENT
Manual Methods of Level Measurement
There are a number of ways that level can be
measured within the process control systems. The
level measurement methods range from manual
systems through to systems that can be integrated
into automated control systems.
Electrical Methods of Level Measurement
The following set of level measurement methods can
have an electrical output and can be integrated with
automated control systems for control and display
purposes.
Manual Methods of Level

Measurement
Dipstick - A common method of level measurement,
all car owners are familiar with. This method
provides a manual method of detecting level.(slow
changes)
Hook Gauge - The hook gauge is another form of
Dipstick method providing greater level
accuracy.(small changes)
Sight Glass - Another common manual method of
level measurement. The liquid level is directly
displayed against a scale.(Unrecorded changes)
Electrical Methods of Level

Measurement
Pressure - Measuring the differential pressure between the

surface of the liquid and the bottom of the liquid can be used
to provide a level.Can be used for measurement of liquids in
open or closed vessels.
The blubber method uses a pipe submersed into the liquid
(to the bottom of the vessel). This pipe is connected to a
pressure transducer and constant air supply. The pressure
instrument measures the level, the higher the level the
greater the back pressure on the pressure transducer.
Weight - Simple method, mounting the vessel onto weigh
scales or load cells. The greater the level the greater the
weight.

Measurement
Conductivity can be used to measure level giving
discrete readings of the level. The system uses two
electrodes, one immersed into the liquid the second
to the switching point. The liquid must be conductive,
when the level covers both probes a current flows
between the electrodes. The current flowing is
detected providing the level switch.
The resistance level measurement method is
basically two elements that are mounted vertically
into the vessel. One strip is made up of chained
resistors. As the level rises in the tank the elements
are shorted together and the resistance reduced. The
lower the resistance the higher the level.

Measurement
The capacitor method used two cylinders that are

mounted vertically in the tank. These act as the
plates of two capacitors in parallel, one with air
between the plates and the second with the liquid.
As the level changes the total capacitance is
changed.
The ultrasonic method uses a transmitter and
receiver. The transmitter emits pressure waves at
approximately 20kHz. The ultrasonic waves reflect
off the material the level is being measured. The
level is determined from the time it takes for the
emitted waves to be reflected and detected by the
receiver. The higher the level the quicker the waves
are reflected to the receiver.
LEVEL MONITORING OF TANKS

Tanks are divided into the following Heads :
1. Heavy Fuel Oil.
2. Diesel oil Tanks
4. M/E Fresh Water

Tanks.
5.Bilge tanks.
3. Lubricating oil Tank

6.Sludge tanks
Various Tank Level Alarms
1) Heavy oil Settling tank

H/L & LL
2) Heavy Oil Service Tank
LL
3) Diesel oil Settling Tank
H/L & LL
4) Diesel oil Service Tank
LL
5) Aux Boiler F O tank
LL
6) F.O. Over flow tank.
H/L
7) M/E FO Drain tank.
H/L
8) M/E FO Leakage Tank.
H/L
9) LO Settling Tank
H/L and LL
10) LO Storage Tank
H/L
11) LO Day tank.
LL
12) G/E LO Storage Tank
LL
13) G/E LO Settling Tank.
LL
14) Cylinder Oil Storage Tank. LL
15) Cylinder LO measuring tank. LL
16) M/E Cam Shaft L.O Tank. LL
17) LO drain Tank.
H/L
18) Stern Tube LO header tank L/L
19) Stern Tube Gravity tank ( Upper &
Lower)
20) M/E LO sump tank.
L/L
21) Stern Tube Fwd Seal LO Tank LL

22) G/E LO Sump Tank.
LL
23) G/E Rocker Arm LO Tank.
LL
24) G/E FO Leakage Tank
HL
25) Fuel Oil Sludge Tank.
HL
26) Lub Oil Sludge Tank.
HL
27) M/E FW Expansion Tank.
LL
28) G/E FW Expansion Tank.
LL
29) Fresh Water Hydrophor Tank. L/L
30) Fresh Water Tank
L/L
31) Drinking water Tank.
L/L
32) Bilge Holding Tank
L/L
33) Bilge Level Tank ( Fwd Port, Stbd Port, Aft )
H/L
34) Clean Bilge Tank.
H/L
35) Oily Bilge Tank.
H/L
36) Waste oil Tank
H/L & L/L
37) Scavenge Drain Tank.
H/L
38) Cascade Tank.
H/L & L/L
39) Steering Gear Hydraulic Tanks. L/L
40) Sewage Holding Tank.
H/L
41) Remote Control Hydraulic Tank. L/L
42) M/E Fly Wheel Pit Tank.
H/L
LEVEL MEASURING DEVICES

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
1. Dip sticks
2. Sight gauge glasses.
3. Float switches ( magnetic
4. Air bubbler tube air purge tube
5 capacitance type level sensors
6. Conductivity type level sensors
7. Sonic ( radar) level sensors
8. Bilge level floats
9 level transmitters/transducers
FLOW MEASUREMENT
Define Bernoullis Theorem

Orifice type
Ventury type
Variable area type
Positive Displacement type
Turbine type
Electromagnetic type
TANKS UNDER PRESSURE SIGHT

GLASS METHOD
When measuring the liquid level in
a tank under pressure, the sight
glass is connected to the tank at top
as well as at the bottom, by two
valves.
The Valve at the bottom is provided
for blowing out the gauge .
High pressure sight glass in which
measurement is made by reading
the position of the liquid level on
the calibrated scale.
The glass tube has a small inside
diameter and a thick wall.
Sight glass is located on out side the
tank. Accuracy and readability
depends upon the cleanliness of
glass or fluid.
Conductivity Type LEVEL Detector

Conductivity probe level detector system has one or more level
detectors, an operating relay, and a controller.
When the liquid makes contact with any of the electrodes, a electric
current will flow between the electrode and ground.
This current energizes the relay (float less).
Contacts to open or close depending upon the state of the process
involved.
The relay in turn will actuate an alarm, a pump, a control valve, or
all the three.
A typical system has probes :
Low level probe.

Low level probe
High level probe
High level alarm probe
Conductivity Type LEVEL Detector

Probe Type Level Detector
FLOATLESS RELAYS
ULTRA SONIC METHOD

Level by Ultrasonic method because they are non contact type
measurement technique no physical contact with the liquid. Such
devices use the technique of acoustic energy transmission.
The measurement depends on the length of time taken for
reflections of an ultrasonic pulse from the surface of the material.
Pulses of high frequency sound waves are applied by using a piezo
electrical crystal. The electrical pulses produced by the transducer
converts it into the mechanical vibration or sound waves.
The sound wave is in the ultrasonic frequency range of 35 to 40 KHz.
The energy is reflected back.
The signals received are shown on the CRT, which shows the
distance between the crystal generator and the surface from which it
originates.
The ultra sonic transmitter and receiver are located above the tank,
Two echoes are received, one from the liquid level and other from
the tank bottom.
The time separation between the two echoes is proportional to the
level of the liquid.
ULTRA SONIC METHOD
PURGE OR BUBBLER SYSTEM

Air under pressure is applied via a flow indicator such as Rotometer,
through an orifice.
The tube enters the tank and ends at a point just above the sludge line.
There is a pressure gauge, calibrated in height units.
When the tank level is below the bottom end of the bubbler tube, the
air of the tube escapes and there is no resultant back pressure, thus
gauge shows min height.
when the tank is full , no air can escape from the tube, and back pr is
max, thus gauge shows max reading.
As the tank fills up, the force exerted on the liquid increases , thus back
pressure increases, and the remaining air escapes, & gauge now shows
correct level.
Because air is continuously bubbling from the bottom of the tube , the
tank liquid does not enter the bubbler tube and therefore the tube is
said to be purged.
This type of device is well suited for measuring the level of corrosive
liquids.
PURGE OR BUBBLER SYSTEM
SAAB (RADAR ULLAGING SYS)
MISCELLANEOUS MEASUREMENT
CO2 meter
O2 meter
Hydrocarbon meter
Speed measurement meter
Tachometer
Power measurement
Calibration of Instrument System

Measurement of Accuracy
Establishment the relation of an
instruments accuracy to the international
standard
Typical Measurement System Architecture

Noise and Interference
Process
or
Test
Sensor
or
Transducer
Amp
OUR TOPIC IS HERE

Proces
s
Controller
and control
over the process or experiment
Signal
Conditioner
ADC
Converter
PC comp
and data
storage
1. Calibration process
The purpose of calibration is to ensure that the measuring accuracy is known over the
whole measurement range under specified environmental conditions for calibration.
Input (whole
measuring range)
Environmental
Conditions
(Modifying Inputs)
Instrument to be
calibrated
Instrument Output
Instrument of
Higher Standard
The input value

with known
accuracy
Standard
Instrument
Ensure the
calibration is done
under the specified
environmental
conditions
Fig.1 Calibration of Instrument
Correction and adjustment

A proper course of action must be defined which describes the
procedures to be followed when an instrument is found to be
out of calibration. The required action depends very much upon
the nature of the discrepancy and the type of instrument
involved. For example,
Simple output bias can be corrected by a small adjustment
Alternation of scale factor may be corrected by redrawing the output scale or
adjusting the amplification.
For the corrections mentioned above, the adjustment screws

must be sealed to prevent tampering. In extreme cases, where
the calibration procedure reveals signs of instrument damage,
it may be necessary to send the instrument for repair or even
replacement.
Calibration process must be managed and executed in

a professional manner:
A particular place for all calibration operations to take place and keeping all
instruments for calibration
A separate room is preferred because (1) better environmental control and (2) better
protection against unauthorized handling or use of the calibration instruments.
The performance of all calibration operations is assigned as the clear responsibility of
just one person.
Calibration procedures, used for quality control functions, are controlled by the
international standard ISO 9000. It requires that all persons using calibration
equipment be adequately trained.
Instrument calibration has to be repeated at prescribed intervals because the

characteristics of any instrument change over a period of time. Factors deciding the
frequency of calibration:
usage rate
conditions of use
skill level of personnel
degree of accuracy expected
costs of calibration
Maintaining proper records is an important part of fulfilling the calibration function,
which is very useful in providing a feedback which shows whether the calibration
frequency has been chosen correctly or not.
2. Traceability
As shown in Fig.2, calibration has a chainlike structure in which every instrument in
the chain is calibrated against a more
accurate instrument immediately above it
in the chain.
The knowledge of the full chain of
instruments involved in the calibration
procedure is known as traceability, and is
specified as a mandatory requirement in
satisfying the ISO 9000 standard.
Documentation must exist which shows
that process instruments are calibrated by
standard instruments which are linked by a
chain of increasing accuracy back to
national reference standards.
National standard organization

(Primary reference standard)
Standards laboratory
(Secondary reference standard)
Company instrument laboratory

(Working standard)
Process instruments
Fig.2 Calibration Chain
In engineering measurement and calibration, the ten-to-one rule is usually applied

to the choice of instrument, which states
For a particular measuring application, choose an instrument the discrimination of
which splits the permissible tolerance on the dimension to be measured into
approximately 10 parts.
For example,
If the tolerance on a dimension is 0.5mm, choose an instrument which has a
resolution of 0.1mm.
If tolerance is 0.02mm on a part, then choose an Instrument with a resolution
0.002mm
Sensors and Instrumentation

Sensors are the spies/eyes/ears of any instrumentation
system
Sensors are hardly ever used alone, without amplifiers,
signal conditioners, and nowadays DSP
Need to understand how to deliver the information from
the sensor to the consumer
Is the information from the spies correct? If so can we
estimate the accuracy of this information?
Errors in measurements
Imposed by the sensors

Imposed by the instrumentation
Imposed by humans
Accuracy, resolution, instrument deviation, span, etc
A proper course of action must be defined which describes the procedures to be

followed when an instrument is found to be out of calibration. The required action
depends very much upon the nature of the discrepancy and the type of instrument
involved. For example,
Simple output bias can be corrected by a small adjustment

Alternation of scale factor may be corrected by redrawing the output scale or
adjusting the amplification.
For the corrections mentioned above, the adjustment screws must be sealed to
prevent tampering. In extreme cases, where the calibration procedure reveals signs
of instrument damage, it may be necessary to send the instrument for repair or
even replacement.
The instrument used for calibrating working standard instruments is known as a

secondary reference standard. When the working standard instrument has been
calibrated by an authorized standards laboratory, a calibration certificate will be
issued. This will contain at least the following information:
The identification of the equipment calibrated.

The calibration results obtained.
The measurement uncertainty.
Any use limitations on the equipment calibrated.
The date of calibration.
The authority under which the certificate is issued.
Error of Measurement
Error of measurement refers to the difference between
the measurement we obtain and the "true" value of the
variable.
Question: Where do you get the "true" measure if all
measuring methods produce errors?
Answer: "True" measures cannot be obtained, but they
can be estimated.
Role of the True Value

The true value of an object being measured is rarely ever
known.
Identifying the true value needed by an end user is critical.
What are we trying to measure?
The true value is often a concept that is very hard (or
impossible) to measure.
Moffat [3] uses the example of average surface temperature as a
true value that is needed for defining the heat transfer
coefficient.
Start with the Truth

Goal is to experimentally measure a physical quantity
The true value of the quantity is a concept. In almost all cases,
the true value cannot be measured.
The error in a measurement is the difference between the true
value and the value reported as a result of a measurement.
If x is the quantity of interest
Error = xmeasured xtrue

A claim of numerical Accuracy establishes an upper bound on
the error.
Examining Errors
The Plan:
1. Classify errors
2. Identify sources of errors
3. Remove errors we can correct
4. Develop a procedure for computing
uncertainty
5. Demonstrate how to apply these
methods to a measurement.
Classifying Errors
Ideal Distinction: bias versus random errors
Bias error is a systematic inaccuracy caused by a mechanism that
can be (ideally) controlled.
Measurements can be adjusted to account for bias errors.
Random error is a non-repeatable inaccuracy caused by an
unknown or an uncontrollable influence.
Random errors establish the limits on the precision of a
measurement.
A more practical distinction of errors as three types of errors.
Fixed errors
Random errors
Variable but deterministic errors
Fixed errors and variable but deterministic errors are also called
bias errors.
Fixed Error
All repeatable errors are fixed errors.
A fixed error is the same for each nominal operating point of
the system
Sources of fixed error:
Sensor calibration
Fixed disturbance to system
Examples
A pressure gauge that always reads 20kPa high.
Heat flow along thermocouple leads when measuring the
temperature of an object
Effect of probe blockage on flow field downstream of the
probe.
Random Error
Random errors have different
magnitude during subsequent
measurements of the same
quantity.
For well behaved systems,
random errors in a
measurement cause a cluster of
observed values.
We will assume that random
errors are normally distributed.
This is reasonable for large
sample sizes and truly random
errors
Variable but Deterministic Error

Some errors that appear to be random can be caused by
faulty measurement techniques or the errors may be
variable but deterministic.
Errors change even though the system is at the same
nominal operating point
Errors may not be recognized as deterministic: variations
between tests, or test conditions, may seem random.
Cause of these errors are initially hidden from the
experimenter
Measurement equation
The case of interest is where the quantity Y being measured,
called the measurand.
If is not measured directly, but is determined from N other
quantities X1, X2, . . . , XN through a functional relation f, often
called the measurement equation
Y = f(X1, X2, . . . , XN)
Included among the quantities Xi are corrections (or correction

factors), as well as quantities that take into account other
sources of variability,
such as different observers,
instruments,
samples,
laboratories, and
times at which observations are made (e.g., different days).
Thus, the function f of equation should express not simply a

physical law but a measurement process.
In particular, it should contain all quantities that can contribute
a significant variation to the measurement result.
An estimate of the measurand or output quantity Y, denoted by
y, is obtained from previous equation using
input estimates x1, x2, . . . , xN for the values of the N input
quantities X1, X2, . . . , XN.
Thus, the output estimate y, which is the result of the
measurement, is given by
y = f(x1, x2, . . . , xN).
The measure of a measurand is not only different from true value, but also random !!!!
Uncertainty
"A parameter associated with the result of a
measurement, that characterizes the dispersion of
the values that could reasonably be attributed to the
measurand
The word uncertainty relates to the general concept
of doubt.
The word uncertainty also refers to the limited
knowledge about a particular value.
Uncertainty of measurement does not imply doubt
about the validity of a measurement;
On the contrary, knowledge of the uncertainty
implies increased confidence in the validity of a
measurement result.
Error and Uncertainty

It is important to distinguish between error and
uncertainty.
Error is defined as the difference between an individual
result and the true value of the measurand.
Error is a single value.
In principle, the value of a known error can be applied as a
correction to the result.
Error is an idealized concept and errors cannot be known
exactly.
Uncertainty, on the other hand, takes the form of a range,
and, if estimated for an analytical procedure and defined
sample type, may apply to all determinations so
described.
In general, the value of the uncertainty cannot be used to
correct a measurement result.
The difference between error and

uncertainty should always be borne in
mind.
The result of a measurement after
correction can unknowably be very close to
the unknown value of the measurand,
and thus have negligible error,
Even though it may have a large uncertainty
Components of Uncertainty
Component of uncertainty arising from a

random effect : Type A
These are evaluated by statistical methods.
Component of uncertainty arising from a
systematic effect,: Type B
These are evaluated by other means.
1 - Handpump
2 - Testing Pump
3 - Pressure Gauge to be calibrated
4 - Calibration Weight
5 - Weight Support
6 - Piston
7 - Cylinder
8 - Filling Connection
The testing pump (2) is connected to

the instrument to be tested (3), to the
actual measuring component and to
the filling socket. A special hydraulic oil
or gas such as compressed air or
nitrogen is used as the pressure
transfer medium. The measuring piston
is then loaded with calibrated weights
(4). The pressure is applied via an
integrated pump (1) or, if an external
The testing pump (2) is connected to
the instrument to be tested (3), to the
actual measuring component and to
the filling socket. A special hydraulic oil
or gas such as compressed air or
nitrogen is used as the pressure
transfer medium. The measuring piston
is then loaded with calibrated weights
(4). The pressure is applied via an
integrated pump (1) or, if an external
pressure supply is available, via control
valves in order to generate a pressure
until the loaded measuring piston (6)
rises and 'floats' on the fluid. This is the
point where there is a balance between
pressure and the mass load. The piston
is rotated to reduce friction as far as
possiblepressure supply is available, via
control valves in order to generate a
pressure until the loaded measuring
piston (6) rises and 'floats' on the fluid.
This is the point where there is a
balance between pressure and the
mass load. The piston is rotated to
reduce friction as far as possible
Calibration curve
A few definitions from the error theory

Each measurement has a numerical
value and a degree of uncertainty
Error is the uncertainty in
measurements that nothing can be
done about (i.e. occurring even in the
optimized measurement system)
Error in the nth measurement:
Xn is nth measured value, X is a "true"
value; it is assumed that it exists. One
can argue that "true" value can never
be known. In reality X is defined using
a high resolution primary standard.
Precision and sample mean.
n Xn X
Percentile error
n
X
100%
X Xn
Pn 1
X
N
X
n
Gross errors or mistakes

Dynamic error. Measurement "at first glance" for unsteady state.
Often caused by inappropriate time constant.
Recording and calculation error. Incorrect interpolation between marks

on analog meter. Occurs if operator does not know how to write, not paying attention, not
familiar with math, etc
Incorrect interpretation error. Trying to measure microvolts on "kiloVolts"

scale (or the opposite, which may also result in the damage to the operator/instrument)
Misuse of instrument. Measurement of high resistance source using low input

resistance meter. Trying to measure Amps on "Hertz" scale. Using meter as a hammer
Misuse of sensor. Using thermometer without appropriate thermal contact.

Malfunction of sensor or instrument. (e.g. loose contact)
System (or experimental) errors

Errors which are inherent to the measurement
process (related to both sensors and instrumentation):
Calibration (gain) errors due to changing ambient conditions change (temperature, humidity)
or aging
Zero offset errors caused by ambient conditions change

Range errors saturation, nonlinearity
Reading uncertainty errors due to noise
Drift errors. Affects static measurands the most
Hysteresis errors result depends on the direction
Repeatability errors different readings for the same input applied in the same fashion
Resolution (A to D conversion) errors
Dual sensitivity errors
Calibration and Zero Offset Errors
Calibration or gain error.

Instrument has to be
calibrated vs known
standard or at least vs
another reasonably good
instrument
This is common cause of errors in DC

measurements. One should know what to be
called zero. Beware of the drifts!
Range and Uncertainty Errors

1.0x10-8
I (A)
5.0x10-9
0.0
-5.0x10-9
-1.0x10-8
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2
0.0
VDS (mV)
Each instrument has finite dynamic range.

Beware of saturation and too small signals!
Linearity is an idealization. Know the range
where it works!
0.2
0.4
Noise limits the accuracy and

resolution. Beware of too small
signals!
0.6
Hysteresis and Repeatability Errors
G(S)
3.0x10-5
2.0x10-5
1.0x10-5
0.0
-30 -15 0 15 30
Vg(V)
Will cause error if used as a sensor
Resolution Error
Dual Sensitivity and Back-action Errors

An ideal sensor does not affect the process and is not
supposed to react on any other changes rather than the
quantity it is designed to react on.
Real sensor are susceptible to various environmental
changes which can change the sensitivity, offset etc.
This is also applicable to the whole measurement process.
Moreover, sometimes sensors themselves can affect the
process/test.
The Result of Dual Sensitivity
Dont mix the dual

sensitivity error with
Rooster in the
magnet gross error!
Here, due to change in temperature we got both the offset change and
the change in the sensitivity (calibration and offset errors)
Important statistical definitions

dn X n X
Deviation
Average deviation
DN
Standard deviation
SN
Signal-to-noise
Ratio
SNR
1
N
N
N
(X
n =1
=
1
N
(X
n =1
X )2 = X
N
X )2
SNR improves as
SNR
Accuracy and Instrument Deviation

Full scale accuracy A / Full scale
It is often quoted in units ppm (parts per million) or ppb (parts per billion)
with a simple meaning of maximal acceptable error over a full scale.
Example: 1 ppm accuracy for 1V voltmeter - can measure accurately 1 V of
signal on top of 1 V applied to the input. Sometimes term limiting error or
guaranteed error is used instead of accuracy.
Example: a voltmeter with a 100 V scale has a guaranteed error of 2% of the
full scale reading. Therefore, guaranteed error in volts around full scale is 2 V
(meaning no worse than 2%)
Instrument Deviation (ID) is defined as the product of the accuracy and the
full scale value of the instrument:
ID = AFull Scale .
Gives you the corridor of manufacturer specifications
Accuracy Bounds for an Instrument
The instrument can introduce larger

percentile errors than the accuracy limits
seem to imply
At half scale the error is 2 (because Instr.
Deviation remains the same, but we operate
at only a half-scale)
Error reaches 100% if the instrument is
used close to zero of the scale
Given: 1 mV full-scale voltmeter with
accuracy 0.1% for full scale signal. What
error in the measurement will one get if the
reading fluctuates by 1 V ?
For input signal of 1 V, the error is 100%
For input signal of 1 mV, the error is 0.1%
Resolution
Resolution stands for the smallest unit that can
be detected. Resolution and accuracy are
closely related. They are not the same, though
accuracy can be equal to resolution.
Not always! E.g.:
an ADC converter has resolution of 1/3 mV, but the last digit is so noisy, that
accuracy is of the order of 1 mV.
Or an instrument can resolve 1 mV on top of 1 kV, but due to offset the result is
inaccurate
Resolution indicates the minimum change in input variable that is detectable

The quotient between the measuring range and resolution is often expressed
as dynamic range and is defined as:
Sensitivity, Span, Precision
Sensitivity is a parameter extracted from the instrument response

(based on the assumption that the response is linear). If input
quantity changes by QINP, resulting in the output quantity change of
QOUT, then the sensitivity is
Qout
S=
Qinp
Span of the Instrument is the difference between the upper and the
lower limits of operation
span = Upper Lower
Precision Measurement requires a measurement system capable of
resolving very small signals, (say, one part in 107). In other words, the
precise measurement is such for which
Span / Resolution 1
Input-Output Response Curve for an instrument
Generic Instrument response curve includes all previously

discussed parameters
Calculations of Error for a Test with Multiple

Variables
In case the experiment is designed so that the outcome of the measurement,

Q, is a function of multiple variables,
Q = f ( x1 ,..., x N )
with uncertainty of ( x1, , xN), the resulting error can be calculated using
Taylor series. By dropping higher derivatives, the worst case uncertainty, or
limiting error (all N sources of error pull the result in the same direction) is
N
f max = f ( x1 ,..., x N ) f ( x1 + x1 ,..., x N + x N ) =
Instrumentation system usually contains several elements with each element

i =1
introducing error (even when it operates within specifications!), and error
accumulates.
Maximal accumulated error for the instrument system is given by (all sources
of error assumed to be independent (uncorrelated)) :
max =
i
i =1
f
xi
xi
Minimizing experimental Errors
Use the right sensor: The sensor should not affect the process and the
process should not destroy the sensor.
Check the accuracy of each element and determine the accumulated
accepted error
Calibrate each instrument
Connect system with proper wires
Check the system for electrical noise
Estimate the total error in the system from all known sources
Perform a system calibration by measuring the variable in a known
process. This gives you a single calibration constant for the entire system.
Example: scales
System Calibration (versus individual instruments calibration)
Calibrate your measurement system vs known standard, so that your output (say, in volts) corresponds to
known input quantity (say, in ohms)
In this case you dont have to consider intermediate details of your measurement system for as long as
The system response is linear

There are no offset errors
The system is within the dynamic range
The system signal-to-noise ratio is satisfactory
The system does not change its parameters in time
This approach allows to eliminate instrument calibration
System Calibration
There are situations where it is impossible to calibrate

parts of the entire system, but the system as a whole can
be easily calibrated
Linearity and Hysteresis

The linearity is defined as the maximum deviation from the linear
characteristics as a percentage of the full scale output. The hysteresis is
expressed as the maximum hysteresis as a full scale reading
Dynamic Characteristics
Dynamic characteristics refer to

the performance of the
instrument when the input
variable is changing rapidly
with time. The dynamic
performance of an instrument
is normally expressed by a
differential equation relating
the input and output
quantities. It is always
convenient to express the
input-output dynamic
characteristics in form of a
linear differential equation. So,
often a nonlinear
mathematical model is
linearised and expressed.
where Xi and Xo are the input and the

output variables respectively. The above
expression can also be expressed in terms of
a transfer function, as:
Normally m<n an n is called the order of

the system. Commonly available sensor
characteristics can usually be
approximated as either zero-th order, first
order or second order dynamics
Level Sensing methods
a) Hydrostatic Head
b) Float
c) Load Cells
d) Magnetic Level Gauge
e) Capacitance Transmitters
f) Magnetostrictive
Direct methods will measure level in terms the physical
of the
g) location
Ultrasonic
surface of the material in relation to some reference h)
pointMicrowave
(e.g. bottom of
i)
Laser
the tank) whereby the indirect method will infer the measurement by
Radarsuch as static
measuring some other quality or characteristic of thej)material
k)
Guided Wave Radar
head pressure, weight or mass
l)
Dip Stick
m) Vibration
Instrument
input does
not matter
Regulated
purge system
Level is another common process

variable that is measured in many
industries. The method used will
vary widely depending on the
nature of the industry, the process,
and the application.
Principle measurements
desired in industry
(air or
nitrogen)
Bottom of tube
determines
reference point
Height
(H)
Water
Density
(D)
Measurement method used affects accuracy
(a) Temperature
(b) Pressure, Load
(c) Level
(d) Flow
(e) Others ( Weight, Composition,
pH etc.)
If the installation is in an area
where explosive vapors may be
present, the transducer or
transmitter and its power supply
must be suitable for these
environments. This is usually
achieved either by placing them
inside purged or explosion proof
housings, or by using intrinsically
safe designs.
When high process temperatures
are present, one can consider the
use of various methods of isolating
the instrument from the process.
These include loop seals, siphons,
chemical seals with capillary tubing
for remote mounting, and purging.
The most important criterions in
selection decision of a transducer are the
range and cost.
The instrument used for calibrating working standard instruments is known as a

secondary reference standard. When the working standard instrument has been
calibrated by an authorized standards laboratory, a calibration certificate will be
issued. This will contain at least the following information:
The identification of the equipment calibrated.

The calibration results obtained.
The measurement uncertainty.
Any use limitations on the equipment calibrated.
The date of calibration.
The authority under which the certificate is issued.
3. Standard Laboratories
The establishment of a company standards laboratory to provide a calibration
facility of the required quality is economically viable only in the case of very large
companies where large numbers of instruments need to be calibrated.
In the case of small to medium size companies, the cost of equipping such
instruments is not justified. Therefore, they would normally use the calibration
service provided by various companies which specialize in offering a standards
laboratory. Such standards laboratories are closely monitored by national
standards organizations (ISO/IEC Guide 25, General Requirements for the Technical
Competence of Testing Laboratories).
4. Accreditation of Standards Laboratories

The Hong Kong Laboratory Accreditation Scheme
(HOKLAS) is an accreditation scheme operated by the
Hong Kong Accreditation Service (HKAS).
It is a voluntary scheme open to any Hong Kong
laboratory that performs objective testing within the
scope of the Scheme and meets the HOKLAS criteria of
competence.
HOKLAS may also accept applications for accreditation
from laboratories located outside Hong Kong.
Maintenance of Accreditation of a Laboratory

Mandatory reassessments are conducted one year after the granting of
accreditation and at two-year intervals thereafter.
Surveillance visits, announced or unannounced, are also conducted.
Accredited laboratories are visited at least once a year and are required to
participate in proficiency testing activity at least once every four years for each
major sub-area of major disciplines.
5. Documentation of Calibration
An essential element in the operation of calibration is the provision of full documentation
that consists of the following:
Measurement requirements (such as environmental conditions)
Instruments used
Calibration system and procedures operated
Calibration record
Traceability of the calibration system back to national reference
defined and supported by calibration certificates.
standards must be
Training programmes
The above-mentioned are also important to the maintenance of measurement system and
form a necessary part of the quality manual.
Advantages of Automation Control
1. Safety: Adequate monitoring & Control methods, measuring parameters, control &
alarm system, using certified instrumentation.
2. Reduced Manpower: Reduced labour cost
Human Element : Errors in monitoring parameters, tiring tasks, repetitive monitoring of
the parameters by human, fatigue., no watch keeping.
Reduction in Cost of fuel. Expensive fuel. Saving in fuel cost., proper maintaining
viscosity.
5.Operational Efficiency: Fail safe policy: In t he event of failure of automation controls
6. Very accurate monitoring & operation of equipments & M/C runs at correct
parameters. Consistent results.
Reduced wear and tear at variable conditions.
Efficient preventive maintenance.- more time for maintenance. Damage due to
deteriorating condition is avoided.
Better analysis of datas.
Coordination of Complex M/C operations.
Reduction in operating cost of the vessel. HOW ever higher cost of maintenance of
automation equipments.
An effective remote control of machineries.
Greatly improves safety standards
MARINE CONTROL & AUTOMATION
CLASSIFICATION SOCIETY RULES

1. FAIL SAFE:- A fail safe policy to be adopted, should a control system fail, it should not
result in any unsafe situation or least critical consequences. That means all remote
control systems, manual emergency control systems and safety systems be designed as fail
safe.
2. SAFETY SYSTEMS:- means be provided to indicate the cause of the safety action.
,should lead to less critical condition. or endanger the m/c, safety of personnel. Such as :Slow down the machinery.
Start a stand by support system.
Shut down the machinery.
3. MONITORING SYSTEM :-Visual and Audible alarms must be independent to each other.
- Audible alarms be distinct from other alarms. Such as fire alarm, general alarm, red
light beacons are used for fire alarm, or sirens used for CO2 alarm.
- Visual alarms must be flashing type.
-Acknowledgement of the alarms. mute the audible alarm or change the flashing light
to steady light.
- Temporarily Disconnecting the alarms for maintenance.
- Built in alarm testing Without disrupting the normal operation
MARINE CONTROL & AUTOMATION

POWER SUPPLY:- Power source for the control. Monitoring and
safety system be monitored and its failure to be alarmed.
AUTOMATIC SAFETY SHUT DOWN: To avoid rapid damage to the
propulsion machinery or aux machinery, following shut downs be
provided;
For all Diesel Engines over speed,
For all steam turbines : Failure of Lub Oil

System, Overspeed, etc
For Boiler M/C:- Flame failure, Low water level. Failure of FD

fan, , control power etc
For Generators :- Shut down of the Prime mover incase of Lub

Oil low pressure.
CENTRALISED CONTROL CONSOLE:- A propulsion control

station be provided with instrumentation, control systems, ie
machinery state be supervised without the need of local attendance.
HOW DO WE CONTROL ?
Different medias used on board ships are:

MECHANICAL - By using shafts, gears and wires.
HYDRAULIC - Hydraulic machineries using hydraulic fluids. Mostly used on
Tankers
ELECTRICAL Using Electrical Motors or Solenoids
ELECTRONICS Using Computers, Logic Devices,
Programmable Logic Controllers.
Electronic controllers. Quicker response,
using miniaturised solid state gadjets, Low
consumption of power.
PNEUMATIC : By using Low pressure compressed air, safe in explosive/ hazardous
spaces in tankers, Chemical tankers, LPG tankers
Electro- Hydraulic Media, Electro- pneumatics
Standard classification societies verify the equipments time to time by surveying
the machineries in Engine Room and D eck.
And build data base for each ship.
Mandatory Requirement for UMS

SHIPS
1.Control of Propulsion machinery from the Bridge.

2. Centralized Control Room. Adequate instrumentation for monitoring
and operate all main and auxiliary machineries.
3.Automatic Fire Detection and Alarm System.
Early warning of fire in the boiler, incinerator , M/E crank case spaces. Oil
Mist Detector installation.
4.Comprehensive Machinery alarm System.
Mimic diagram of the M/E , alarm system in the duty engineer room ,C/E
cabin, alarm system having back up from emcy source.
5.A Fire Control Station. - emcy H.Q.
Must be remotely located, control of emcy p/p quick closing v/v

ventilators,
6.Automatic High Bilge Level Alarms and Pumping system.
long run alarm on the panel, , proper high bilge alarms, easy pumping
of flooded area, sensing devices with alarms be provided.
Mandatory Requirement for UMS

SHIPS
7.Automatic Start of Emergency Generator.

to start immediately in case of black out., or dead ship condition. , min 45 secs.
8.Automatic Control System of The Boiler. - level controllers, feed pumps, , automatic
combustion system, safeties to over come fire fire.
9.Regular Testing of maintenance of instrumentation /monitoring system.
periodic inspection of machinery spaces before putting to UMS operation.
10.Local ( manual ) control of essential services.), remote control of hydraulic valves,,
extended spindles for control of valves, , hydraulically operated motorised valves for
pumping out flooded areas. Operation
11. Steering Gear.: Steering system to be such that it can automatically isolate and
regain steering in case of single failure. There must be two steering gear Hydraulic
pump motors driven by induction motor, which can independently steer the vessel. One
of them must be supplied from the emergency source. That means the stee ring system
should be capable to operate in case of total black out.
12 Dead man alarm system: An approved system to provide safety to the personnel
entering the engine room during UMS operation.It is activated for a stipulated time.
When stipulated time elapses , the system gives an alarm to the bridge as well as in E/R.
If the Duty engineer has not responded to this alarm , the bridge watch keeper takes
the appropriate action.
CONTROL TERMINOLOGY
1. CONTROLLED CONDITION:- (OUTPUT)-- The variable ,that is being
controlled is called controlled condition. Eg physical conditions of the
controlled medium.such as Speed of the engine, temperature of the
engine cooling system, A/C temperature.
2. MONITORING ELEMENT:- The element that measures the
controlled condition. Eg Sensor or a transducer and produces a signal
corresponding to it which can be used by the control system.ie the
element which responds directly to the variation of the controlled
condition. Exp is sensor , transducer.
3. MEASURED VALUE:- Actual value of the controlled condition. As
measured by the sensor.
4. DESIRED VALUE:- Value required for the controlled condition, that
the operator wishes to maintain. Also called as SET VALUE.
5. DEVIATION:- The difference between the desired value and the
measured value. This signal is sent to the comparator so that some
corrective action is initiated.
CONTROL TERMINOLOGY
6. COMPARATOR:- This is part of the controller ,which compares the
actual measured value with the desired /set value. And produces a
deviation or error signal ,which can be used to operate the correcting
element. In other word it is an ERROR DETECTOR.
7. OFFSET:- This is sustained deviation, which occurs , when the
measured value stabilizes at some point other than the set value.This
could change with change in load conditions.Off set occurs in the
simple proportional control.
8. CONTROL POINT : In a simple proportional system, the controlled
condition will stablise at some point other than the set point, which is
termed as the control point
9. Error signal:- The signal produced by the comparator, after
comparing the measured value with the desired value.or set point
10. ACTUATOR:- Which is operated by the controller, to take the
correcting action based upon the deviation.
11. FEED BACK :- The transmission of the measured value to the
comparator is termed as the feed back. The feed back could be
positive or negative.
ELEMENTS OF PROCESS CONTROL

SYSTEM
OBJECTIVE OF PROCESS CONTROL
To regulate the value of some quantity.
OR
To regulate means to maintain that quantity at some desired value
regardless of external influences.
This is a control over variables like pressure, temperature, viscosity,
level,flow , speed, humidity sound level , light level.and so on.
Desired value called the reference value or set point.
For Exp :
- Temperature of the Room by Air Condition M/C. ie
on/off of the AC compressor to maintain temperature.
- Speed of the Auto mobile, by an accelerator control.
- Water Level of the Boiler M/C by feedwater control valve.
Process Control Loop: ELEMENTS

1. Process ( Setpoint )
2.Measurement of process variable :Done by sensors
and converts the measurment to a value ie 4-20 mA.
3.Error Detection ( Control Station): This reads the
measured value and transfers it to the controller.
4.Controller.( Compares with set point): Controller
uses (Proportional, Integral, Derivative ) action and
compares the measured value with the desired value.
5 Actuator ( Control Valve ): The output of the
controller positions control valve of the actuator.
Types of control loop

There are two types of
control loop:1. Open loop which
depends on human
control.
2. Closed loop with
automatic feedback
mechanism
with/without manual
change over
OPEN LOOP SYSTEM:

Open loop system is one
in which the input to the
process is independent of
the output.Since the output
is not sensed, the input is
usually dependent on some
other variable. Eg TIME.
In Manual open loop system
is one where human
operator is essential.If he is
replaced by a control
system, it becomes an
automatic open loop.
ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF
OPEN LOOP
Advantage :
-Cheaper.
-Simpler, easy to
trouble shoot.
-No hunting.
-suitable where
precise control is not
essential.
Disadvantages:
-Not suitable where
system is complex.
-Excessive deviation
from the set point.
ELEMENTS OF CLOSED CONTROL LOOP
CLOSED LOOP CONTROL

A closed loop control system in which control action is
dependent on the output.There is some mean to monitor the
output, & generate an error signal , which can correct the input.
For exp:-RPM speedometer , temperature, level, flow etc
With this system the output magnitude is sensed, fed back and
compared with the desired value or the input.
Controlled condition is required to be monitored continuously
and generate the error signal and then correct the the input. ie
(we close the loop ) The feed back signal is effectively
subtracted or added to the reference signal to obtain the error
signal, hence known as positive or negative feed back
If a human is doing the job of observing the output and taking
necessary corrective action, then that control is called manual
closed loop.
When the operator is replaced by a controller, that uses a
sensor, comparator to get the deviation and a correcting signal
to the input is given, then it is called automatic closed loop
ADVANTAGES/DISADVANTAGES OF
CLOSED LOOP
Advantages of Closed
Loop.: -Suitable for the system
having considerable
load change.
-Finer control, with less
chances of deviation
DISADVANTAGES of
Closed Loop
-More expensive than
open Loop.
-Possibility of hunting.
Gain in a CLOSED LOOP System

H = The Fraction of the output fed back to the input
The Error Signal = Vi H.Vo
The output Vo = G ( Vi H.Vo )
= GVi GH Vo
VO + GHVo = GVi
VO = G
Vi
1+ GH
Gain = G
1 + GH
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONTROL

ACTION
1.
2.
3.
4.
On off or two step control action.

Simple proportion action.
Integral action control.
Derivation action control
ON/OFF or TWO STEP Control

The Main advantage of On/Off control is that it is
simple and cheap, thus used as fuel oil heating
and calorifier, where accurate criteria is not
required. But for precession control such as Main
Engine Fuel oil temperature control system, it is
not suitable.
Controller action is binary having only two level
outputs.
Differential between cut-in and cut-out
necessary to prevent contact chatter.
ON/ OFF switching Action of the level

control
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL ACTION

1. If we replace the simple two step control by a valve,
whose opening varies as the deviation, then this type of
control will be more effective in coping up with varying
demand.
2. The final controlled element ie a valve is fully open or
fully closed with no intermediate state.
3. Since the amount of valve opening is proportional to the
change in level, this is called proportional action.
4. The opening of the valve is proportional to the deviation
from the desired value.
5. The transfer and transportation lag due to system
dynamics causes overshoot.
6. The difference between the peaks is called operating
Differential.
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL (BANDS)

1. The proportional Band can be made wide or narrow
by just shifting the fulcrum away from or towards the
float.
2. Wide Proportional band means wide change in level,
there is hardly any movement of the valve.
3. This gives a coarse control, i.e. there is stability. The
OFF SET is inherent in simple proportional control.
4. The wide proportional band increases the off set.
5. The narrow proportional band gives a finer control,
but less stability ie it will keep hunting.
6. If it is very very narrow then the valve ceases to have
proportional action.
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL (BANDS)

PROPORTIONAL ACTION: WIDE
BAND
PROPORTIONAL CONTROL (
NARROW ) BAND
INTEGRAL ACTION
The system having an output which is proportional to the
product i.e. INPUT x TIME is called integral action.
Integral action is provided by summing the error over time,
multiplying the sum by a gain.
If, the error becomes positive or negative for an extended
period of time, the integral action will begin and make
changes to the controller output.
If the error is zero, the output stays fixed at a value equal to
what it was when the error went to zero.
Proportional control had a disadvantage of sustained deviation
called off set. The integral action removes this off set.
Such a controller is primarily a proportional controller but
when added with integral action, then this can be said as
RESET FUNCTION added.
INTEGRAL ACTION
Integral action can be termed as RESET ACTION CONTROL
On board ships, the piston and Jacket Cooling temperatures
variation is large during load change i.e. maneuvering time.
Therefore the off set produced by the proportional control
is not acceptable.
In such case Proportional+ integral action together is used.
This combined effect would reset the control valve at a rate
proportional to the deviation from the set point.
Thus for the large load changes, the speed of reset is rapid
initially and slows down as the deviation reduces.
In this action, the controller output is the integral of the
error over time.
HOW THE INTEGRAL ACTION TAKES

PLACE
Integral action uses a pilot piston controlled actuator.
When water level falls, the pilot piston admits oil to the
bottom of the actuator.
The control valve opens and remains opened till the water
level comes to the desired level.
Thus the off set is removed.
When the water level rises, the oil is admitted on top of
the actuator. The control valve closes and water level
returns to the desired value, thus again the off set is
removed.
PROPORTIONAL AND INTEGRAL
When P action combines with I

action, the system works very
effectively.
The P control action is proportional
to the deviation. The control valve
opening increases with increase in
deviation and vice versa.
When added with Integral ,both the
actions are working on the final
element, the control valve regulates
the level of tank.
The action continues till the desired
value is reached.
The system comes to e quilibrium
state, when float is at desired value.
But it does not happen in shortest
time interval.
Thus brings the derivative action.
DERIVATIVE ACTION
DERIVATIVE ACTION is the one where the control is
proportional to the rate of change of the deviation. This
means that derivative action takes place where the rate
of change of deviation is higher due to the sudden
change in demand, i.e. sudden drop in level, and then
derivative action comes into the picture.
The derivative action will effectively deal with sudden
variation of the measured value.
The derivative action does not occur alone, it is
combined as (p+d) or (p+d+i).
For this action the piston works inside an oil filled
cylinder called a dash pot.
The spring is attached at the bottom with the cylinder
which tries to pull the cylinder down ward or upward.
DERIVATIVE ACTION
Now consider when a fall in level has occurred, this
causes float to fall and on other side of the fulcrum, the
piston will be pulled up ward. Since the piston is inside
the highly viscous oil, the cylinder is initially dragged
upward, along the piston, against the spring action. This
causes the control valve to open fully, thus coping up
with the sudden increase in demand.
Had the drop in level been gradual ,then the control valve
would have come to the closed position because of the
dash pot action of the cylinder.
Consider a fall in level, the float in tank falls, the
derivative cylinder is pulled up against the spring action
which is attached in bottom of the cylinder. This makes
the control valve to open fully, therefore coping up with
the sudden increase in demand.
PROPORTIONAL AND DERIVATIVE

ACTION
P + I + D Control
The three term control is
the combination of P + I +
D.
The proportional feature
ensures that the demand
change is dealt effectively.
The integral action seeks
to eliminate the off set.
The derivative action
comes into play when
there are rapid changes in
demand ie sudden
change in water level.
PNEUMATIC CONTROL SYSTEM

Safe in explosive atmosphere especially on tankers, gas
carriers.
No heat generated.
Not affected by power supply variations.
Can be applied directly to large & smaller actuators.
Cheaper
Clean.
Clean dry air is available at required pressure.
Specially on Tankers & Gas Carriers, pneumatic systems are
used as they are safe, no heat generation, & safe in explosive
atmosphere.
Can be applied for large & smaller actuators
They are clean, dry, and operated at adequate pressures.
FUNCTION OF ELECTRO-PNEUMATIC
CONTROL IN M/E
ELECTRO PNEUMATIC CONTROL
Function Of EP Control
STARTING --- To operate the pilot air valve for starting of
M/E.
SPEED SETTING - To control the governor action, which
control fuel to all the units of M/E.
REVERSING -- air distributer cam for opening air in reverse
firing order. Also control the reverse servo motor.
STOPPING - To Control the Cut Off valve - Exh gas spring
air.
To Governor to cut off fuel supply.
To solenoid valve to shut off fuel.
Nozzle and Flapper System

Signal conversion is from pressure to mechanical motion and vice versa
conversion is provided by a nozzle and flapper.
A regulated supply of pressure usually over 20 psig, provides a source of
air through the restriction.
Nozzle is open at the end where gap exists between the nozzle and
flapper& air escapes in the region.
If the flapper moves down, the nozzle opening is closed and no air leaks.
The output signal pressure rises. If the flapper moves down and closes
off the nozzle opening, so that no air leaks, the signal pressure rises to
the supply pressure
If the flapper moves away, the signal pressure drops because of the
leakage. As the flapper moves away, the signal pressure will drop
because of the leaking of air. If the flapper has moved away then the
signal pressure would stabilize at some value determined by the max
leak.
The nozzle flapper is so adjusted that a small motion of the flapper
changes the output pressure
Thus there is a relation between gap and signal pressure.
Nozzle and Flapper System
CURRENT TO PRESSURE CONVERTOR

(I/P)
It is an important element in process control.
When we want to use the low level electric current signal to
do any work, then it is easier to let the work be done by the
pneumatic signal.
The I/P convertor gives us a linear way of translating the 4to20 mA current into 3- to 15 psig signal.
By using the nozzle and flapper this can be achieved. in the
diagram , it is noticed that the current through the coil
produces a force that will tend to pull the flapper down close
off the gap.
A high current produces a high pressure so that the device is
direct acting. The springs adjustment is done in such a way
that 4 mA correspond to 3 psig and 15 psig correspond to 20
mA.
I/P convertor reluctance type
Application of I/P
Pneumatic Actuators: - A direct pneumatic actuator for
converting pressure signal into mechanical shaft
motion to control the opening/ closing of control valve.
Solid material hopper valve.( Grain Loading on the
conveyer belt and monitoring flow measurement.
Fluid control in distillation column by operating the
control valve by temperature control.
Feed water control in tank. by measuring the level and
controlling the demand.
Temperature control.
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL

TRANSFORMER (LVDT)
When a core is inserted into an inductor Coil, its net inductance is
increased. Every new position of the core in the inductor produces a
different inductance. Therefore, the inductor and movable core
assembly can be used as a displacement sensor.
A transducer known as LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL
TRANSFORMER (LVDT) is used for this purpose, which measures the
displacement by converting into proportional voltage/ current. LVDT
secondary voltage amplitude varies linearly with displacement.
The Secondary coils are wound opposite to each other. There fore
the two voltages induces in the coils subtract. Thus differential
voltage is formed. When the core is centrally placed, the net voltage
is ZERO.
When the core is moved in any side the net voltage developed would
increase and change in phase. This is called differential amplitude.
Therefore, by measuring voltage amplitude and phase one can
determine the direction and extend of core motion.
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL

TRANSFORMER (LVDT)
SOLAS rules for propulsion system control
The propulsion machinery order given from the bridge must be indicated in the
engine control room and at the local maneuvering platform. For having a control of
propulsion machinery from navigational bridge, the system must comply as per
SOLAS chapter-II with the following requirements:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Starting and control of the speed must be provided and performed by single starting
lever or a dedicated push button switch.
Remote control is possible from only one location at a time, with indication as to
which location is in control both in navigational bridge and in engine control room.
The transfer of control must be possible from engine control room only.
No significant thrust change to take place during change over.
Remote control failure must be indicated with an alarm and still allow the machinery
control from local control.
Manual override must be provided for local control.
Emergency stop of the Main engine must be provided on the bridge.
Following indications of the propulsion plant must be displayed on the bridge along
with the alarm for the same:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
ME alarms
Starting and control air.
Direction of rotation.
Pitch position (CPP system).
R.P.M of the engine.
Alarm power to be automatically changed over to standby mode (batteries) in case of

power failure of the ship occurs.
DIFFERENT TYPES OF CONTROLS ON

MAIN ENGINE
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
Jacket Cooling Water Temperature Control.

Piston Cooling Temperature Control.
Lube Oil Temperature Control.
Fuel Valve Cooling Water Temperature Control.
Fuel Oil Control By Governor.
Electronic Governor-Nor Control- Auto chief -4
1.
2.
Mechanical Governor.
Electric Governor.
1.
2.
3.
Bridge Control
E.C.R Control
Emergency Control.
Engine Speed Control Program.

M/E Control :-
9. Fuel Oil Temperature Control By Viscotherm System

10. Load Dependent Cylinder Lubrication.
11. Fuel Oil Flow Controller
SAFETIES ON MAIN ENGINE
SHUT DOWN and TRIPS

M/E SLOW DOWN
MAIN ENGINE ALARMS.
STARTING INTERLOCKS
SHUT DOWN and TRIPS

1.
2.
3.
4.
Over Speed Trip @ 107 % Of Mcr.

Lub Oil Low Pressure - Trip (1 Bar)
Exh V/V Spring Air Low Pressure Trip ( 5.5 Bar)
Emergency Stops:-
1. Bridge Control.
2. Engine Control Console
3. Emergency Stand
5. Thrust Bearing L.O Temp High.( 85 Deg C)

6. Cam Shaft Lo Low Pressure. ( 1.5 Bar)
7. T/C Lub Oil Low Pressure .
M/E SLOW DOWN
Lube Oil Cross Head Low Pressure.( 1.7 Bar )

Jacket Cooling Water Low Pressure Low.
Jacket Water Out Let High Temperature. (95 Deg C)
Lube Oil M/E Inlet High Temp.
(60 Deg C)
Oil Mist Detector In Crank Case.
Exhaust Gas Cyl 1-9 Out Let High Temp(450 Deg C)
Scavenge Fire No 1 9 Unit.( 65 Deg C)
Exhaust Valve Spring Air Low Pressure.
Cylinder Oil Non Flow No1 9 Unit.
Piston Lube Oil Out Let 1 9 High Temp.( 75 Deg C)
MAIN ENGINE ALARMS
1.M/E Inlet Lub Oil Pressure Low.

2.Fuel Oil Pressure Low.
3.Lub Oil Filter Diff Pressure
High.
4.M/E Control Air Pressure Low.
5.M/E Start Air Pressure Low.
6.Turning Gear
Engage/Disengage.
7.M/E Lub Oil Inlet Temperature
High.
8.Exh Gas Cylinder Diviation
Alarm
9.Fuel Oil Leakage Tank High Level
Alarm
10.Fuel Oil Viscosity High/Low
11.Lo T/C 1&2 Turbine Side High
Temp.
12.Lo. T/C 1&2 Blower Side High

Temp.
13 Wrong Way Alarm
14.Cross Head Lo Low Pressure.
15.Jacket Cool Fw Inlet Low
Press.
16. M/E Safety Air Low Pressure.
17 F.O. Inlet Low Temp.
18. Critical Speed Alarm./Barred
Speed:
19 .M/E LO SUMP TANK LOW
LEVEL.
20. FUEL CAM ABNORMAL
ALARM
21. SENSOR ABNORMAL
22. ENGINE START FAIL ALARM
M/E STARTING INTERLOCKS

Following interlocks are placed in the starting of M/E :1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Turning gear must be disengaged. ( Limit Switch )

Start air interlock block is in open position. ( Limit Switch)
RUNNING DIRECTION INTERLOCK:- Complete reversing of cams is
achieved. That is in end position either in AHD or AST. ( Limit
Switch)Correct running direction is done. Running direction
interlock senses this correct reversal. ( Limit Switch)
Sufficient Lube Oil Pressure 5-6 Bar ( Pr Switch )
Sufficient spring air pressure i.e. 7 kg/cm sq ( Pr Switch )
Aux Blowers are in AUTO , Mode. (Selector Sw), to maintain
scavenge air pressure, and scavenge air pressure switch activates.
Scavenge air limiter governs control of the fuel to be released.
This can be over ridden.
Safety cut out device is set to ensure that the lube oil, jacket
cooling water and piston cooling water pressure are above the
predetermined setting.
Air and fuel never injected together fuel is injected after the
starting air shut off
BRIDGE CONTROL SYSTEM

It consists of :1.
2.
3.
4.
Engine order Telegraph.

Speed sensing from the engine fly wheel.
Control unit
Solenoid controls( Start, Stop, Ahead, Astern)
fitted in the E/Room.
5. Load programming unit.
6. Alarm & indication of low start air pressure etc.
FUNDAMENTALS BRIDGE
MANEOUVERING SYSTEM
REQUIREMENTS BRIDGE
MANEOUVERING SYSTEM
According to the LRS guidelines the BMS for a vessel must meet the
following characteristics.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
It must be robust, simple to use and must not detract the watch keeper from
his primary responsibilities.
It must confirm to all classification guidelines and be capable of being
reversed, stopped and speed/RPM be regulated from a single point of
control.
All alarms , shut down/ slow down be displayed and monitored from an
integrated control system on the bridge which must be fully compatible to
the particular main engine and engine Room controls.
Main engine must be operated from ( BRIDGE, ECR, EMCY STAND) controls
and each of them isolated from each other.
Emergency /Local Mode of operation must by pass all safeties and capable of
starting/stopping& running the main engine unhindered.
The transfer from Bridge control to ECR control and vice versa must be
simple and not hinder the Navigation.
The vessel must be capable of 12 starts. 6 in ahead and 6 in astern direction
alternatively within
Means of Auto shut down, auto slow down, emergency stops must be as per
the instructional manual maximum to minimum start air pressure.
Transfer to bridge control and operation

After preliminary checks of M/E, the control shifted to
Bridge Control. All safety interlocks confirmed.( i.e. LOW LO
Pr, Over speed, Emergency Stop etc).
In case of failed start , the start air is kept on & Scavenge air
limiter is bypassed, so that fuel start is better. Once the
engine is started, the speed is increased as per bridge
order.
Quick pass through Critical speed range ( around 8-12 % of
MCR speed) is done by releasing more fuel other wise
torsional shaft resonance and excessive vibration of shaft
may occur may occur.
Critical speed is monitored by critical speed alarm which
latches on after a certain timer.
REMOTE CONTROL OF M/E MIMIC

DIAGRAM IN ECR
Mimic diagram displays the functioning of remote control

system. The indicators show the sequence and changes
taking place during maneuvering.
STOP indicates the position of the bridge telegraph.
Ahd /Ast Command shows the request from bridge, not the engine
or cam shaft.
REMOTE CONTROL OF M/E

Maneuvering System
Maneuvering system is of Electric Pneumatic
Design. It is designed for :
1. from Emergency Stand.
2. from Engine Control Console.
3. Remote Control From BRIDGE
The system Contains three sub systems.

1. The Regulating system.
2. Reversing System.
3. Safety System
REGULATING SYSTEM
REGULATING SYSTEM : For start, stop and control the engine. The start /
stop functions are controlled independently.
START SET POINT: Indicates the governor setting to allow sufficient fuel
for starting. This signal is maintained for 6 seconds.
START SOL V/V: Indicates the start air system has activated.
STOP SOL V/V : Indicates the starting air has started the engine above
the set point of starting.
Speed Setting during remote control: controlled by the control handle on
the console which sends Electronic/ pneumatics signal to the governor. The
speed is maintained on varying loads. During Control from Emergency
Stand the governor is disconnected. And speed is controlled directly.
SET POINT LIMITER: Indicates that the Bridge engine speed request has not
been allowed due to load program or slow down has occurred. This can be
over ridden at Bridge.
CANCEL LIMITER GOVERNOR: Indicates the position of scavenge air limiter.
This happens in case engine fails to start after three automatic started
REVERSING SYSTEM
Two Pneumatic valves ( AHD & Ast ). They control
the reversing cylinders of the starting air
distributer and air cylinders for reversing the fuel
pump rollers.
AHD/AST S/V: Indicates the position of the ahd/ast

solenoid valves.
RUNNING DIRECTION INTERLOCK:- This prevents a
main engine start in the reverse direction to that
intended.
WRONG WAY ALARM:- If the interlock has failed to
prevent the main engine to start in direction reverse to
the telegraph order then the alarm is activated to draw
the attention of the operator for intervention
SAFETY SYSTEM
The control air signal is led to the puncture valve
of each fuel pump, thereby cutting off the
delivery of high pressure fuel oil, after which the
engine stops.
This comes into operation when ever the main
engine trip conditions as listed is activated or
emergency stop is activated by the operator.
Slow down function with interface with
regulating system preludes the shut down and
can be considered a part of the safety system.
SPEED MEASURING DEVICES

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
DC TYPE TACOMETER
AC TYPE TACOMETER
TOOTHED ROTOR TACHOMETER
MOVING MAGNET TYPE
INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SWITCH
INFRARED SPEED DETECTOR.
TYPES OF TACHO SIGNALS.

There are two types of signals.
In Conventional Analog signal , an amplitude
varies from minimum to maximum.
Discrete signals provide a finite out put. i.e. 1 or 0.
Proximity sensor is a discrete sensor, which

can sense when object comes near it.
DC TYPE TACHOMETER
These are driven by the shaft whose speed is being
measured.
DC type tachogenerator has a permanent magnet which
provides magnetic field and has a wound armature with a
commutator and designed to give an output voltage
proportional to speed.
The output is taken to a moving coil type instrument
calibrated in rpm.
An output voltage is produced in the winding which is
sinusoidal whose magnitude is proportional to the rotor
speed. A commutator and brushes are fixed to the rotor to
convert the a.c.
The direction of the shaft rotation controls the direction of
current flow through the coil and hence the pointer shows
the direction of shaft rotation as well as rpm
AC TYPE TACHOGENERATOR
1. The stator carries three sets of windings .
2. The rotor consists of a thin copper cup rotating about
a soft magnet core.
3. When the shaft is stationary, there is no output from
the coils .
4. The cup is being rotated at constant speed and ac
output depending upon the direction of rotation is
produced.
5. The output is rectified and sent to special switching
circuit containing reed switches.
6. The out put is dc 40 volts, 10 ma /300 rpm. Thus
ahead and reverse rpm is indicated on the
galvanometer
TOOTHED ROTOR TACHOMETER

GENERATOR
This tachometer generator consists of a metallic toothed rotor
mounted on the shaft whose speed is to be measured.
A magnetic pickup is placed near the toothed rotor.
A magnetic pickup consists of a permanent magnet with a coil
wound round it.
When the rotor rotates, an emf is induced in the pickup coil.
The output is in the form of pulses. The frequency of the pulses of
induced voltage will depend upon the number of teeth of the rotor
and its speed of rotation.
Since the number of teeth are known, the speed of rotation can be
determined by measuring the frequency of pulses with an
electronic counter.
hence speed = pulses per second/number of teeth.
SPEED MEASURING DEVICES FOR

TURBOCHARGER
MOVING MAGNET TYPE
INDUCTIVE TYPE SENSOR
INDUCTIVE TYPE PROXIMITY SWITCH.
MOVING MAGNET TYPE

The sensing element is a rod, which is rigidly
coupled to the device whose velocity is to be
measured.
The rod is a permanent magnet.
There is a coil surrounding the permanent
magnet. The motion of the magnet induces a
voltage in the coil and the amplitude of the
voltage is directly proportional to the velocity.
The polarity of the out put is determined by the
direction of motion. Also the reluctance varies
directly proportional rate of change of air gap and
hence velocity.
The out put voltage is linearly proportional to
velocity. Such speed measuring devices are used
for measuring speed of the turbochargers.
INDUCTIVE TYPE SENSOR

Works on the principle of the change in inductance of a coil
when a metallic object passes near by it.
A circuit has a transistorized oscillator circuit inside the sensor.
When a metallic (steel, iron, aluminum, tin, copper etc) object
is near the coil, alternating magnet field produced by the coil
in the target.
This produces circulating eddy currents inside the material.
These eddy currents have the loading effects which decreases
the amplitude of the out put from the oscillator of the sensor.
If the target approaches the sensor, these eddy currents
increase beyond a certain value, the amplitude would cause
oscillator to cease to oscillate, which makes the trigger circuit
to switch the output to ON and control a relay or a switch.
INDUCTIVE TYPE PROXIMITY SWITCH

Are used to measure engine speed by two pick ups, which
are situated next to the turning wheel.
Tacho signal processing is carried out by the dedicated input
processor in computer and from here the RPM signal for
speed control of main engine is passed for maneuvering.
The tacho selector checks both signals whether they are
with in the valid range. If tacho fails signal goes to zero in
which case the other tacho will be selected.
In few cases when tacho signal gives increased out put, EGS
will regulate engine speed according to the signal and engine
speed will be reduced.
Hence over speeding is reduced.
Failed Tacho generates a signal for alarm as SPEED PICK UP
FAIL.
GOVERNOR AND CONTROL

The purpose of the governor is to control the
engine speed from no load to full rated speed.
Governor helps to maintain a constant speed
irrespective of load and power changes.
To regulate ENGINE SPEED as per reference by
controlling the ENGINE FUEL SERVO .
GOVERNOR FUNCTIONS
There fore it has two functions :
1. Speed regulating function.
2. Fuel actuating functions
REGULATING FUNCTIONS :
a)
b)
c)
d)
Speed reference computation.

Speed measurement.
Limit the command signal to fuel actuating function.
Display Data Values.
ACTUATING FUNCTION :
a) Sensing of fuel rack position command from the

regulator.
b) Positioning of fuel racks according to command.
c) Automatic tuning of servo system.
GOVERNOR CHARECTERISTICS
DROOP - Fall in speed due to load change is
called DROOP. That is drop in speed from stable
no load condition to stable full load speed
condition.
DEAD BAND - It is a band or range in speed only
after which the governor will respond.
HUNTING It is the fluctuation (hunting) in
engine speed which is caused during over speed
/ low speed if the governor is too sensitive.
FUNCTIONING OF GOVERNOR
Load increase on engine causes
speed drop Momentarily.
The speed drop is sensed by the
speed measuring device and is
compared with the set value.(SPEED
SETTING).
The deviation in speed is converted
into an out put and controls the
servo amplifier, which is a hydraulic
device.
The output of this controls the
servo motor , which simply, quickly
and effectively controls the fuel
injection by positioning the fuel
rack, thus increase the fuel to meet
the increase in load.
ELECTRIC GOVERNOR
Since the hydraulic governors has operational problem such
as, Low oil level, incorrect viscosity airlock, wrong
adjustments, excessive oil temperature and erratic linkages
movements. Therefore Electric Governor came into
operation.
Rotational speed is sensed by proximity switch mounted on
flywheel. Frequency pulses converted in the rectifier to d.c
voltage proportional to speed by Proximity Switch
Set value is applied to the controller and measured value is
compared.
Error signal is amplified, converted to hydraulic signal and
operate the servo motor.
To reduce hunting and off set, the controlle r has reset
integral action via a feed back.
This actuates the fuel lever/ linkage.
ELECTRIC GOVERNOR
The load sensing input signal 1

senses the load 12 and sends the
input signal to the setting control unit
4.
The speed sensing input signal 2
which senses the speed at the engine
flywheel (11) and sends the speed
signal to the comparator amplifier
unit 5.
The setting control unit 4 has
settings for the droop (6), speed
setting signal (7).
The comparator/amplifier control
unit compares. The input signal with
the reference settings and Sends the
output signal to the actuator (3) to
Change the rack position of the fuel
pump. (9
M/E ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC SPEED

CONTROL SERVO -MECHANISM
Speed signal is obtained from proximity switch.

AC voltage proportional to frequency is converted
into d.c voltage.
Reference d.c voltage of opposite polarity, which
is known as desired operating speed is fed to the
controller.
These two voltages are connected to the input of
electric amplifier.
If these voltages are equal and opposite, they
cancel. Thus no output is from the amplifier.
If they are different, then the amplifier sends a
signal through the controller to Electro Hydraulic
convertor which in turn control the servo motor
and reposition the fuel racks.
The function of the load sensing feed to the
governor is to correct the fuel supply to the prime
mover before a speed change.
Load sensing device anticipate the change in load.
A signal is sent to the governor if load change has
taken. LOAD sensing is done electronically
ELECTRONIC DIGITAL GOVERNOR

COMPONENT
Power supply unit 24 volts supply.
Speed pick ups: Inductive type proximity switches.
Scavenge air pressure sensor : A transducer senses
the scav pressure and applied to limit the fuel
injection according to scavenge pressure. Scav pr
transducer converts 0-4 bar pressure to 4-20 mA
current.
Actuating unit
DGSU unit.
ELECTRONIC DIGITAL GOVERNOR
MAIN ENGINE FRESH WATER

COOLING SYSTEM
The fresh water cooling system is the system for cooling the engine and may be
in two circuits.
One system cools the engine cylinders, including the liners, cylinder heads and
turbo chargers, while the other system cools the piston.
Piston cooling in some engines is done by oil.
A heater is provided for preheating of the cylinder prior to starting to reduce
the stress and enable easier maneuvering. Heating the CW is done by electric
heaters or steam passing through the coils.
The CW is then circulated through the cylinder jacket, pistons and cylinder
heads.
If the engine is preheated, it can easily reach the self ignition temperature of
the fuel, thus firing immediately. Also when engine is warm, the clearances are
correct, thus lubrication is made easier.
Thus reduce wear and tear during starting.Also less starting air is required
Cooling Fresh water is fed from expansion tank , through jacket water p/p,
through preheated . Jacket water is cooled by the sea water.
Advantages of oil cooling of piston: No additional PITON COOLING p/ps
required. Leakage will not contaminate Lube oil in the sump.
M/E JACKET COOLING WATER

TEMPERATURE CONTROL
Cascade Control
To prevent thermal shock on the main engine specially during
maneuvering, (load variation) control of the m/e outlet water
temperature is maintained to the desired value.
Jacket cooling water outlet temperature is affected due to the
variations in sea water temperature.
The control system uses a combination of cascade control
and split range control.
Two controllers are used :1.
2.
Master controller.
Slave controller.
Cascade Control function

There are two controllers in the system: a Master controller
& Slave Controller. The slave controller measures and
controls the level in tank No1.
The same controlled condition is sensed at two different
points in the circuit.
The purpose of the cascade control is to deal with the large
capacities involved, which would make the normal control
difficult.
The Master controller senses the level in Tank No 2.
A rise in demand will cause the level of Tank No 2 to fall.
Master controller changes the set point of Slave controller.
The Slave will raise the water level in tank 1 and so fill up
the tank 2.
SPLIT RANGE CONTROL

Master controller senses the out let water temperature of the m/e.
whereas slave controller senses the jacket water cooler water
outlet temperature.
Out let/inlet temperatures are sensed by temperature transmitters.
Master controller after sensing the outlet temperature & sends
signal to the slave controller.
The out put from the master controller is used as the set point of
the slave controller.
Thus the slave controller actually controls the controlled condition.
In Jacket water cooling system, the controlled condition is the CW
temperature, which is sensed at two different points by two
controllers.
Main engine water out let temperature is sensed by master
controller. But the jacket water cooler water temperature is sensed
by the slave controller.
Thus the engine and the cooler are representing large capacities.
SPLIT RANGE CONTROL
The change in sea water temperature is sensed at the cooler out let by
the slave controller which immediately adjusts the CW flow, without
waiting for the change to affect the main engine outlet temperature.
The change in the engine load is sensed as a change in the CW outlet
from the engine by the master controller, which adjusts the set point of
the slave controller and the slave controller controls the CW flow
accordingly.
Therefore, the lag due to two large capacities can be minimized, and a
finer control is achieved.
The slave controller compares the temperature of inlet and outlet of
the m/e.
Any deviation found in turn controls two actuator valves which are
arranged for split range control.
If the jacket cooling water temperature is low, the sea water control
valve is shut and steam control valve is operated to open steam to the
heater. And vise versa.
Both master and slave controllers are two term (p+i) controller.
This way the m/e jacket out let temperature is controlled.
M/E LUB OIL TEMPERATURE CONTROL

Lubrication reduces friction of the moving mechanical
parts and removes heat from the components as a
result the oil becomes hot. So it needs to be cooled for
further circulation. It is desired to be maintained at the
set point.
Cooling water flows through the tubes and LO is
around the tubes and being cooled.
Therefore it picks up heat from the tubes. And cooling
water becomes warm as it leaves the cooler.
The temperature of the lube oil out let must be
maintained.
Therefore the cold water inlet flow rate through the
tubes is controlled in order to maintain the
temperature.
The temperature Transmitter senses the inlet temperature to M/E , and

sends the signal to the PI controller which in turn controls the actuator
valve air signal. The temperature controller compares the actual inlet
temperature with the set point .If deviation exists, the controller will vary
the air signal to the actuator and operate the control valve to opens or
closes the flow of LO from the cooler accordingly.
More cooling water flowing will lower the temperature of LO leaving the
cooler.
Temp Tx senses the out let temperature of LO and produces the feedback
signal and sent to the summing net work and added with the set point
signal,
The output of the summing network may be positive or negative. This
means the resulting actuating signal is the difference between the set point
and feedback.
If the temperature is low then more oil will bypass through the cooler, and
its temp will increase. Should the temperature rise above the desired value,
less oil is by passed, in other words large quantity being sent through the
cooler.
WHAT A SYNCHRO IS
A SIMPLE SYNCHRO SYSTEM CAN BE
VERY EASILY UNDERSTOOD IF YOU
THINK OF IT AS THE ELECTRICAL
EQUIVALENT OF A LONG SHAFT OF
METAL WHICH TRANSMITS MOTION
FROM ONE POINT TO ANOTHER
METAL BAR
THERE IS ONLY ONE THING WRONG WITH

THE
SOLID
SHAFT
METHOD
OF
TRANSMITTING DIAL READINGS AND DOING
WORK FROM A DISTANCE. THE FAULT IS
THAT IN A GREAT MANY CONDITIONS IT
WOULD BE VERY DIFFICULT TO RUN A
STRAIGHT SHAFT BETWEEN TWO POINTS.
SOONER OR LATER SOMETHING WOULD
GET IN THE WAY AND THAT SOMETHING
MIGHT NOT LIKE HAVING A HOLE PUNCHED
THROUGH IT.
ALTERNATIVE
ARRANGEMENT
MADE BY REPLACING
STRAIGHT
SHAFT
WITH
SUITABLE
SYSTEM OF MANY
SMALL
SHAFTS
GEARED TOGETHER
TO THIS PROBLEM OF TRANSMITTING

DIAL READINGS OVER A LONG
DISTANCE, OR OF TURNING A SMALL
LOAD OVER A LONG DISTANCE, THE
SIMPLE ANSWER IS THE SYNCHRO.
A SYNCHRO IS A GADGET WHICH
LOOKS LIKE AN ELECTRIC MOTOR,
EXCEPT THAT IT HAS FIVE WIRES
COMING OUT OF IT.
WHEN TWO SYNCHROS ARE CONNECTED

TOGETHER, AND TO A SOURCE OF A.C.
VOLTAGE, THEY FORM TOGETHER A
SYNCHRO SYSTEM. SUCH A SYSTEM ACTS
LIKE A FLEXIBLE SHAFT FROM WHICH ALL
OBJECTIONABLE FRICTION HAS BEEN
REMOVED.
ADVANTAGES OF SYNCHRO
OVER A MECHANICAL
CONNECTION
THE CONTROLLING SHAFT AND THE SHAFT
WHICH IS CONTROLLED CAN BE SITUATED A
LONG DISTANCE APART.
ANY OBSTACLE CAN EASILY BE BYPASSED
BY LEADING THE CONNECTING WIRES
ROUND IT.
A SYNCHRO SYSTEM USES VERY LITTLE
ELECTRICAL POWER, AND DOES AWAY WITH
THE GREAT COMPLICATIONS OF A PURELY
MECHANICAL CONNECTING SYSTEM.
CUTAWAY VIEW OF
TRANSMITTER
THE TORQUE TRANSMITTER IS MADE UP OF

TWO MAJOR PARTS-THE STATOR AND THE
ROTOR. THE STATOR CONSISTS OF AN UPPER
END CAP, A SHELL, AND A LOWER END CAP.
THE INNER SURFACE OF THE SHELL IS
SLOTTED, AND THESE SLOTS CONTAIN THE
STATOR WINDING.
THE STATOR WINDING IS ACTUALLY THREE

SEPARATE WINDINGS SPACED 120 APART.
THREE LEADS, ONE FROM EACH OF THE
THREE
WINDINGS,
ARE
CONNECTED
TOGETHER
TO
FORM
A
COMMON
CONNECTION INSIDE THE SHELL.
THE REMAINING THREE LEADS ARE

BROUGHT OUT SEPARATELY, AND ARE
LABELLED S1, S2 AND S3. IT IS THESE
THREE LEADS-S1, S2 AND S3 WHICH
TRANSMIT AN ELECTRICAL SIGNAL TO THE
INDICATOR WHENEVER THE TRANSMITTER
SHAFT IS TURNED.
STATOR WINDINGS
SHELL AND STATOR WINDINGS

WITH LOWER END CAP
SYNCHRO INDICATOR
CUTAWAY VIEW
SYNCHRO SCHEMATICS
MAGNETIC FIELDS
TO
HELP
YOU
UNDERSTAND
HOW
SYNCHROS WORK, YOU SHOULD FIRST
REVIEW SOME THEORY ON MAGNETS AND
MAGNETIC FIELDS.
THINK BACK, FIRST, TO THE BAR MAGNET,

AND TO THE CONVENTIONAL WAY OF
REPRESENTING ITS MAGNETIC FIELD .
OBSERVE THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ITS
POLES AND THE DIRECTION OF THE
MAGNETIC FIELD.
MAGNETIC FIELDS
NOTICE THAT THE MAGNETIC LINES OF FORCE FLOW

FROM THE SOUTH POLE TO THE NORTH POLE INSIDE
THE MAGNET. THE DIRECTION OF THE MAGNETIC
FIELD CAN THEREFORE BE REPRESENTED BY AN
ARROW POINTING IN THE DIRECTION OF THE NORTH
POLE, AS INDICATED.
This means REPULSION
This means ATTRACTION
REVERSING
OF
STATOR
CONNECTIONS
S1 AND S3
REVERSING
ROTOR
CONNECTIONS
R1 AND R2
CYCLIC SHIFT OF STATOR CONNECTIONS
REPRESENTATION OF SYNCHRO
DIFFERENTIALS
SET UP FOR
SUBTRACTING
EXAMPLE NO. 1
EXAMPLE NO. 1
TRANSMITTER AND DIFFERENTIAL TRANSMITTER ARE

IN SERIES, MAGNETIC FIELD IN THE STATOR OD DT
WILL BE PARALLEL TO MAGNETIC FILD IN THE STATOR
OF THE TX
RESULTANT ROTOR FIELD WILL LINE UP

WITH THE STATOR FIELD, BUT WILL
HAVE THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION
DT ROTOR FIELD IS POSITIONED AT 1800 , THE STATOR

FIELD IN Rx WILL BE POSITIONED AT ZERO DEGREES
THE ROTOR OF INDICATOR WILL THEREFORE

ALSO POSITION ITSELF AT ZERO DEGREES
EXAMPLE NO. 2
Follow it on the schematic
EXAMPLE NO. 2
EXAMPLE NO. 3
EXAMPLE NO. 3
TRANSMITTER AND DIFFERENTIAL TRANSMITTER ARE

IN SERIES, MAGNETIC FIELD IN THE STATOR OD DT
WILL BE PARALLEL TO MAGNETIC FILD IN THE STATOR
OF THE TX
THE RESULTING ROTOR FIELD WILL LINE UP

WITH THE STATOR FIELD, BUT WILL AGAIN
HAVE THE OPPOSITE DIRECTION
THE MAGNETIC FIELD IS POSITIONED AT 450 IN RELOATION TO R2, AND IS

POINTING DOWNWARDS
THE INDICATOR STATOR FIELD WILL BE ACTING ALONG

A LINE AT -450 RELATIVE TO ITS S2 WINDING, BUT
POINTING UPWARDS
THE ROTOR OF THE INDICATOR WILL BE

ATTRACTED TO THE MAGNETIC FIELD OF ITS
STATOR, AND WILL THEREFORE ALSO
POSITION ITSELF AT -450
EXAMPLE NO. 4
EXAMPLE NO. 4
Set up for
ADDITION
EXAMPLE NO. 1
EXAMPLE NO. 1
EXAMPLE NO. 2
EXAMPLE NO. 2
WORK
THESE
OUT
WORK
THESE
OUT
ROTOR OF CONTROL
TRANSFORMER
SCHEMATIC SYMBOLS OF
CONTROL TRANSFORMER
SIMPLE
TRANSFORMER
THEORY
SIMPLE
TRANSFORMER
THEORY
SIMPLE
TRANSFORMER
THEORY
SIMPLE
TRANSFORMER
THEORY
THE ROTOR OF THE CONTROL LIES AT RIGHT

ANGLES TO THE STATOR MAGNETIC FIELD. THE
INDUCED VOLTAGE IN THE ROTOR IS
THEREFORE ZERO
AS THE ROTOR OF THE TRANSMITTER TURNS FROM

ZERO DEGREES TO 900, THE INDUCED VOLTAGE
ACROSS THE ROTOR OF THE CONTROL TRANSFORMER
INCREASES FROM ZERO UNTIL IT REACHES ITS
MAXIMUM VALUE AT 900
THE INDUCED VOLTAGE ACROSS THE ROTOR OF THE

CONTROL TRANSFORMER CAN BE BROUGHT TO ZERO BY
TURNING THE CONTROL TRANSFORMER ROTOR THROUGH
THE SAME NUMBER OF DEGREES, AND THE SAME
DIRECTION, AS THE ROTOR OF THE TRANSMITTER
WHEN THE ROTOR OF THE TRANSMITTER IS TURNED

ANTI-CLOCKWISE, THE INDUCED VOLTAGES IN THE
ROTOR OF CT WILL BE OUT OF PHASE WITH THE A.C
SUPPLY TO THE ROTOR OF TRANSMITTER
INDUCED VOLTAGE BROUGHT BACK TO ZERO BY

TURNING THE ROTOR THROUGH THE SAME NUMBER
OF DEGREES, AND IN THE SAME DIRECTION, AS THE
ROTOR OF THE TRANSMITTER
STEERING
GEAR
STEERING GEAR
STEERS SHIP IN REQUIRED DIRECTION
USES A RUDDER OPERATED BY STEERING WHEEL
SYSTEM IN THREE PARTS:
1. CONTROL
2. POWER
3. TRANSMISSION
CLASSIFICATION BASED ON CONTROL SYSTEM
1. MANUAL
2. MECHANICAL
3. TELEMOTOR
4. ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC
5. ALL ELECTRICAL
CLASSIFICATION
1. MANUAL RUDDER TURNED MANUALLY E.G. AS OPERATED
IN A WHALER
2. MECHANICAL MOVEMENT TRANSMITTED FROM WHEEL TO
RUDDER BY MECHANICAL MEANS LIKE CHAIN
3. TELEMOTOR MOVEMENT TRANSMITTED BY HYDRAULIC
FLUID
4. ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC CONTROL SYSTEM IS ELECTRICAL,
POWER SYSTEM IS HYDRAULIC
5. ALL ELECTRICAL BOTH CONTROL AND POWER SYSTEMS ARE
ELECTRICAL
REQUIREMENTS
DEPENDABLE AND SAFE OPERATION IN ALL CONDITIONS
REQUIRED ANGLE AT ALL SPEEDS
HARD PORT TO HARD STBD IN MIMIMUM TIME (35O PORT
TO 35O STBD IN 28 SECONDS)
MAIN TO AUXILIARY STEERING SYSTEM IN MINIMUM TIME
(45 SECONDS)
CHARACTERISTICS (CONTD)
CONTROL FROM SEVERAL POSITIONS
MINIMUM OVERALL SIZE AND WEIGHT
MINIMUM SERVICING AND MAINTENANCE
SIMPLE DESIGN
EASY OPERATION
LONG SERVICE LIFE
SELECTION
POSITIONS
SPEED OF RUDDER
PRIMARY - BRIDGE
TORQUE EXERTED BY
SECONDARY
RUDDER
MAXIMUM RUDDER ANGLE
WHEELHOUSE
LOCAL/ EMERGENCY - AFT
STEERING POSITION (ASP)
MODES OF STEERING
NON-FOLLOW UP
RUDDER TURNS WHEN WHEEL IS MOVED
RUDDER STOPS ONLY WHEN WHEEL IS CENTERED
FOLLOW-UP
RUDDER FOLLOWS THE WHEEL
E.G WHEEL MOVED TO 15O PORT RUDDER WILL MOVE TO
15O PORT AND STOP
AUTOMATIC
STEERING CONTROLLED BY SIGNALS RECEIVED FROM MASTER
GYRO
SHIP MAINTAINED ON SELECTED COURSE IN AUTO
Effect of Negative Feed Back

1. Negative feedback
achieve stability.
2. Controlled device Quick settling time.
3. Removes hunting of
the system.
4. Removes oscillation
damped effect
5. Smooth operation of
the system.
6. Improved frequency
response.
7. Less amplitude
distortion.
8. Decreases the
voltage gain.
9. More linear
operation
MANUAL MODE
IT IS ALSO CALLED HELM
CONTROL.
OPERATOR SETS THE
DESIRED RUDDER ANGLE
THROUGH THE STEERING
WHEEL.
REST OF THE CONTROL
SYSTEM IS CLOSED LOOP
CONTROL WITH VE
FEEDBACK TO ACHIEVE
THE DESIRED RUDDER
ANGLE.
HELM CONTROL
Transmitting & Receiver synchros are used.
Microprocessor based circuits are used to receive the Helm
order;
Rudder position feed back is fed and compared.
For this purpose the operational amplifiers are used. This
signal is then amplified by the power amplifier.
The electronic controller control circuit starts correcting for
deviation by adjusting the proportional band resistors and
reset action
Whose output controls the solenoid valves within the
electro-hydraulic unit.
The electro hydraulic unit directs the hydraulic pressure to
the cylinders that houses the rams/pistons linked to the
rudder stock.
HELM CONTROL
The follow up element, which is normally a
potentiometer or a rotary transformer, is moved to
the angular motion of the rudder stock the ram it
self.
The negative feed back signal to the control unit is
given to de-stoke the pump and stop the rudder at
the ordered angle. Or zeroes the operational
amplifier and bring the solenoid valve in the neutral
position.
An error signal in the feedback system caused by a
new helm or auto pilot order or motion of the
rudder due to external forces reactivates the
control system.
Disturbing forces
Both rudder and ship are acted by external
forces.
Other signal which influence the control of the
rudder are: The ships speed
The set course
The rate of change of course.
The present position of the rudder.
AUTOMATIC CONTROL
The above disturbing forces are estimated by the autopilot (

electronic controller).
Estimated the helm order to do the course corrections to mitigate
the effect of the disturbing forces ( to maintain the desired course).
Transmits the helm order to the microcontroller circuit instead of
the hand wheel (bypassed) which is kept locked in midship position.
Course measurement and feedback to the autopilot is done by the
gyro compass.
Operator only decides the course the ship needs to maintain.
RUDDER
FIN OR SPADE LIKE PROJECTION BELOW THE WATERLINE
PLACED AS REAR AS POSSIBLE
HUNG ON A SOLID CIRCULAR SHAFT CALLED STOCK
TYPES
1. UNBALANCED
2. SEMI-BALANCED
3. BALANCED
UNBALANCED
SEMI-BALANCED
BALANCED
TELEMOTOR SYSTEM
ALL HYDRAULIC
CONTROL CIRCUIT = MIXTURE OF 50% WATER AND 50%
GLYCERINE (now hydraulic oil)
POWER CIRCUIT = HYDRAULIC OIL LIKE OMD 111, OEP 69, OM
33, OM 58, OM 100
COMPONENTS/ LAYOUT (TM)

1. STEERING WHEEL
2. TRANSMITTER
3. RECEIVER
4. PUMP
5. FLOATING LEVER
6. RAMS
7. HUNTING ROD
8. LINKAGES
ELECTRO-HYDRAULIC
MOST COMMON TYPE
ORDER OF WHEEL
+
COMMUNICATED BY ELECTRICAL SIGNAL
EXECUTED BY HYDRAULIC POWER
COMPONENTS ARE SIMILAR TO THAT OF TELEMOTOR SYSTEM

EXCEPT
+
TRANSMITTER/ RECEIVER ARE ELECTRICAL
COMPONENTS/ LAYOUT (EH)

SIGNAL FROM WHEEL
CONTROLS DISCHARGE OF
PUMP
SIGNAL FROM WHEEL

CONTROLS DISCHARGE OF
PUMP
TRANSMITTER (TM)
2 TYPES
1. SINGLE CYLINDER FLUID ON
BOTH SIDES
2. DOUBLE CYLINDER MOVE IN
OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS
PLUNGERS FITTED WITH
RACKS
MOVED BY STEERING
WHEEL
RECEIVER (TM)
USUALLY IN PAIRS
CYLINDER DIVIDED IN TWO
PARTS
SLIDES ON TWO FIXED
HOLLOW RAMS
PIPELINE CONNECTED TO
EACH RAM THROUGH SD
VALVE
MOVEMENT OF STEERING
WHEEL CAUSES
MOVEMENT OF CYLINDERS
HUNTING GEAR OPERATION

RECEIVER MOVES
FLOATING LEVER TILTS
PUMP
RUDDER MOVES TO
REQUIRED ANGLE
HUNTING GEAR
CENTRES PUMP
CHARGING
CREEP TEST
FILL UP OIL
DETECT LEAKS
OCCASIONS
OCCASIONS
1. ON INSTALLATION
2. AFTER ROUTINES/
MAINTENANCE
1. INSTALLATION
2. WEEKLY WHEN
OPERATIONAL
3. BEFORE SAILING
3. TOP UP IN CASE OF
4. AFTER CHARGING AND
LEAKAGE
MAINTENANCE
CREEP TEST PROCEDURE

DISCONNECT STEERING PUMP
ENSURE SYSTEM FULLY CHARGED
ISOLATE RAM CONNECTED TO STBD SIDE (I.E. OPPOSITE OF
THAT BEING TESTED)
TURN STEERING WHEEL TO HARD PORT AND HOLD FOR 30
MINUTES
MONITOR PRESSURE DROP/ CREEP IN RECEIVER - INDICATES
LEAK IN SYSTEM
REPEAT FOR OTHER SIDE
ON COMPLETION, CONNECT STEERING PUMP
ACTIONS IN EMERGENCY
AIM - RESTORE STEERING IMMEDIATELY
CHANGE OVER TO SECONDARY CONTROL
IF REQUIRED, CHANGE OVER TO LOCAL/ EMERGENCY
CONTROL
IDENTIFY CAUSE
RECTIFY
RESTORE
ROUTINES
DAILY
EXAMINE EXTERNALLY
TURN STEERING PUMP
WEEKLY
EXAMINE PIPELINES
TEST ALL MODES
MONTHLY
ANALYSE OIL SAMPLES
CHECK TIE ROD
EXAMINE PAINT
THREE MONTHLY
EXAMINE PUMP
CHECK RUDDER ANGLE
INDICATORS
DISMANTLE VALVE CHEST
SIX MONTHLY
EXAMINE VALVES
YEARLY
EXAMINE SYSTEM
CHECK CLEARANCES
BREAK DOWNS
BREAK DOWNS
POSSIBLE CAUSES
REMEDY
OIL LEAKAGE
THROUGH JOINTS/
FLANGES
WEAR/ DAMAGE OF
SEALING
REPLACE SEALING
OIL LEAKAGE
ALONG PUMP
SHAFT
WEAR/ DAMAGE OF
SHAFT SEAL
REPLACE SHAFT
SEAL
NOISY PUMP
OPERATION
AIR IN SYSTEM
RELEASE AIR
THROUGH HIGHEST
POINT
PUMP DOES NOT

DEVELOP
SPECIFIED
PRESSURE
1. WEAR/ DAMAGE
OF SEALING
2. FILTER
CLOGGED
1. REPLACE
SEALING
2. CLEAN/ REPLACE
FILTER
BREAK DOWNS (CONTD)

BREAK DOWNS
POSSIBLE CAUSES
REMEDY
SLUGGISH
RESPONSE BY
RUDDER
1. SET INDICATOR
1. INDICATOR
DEFECTIVE
2. TOP UP OIL
2. LESS OIL IN
SYSTEM
3. FILTERS CHOKED 3. CLEAN/ REPLACE
FILTERS
4. PUMP
4. CHECK PUMP
DEFECTIVE
RPM/ RELIEF
VALVE
5. CONTROL SLIDE/
5. CHECK
MANOEUVRING
CONTROL SLIDE/
VALVE SLUGGISH
MANOEUVRING
VALVE
BREAK DOWNS (CONTD)

BREAK DOWNS
POSSIBLE CAUSES
REMEDY
SLUGGISH
RESPONSE BY
RUDDER (CONTD)
6. TELEMOTOR
PLUNGER SEALS
LEAKING
7. BY-PASS VALVE
PARTIALLY OPEN
6. RENEW SEALS
7. SHUT BY-PASS
VALVE
8. CHECK
8. CONTROL
FREENESS OF
LINKAGES HARD
LINKAGES
IN OPERATION
9. RUDDER FOULED 9. CHECK RUDDER
FROM OUTSIDE
BY EXTERNAL
AND FREE
OBJECTS
BREAK DOWNS (CONTD)

BREAK DOWNS
POSSIBLE CAUSES
RUDDER OPERATES 1. INDICATOR

ONLY IN ONE
DEFECTIVE
DIRECTION
2. ELECTRICAL
CONTROL
SYSTEM
DEFECTIVE
3. MANOEUVRING
VALVE
DEFECTIVE
4. DEFECTIVE PIPE
CONNECTIONS
REMEDY
1. SET INDICATOR
2. CHECK
ELECTRICAL
CONTROL
SYSTEM
3. CHECK
MANOEUVRING
VALVE
4. CHECK PIPE
CONNECTIONS
BREAK DOWNS (CONTD)

BREAK DOWNS
POSSIBLE CAUSES
REMEDY
RUDDER NOT
OPERATING IN ANY
DIRECTION
1. INDICATOR
DEFECTIVE
2. LESS OIL IN
SYSTEM
3. ELECTRICAL
CONTROL
SYSTEM
DEFECTIVE
4. PUMP COUPLING
BROKEN/
DISCONNECTED
5. PUMP
DEVELOPING
LESS PRESSURE
1. SET INDICATOR
2. TOP UP OIL
3. CHECK
ELECTRICAL
CONTROL
SYSTEM
4. RENEW/
CONNECT
COUPLING
5. CHECK PUMP
RPM/ RELIEF
VALVE
BREAK DOWNS (CONTD)

BREAK DOWNS
POSSIBLE CAUSES
RUDDER NOT
6. PUMP MOTOR
OPERATING IN ANY
COIL BURNT
DIRECTION (CONTD)
7. TELEMOTOR
SYSTEM
DISCONNECTED
REMEDY
6. REWIND COIL/
REPLACE
MOTOR
7. RE-CONNECT
TELEMOTOR
SYSTEM
KORT NOZZLE
CYLINDRICAL SHROUD
AROUND PROPELLER
RUDDER SUPPORTED BY A
LOWER PINTLE BEARING
PROPELLER THRUST
DIRECTED AS JET OF WATER
BY NOZZLE
IMPROVED MANOEUVRING
AND TOWING
VOITH-SCHNEIDER
BLADES PROJECT BELOW
SHIPS HULL
ROTATE ABOUT VERTICAL
AXIS
HAVE OSCILLATORY
MOTION ABOUT OWN AXIS
ANGLE OF OSCILLATION
DETERMINES THRUST
Contents:
Introduction
Block Diagram and Pin Description of the 8051
Registers
Memory mapping in 8051
Stack in the 8051
I/O Port Programming
Timer
Interrupt
Why do we need to learn

Microprocessors/controllers?
The microprocessor is the core of computer
systems.
Nowadays many communication, digital
entertainment, portable devices, are
controlled by them.
A designer should know what types of
components he needs, ways to reduce
production costs and product reliable.
Different aspects of a
microprocessor/controller
Hardware :Interface to the real world
Software :order how to deal with inputs
The necessary tools for a

microprocessor/controller
CPU: Central Processing Unit

I/O: Input /Output
Bus: Address bus & Data bus
Memory: RAM & ROM
Timer
Interrupt
Serial Port
Parallel Port
Microprocessors:
General-purpose microprocessor
CPU for Computers

No RAM, ROM, I/O on CPU chip itself
ExampleIntels x86, Motorolas 680x0
CPU
GeneralPurpose
Microprocessor
Many chips on mothers board
Data Bus
RAM
ROM
I/O
Port
Address Bus
General-Purpose Microprocessor System
Timer
Serial
COM
Port
Microcontroller :
A smaller computer
On-chip RAM, ROM, I/O ports...
ExampleMotorolas 6811, Intels 8051, Zilogs Z8 and PIC 16X
CPU
RAM ROM
A single chip
I/O
Port
Serial
Timer COM
Port
Microcontroller
Microprocessor vs. Microcontroller

Microprocessor
CPU is stand-alone, RAM,
ROM, I/O, timer are separate
designer can decide on the
amount of ROM, RAM and
I/O ports.
expansive
versatility
general-purpose
Microcontroller
CPU, RAM, ROM, I/O and
timer are all on a single chip
fix amount of on-chip ROM,
RAM, I/O ports
for applications in which cost,
power and space are critical
single-purpose
Embedded System
Embedded system means the processor is embedded into that
application.
An embedded product uses a microprocessor or microcontroller to
do one task only.
In an embedded system, there is only one application software that
is typically burned into ROM.
Exampleprinter, keyboard, video game player
Three criteria in Choosing a Microcontroller

1.
meeting the computing needs of the task efficiently and cost

effectively
speed, the amount of ROM and RAM, the number of I/O ports
and timers, size, packaging, power consumption
easy to upgrade
cost per unit
2. availability of software development tools
assemblers, debuggers, C compilers, emulator, simulator,
technical support
3. wide availability and reliable sources of the microcontrollers.
Block Diagram
External interrupts
Interrupt
Control
On-chip
ROM for
program
code
Timer/Counter
On-chip
RAM
Timer 1
Timer 0
CPU
OSC
Bus
Control
4 I/O Ports
P0 P1 P2 P3
Address/Data
Serial
Port
TxD RxD
Counter
Inputs
Pin Description of the 8051

P1.0
P1.1
P1.2
P1.3
P1.4
P1.5
P1.6
P1.7
RST
(RXD)P3.0
(TXD)P3.1
(INT0)P3.2
(INT1)P3.3
(T0)P3.4
(T1)P3.5
(WR)P3.6
(RD)P3.7
XTAL2
XTAL1
GND
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
8051
(8031)
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
Vcc
P0.0(AD0)
P0.1(AD1)
P0.2(AD2)
P0.3(AD3)
P0.4(AD4)
P0.5(AD5)
P0.6(AD6)
P0.7(AD7)
EA/VPP
ALE/PROG
PSEN
P2.7(A15)
P2.6(A14)
P2.5(A13)
P2.4(A12)
P2.3(A11)
P2.2(A10)
P2.1(A9)
P2.0(A8)
Pins of 80511/4
Vccpin 40
Vcc provides supply voltage to the chip.
The voltage source is +5V.
GNDpin 20ground
XTAL1 and XTAL2pins 19,18
Figure (a). XTAL Connection to 8051
Using a quartz crystal oscillator

We can observe the frequency on the XTAL2 pin.
C2
XTAL2
30pF
C1
XTAL1
30pF
GND
Pins of 80512/4
RSTpin 9reset
It is an input pin and is active highnormally low.
The high pulse must be high at least 2 machine cycles.
It is a power-on reset.
Upon applying a high pulse to RST, the
microcontroller will reset and all values in registers
will be lost.
Reset values of some 8051 registers
Figure (b). Power-On RESET Circuit

Vcc
+
10 uF
31
30 pF
11.0592 MHz
19
EA/VPP
X1
8.2 K
30 pF
18
X2
9 RST
Pins of 80513/4
/EApin 31external access

There is no on-chip ROM in 8031 and 8032 .
The /EA pin is connected to GND to indicate the code is
stored externally.
/PSEN ALE are used for external ROM.
For 8051, /EA pin is connected to Vcc.
/ means active low.
/PSENpin 29program store enable
This is an output pin and is connected to the OE pin of the
ROM.
Pins of 80514/4
ALEpin 30address latch enable

It is an output pin and is active high.
8051 port 0 provides both address and data.
The ALE pin is used for de-multiplexing the address
and data by connecting to the G pin of the 74LS373
latch.
I/O port pins
The four ports P0, P1, P2, and P3.
Each port uses 8 pins.
All I/O pins are bi-directional.
Pins of I/O Port
The 8051 has four I/O ports

Port 0 pins 32-39P0P0.0P0.7
Port 1pins 1-8 P1P1.0P1.7
Port 2pins 21-28P2P2.0P2.7
Port 3pins 10-17P3P3.0P3.7
Each port has 8 pins.
Named P0.X X=0,1,...,7, P1.X, P2.X, P3.X
ExP0.0 is the bit 0LSBof P0
ExP0.7 is the bit 7MSBof P0
These 8 bits form a byte.
Each port can be used as input or output (bi-direction).
Hardware Structure of I/O Pin
Each pin of I/O ports

Internal CPU buscommunicate with CPU
A D latch store the value of this pin
D latch is controlled by Write to latch
Write to latch1write data into the D latch
2 Tri-state buffer
TB1: controlled by Read pin
Read pin1really read the data present at the pin
TB2: controlled by Read latch
Read latch1read value from internal latch
A transistor M1 gate
Gate=0: open
Gate=1: close
D Latch:
A Pin of Port 1
Read latch
TB2
Vcc
Load(L1)
Internal CPU
bus
Write to latch
Clk
P1.X
pin
P1.X
Q
M1
TB1
P0.x
Read pin
8051 IC
Writing 1 to Output Pin P1.X

Read latch
Vcc
TB2
Load(L1)
1. write a 1 to the pin

Internal CPU
bus
Write to latch
Clk
P1.X
Q
M1
TB1
Read pin
8051 IC
2. output pin is
Vcc
P1.X
pin
output 1
Writing 0 to Output Pin P1.X

Read latch
Vcc
TB2
Load(L1)
1. write a 0 to the pin

Internal CPU
bus
Write to latch
Clk
P1.X
Q
M1
TB1
Read pin
8051 IC
2. output pin is
ground
P1.X
pin
output 0
Reading High at Input Pin

Read latch
1.
TB2
write a 1 to the pin MOV

P1,#0FFH
Internal CPU bus
2. MOV A,P1
Vcc
external pin=High
Load(L1)
1
Q
P1.X
Write to latch
Clk
M1
TB1
Read pin
3. Read pin=1 Read latch=0
Write to latch=1
8051 IC
P1.X pin
Reading Low at Input Pin

Read latch
1.
Vcc
2. MOV A,P1
TB2
write a 1 to the pin
Load(L1)
external pin=Low
MOV P1,#0FFH
Internal CPU bus
Q
P1.X
Write to latch
Clk
M1
TB1
Read pin
3. Read pin=1 Read latch=0
Write to latch=1
8051 IC
P1.X pin
Other Pins
P1, P2, and P3 have internal pull-up resisters.
P1, P2, and P3 are not open drain.
P0 has no internal pull-up resistors and does not
connects to Vcc inside the 8051.
P0 is open drain.
Compare the figures of P1.X and P0.X.
However, for a programmer, it is the same to program
P0, P1, P2 and P3.
All the ports upon RESET are configured as output.
A Pin of Port 0
Read latch
TB2
Internal CPU
bus
Write to latch
Clk
P0.X
pin
P1.X
Q
M1
TB1
P1.x
Read pin
8051 IC
Port 0 with Pull-Up Resistors

Vcc
Port
P0.0
DS5000 P0.1
P0.2
8751
P0.3
P0.4
8951
P0.5
P0.6
P0.7
10 K
Port 3 Alternate Functions

P3 Bit
Function
Pin
P3.0
P3.1
P3.2
P3.3
P3.4
P3.5
P3.6
P3.7
RxD
TxD
INT0
INT1
T0
T1
WR
RD
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
RESET Value of Some 8051 Registers:
Register
PC
ACC
B
PSW
SP
DPTR
RAM are all zero.
Reset Value
0000
0000
0000
0000
0007
0000
Registers
A
B
R0
DPTR
DPH
DPL
R1
R2
PC
PC
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
Some 8-bitt Registers of
the 8051
Some 8051 16-bit Register
Memory mapping in 8051

ROM memory map in 8051 family
4k
0000H
8k
32k
0000H
0000H
0FFFH
DS5000-32
8751
AT89C51
1FFFH
8752
AT89C52
7FFFH
from Atmel Corporation

from Dallas Semiconductor
RAM memory space allocation in the 8051

7FH
Scratch pad RAM
30H
2FH
Bit-Addressable RAM
20H
1FH
Register Bank 3
18H
17H
10H
0FH
08H
07H
00H
Register Bank 2
(Stack) Register Bank 1
Register Bank 0
Stack in the 8051

The register used to access
the stack is called SP (stack
pointer) register.
7FH
Scratch pad RAM
30H
The stack pointer in the 8051

is only 8 bits wide, which
means that it can take value
00 to FFH. When 8051
powered up, the SP register
contains value 07.
2FH
Bit-Addressable RAM
20H
1FH
18H
17H
10H
0FH
08H
07H
00H
Register Bank 3
Register Bank 2
(Stack) Register Bank 1
Register Bank 0
Timer :
TMOD Register:
Gate : When set, timer only runs while INT(0,1) is

C/T : Counter/Timer select bit.
M1 : Mode bit 1.
M0 : Mode bit 0.
high.
TCON Register:
TF1: Timer 1 overflow flag.

TR1: Timer 1 run control bit.
TF0: Timer 0 overflag.
TR0: Timer 0 run control bit.
IE1: External interrupt 1 edge flag.
IT1: External interrupt 1 type flag.
IE0: External interrupt 0 edge flag.
IT0: External interrupt 0 type flag.
Interrupt :
Interrupt Enable Register :
EA : Global enable/disable.
---
: Undefined.
ET2 :Enable Timer 2 interrupt.

ES :Enable Serial port interrupt.
ET1 :Enable Timer 1 interrupt.
EX1 :Enable External 1 interrupt.
ET0 : Enable Timer 0 interrupt.
EX0 : Enable External 0 interrupt.
INTRODUCTION TO PLCS
Advantages of PLCs
Less wiring.
Wiring between devices and relay contacts are done in the PLC
program.
Easier and faster to make changes.
Trouble shooting aids make programming easier and reduce
downtime.
Reliable components make these likely to operate for years before
failure.
PLC Origin
- Developed to replace relays in the late 1960s

- Costs dropped and became popular by 1980s
- Now used in many industrial designs
Historical Background
The Hydramatic Division of the General Motors Corporation specified
the design criteria for the first programmable controller in 1968
Their primary goal
To eliminate the high costs associated with inflexible, relay-controlled
systems.
446
Historical Background
The controller had to be designed in modular form, so that sub-assemblies
could be removed easily for replacement or repair.
The control system needed the capability to pass data collection to a
central system.
The system had to be reusable.
The method used to program the controller had to be simple, so that it
could be easily understood by plant personnel.
447
Programmable Controller Development

1968
1969
1974
1976
1977
Programmable concept developed

Hardware CPU controller, with logic
instructions, 1 K of memory and 128 I/O
points
Use of several (multi) processors within a

PLC - timers and counters; arithmetic
operations; 12 K of memory
and 1024 I/O points
Remote input/output systems introduced
Microprocessors - based PLC introduced
448
Programmable Controller Development

1980
Intelligent I/O modules developed

Enhanced communications facilities
Enhanced software features
(e.g. documentation)
Use of personal microcomputers as
programming aids
1983
Low - cost small PLCs introduced

1985 on
Networking of all levels of PLC, computer
and machine using SCADA software.
449
Programmable Logic Controllers

( Definition according to NEMA standard ICS3-1978)
A digitally operating electronic apparatus which uses a programming
memory for the internal storage of instructions for implementing specific
functions such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and arithmetic to
control through digital or analog modules, various types of machines or
process.
450
Leading Brands Of PLC

AMERICAN
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Allen Bradley
Gould Modicon
Texas Instruments
General Electric
Westinghouse
Cutter Hammer
Square D
EUROPEAN
1.
2.
3.
4.
Siemens
Klockner & Mouller
Festo
Telemechanique
451
Leading Brands Of PLC

JAPANESE
1.
2.
3.
4.
Toshiba
Omron
Fanuc
Mitsubishi
452
PLC Size
1. SMALL
- it covers units with up to 128 I/Os and

memories up to 2 Kbytes.
- these PLCs are capable of providing
simple to advance levels or machine
controls.
2. MEDIUM
- have up to 2048 I/Os and memories up
to 32 Kbytes.
3. LARGE
- the most sophisticated units of the PLC
family. They have up to 8192 I/Os and
memories up to 750 Kbytes.
- can control individual production
processes or entire plant.
453
Major Components of a Common PLC

POWER
SUPPLY
From
SENSORS
I M
N O
P D
U U
T L
E
PROCESSOR
Pushbuttons,
contacts,
limit switches,
etc.
PROGRAMMING
DEVICE
O
U
T
P
U
T
M
O
D
U
L
E
To
OUTPUT
Solenoids,
contactors,
alarms
etc.
454

POWER SUPPLY
Provides the voltage needed to run the primary PLC components
I/O MODULES
Provides signal conversion and isolation between the internal logiclevel signals inside the PLC and the fields high level signal.
455

PROCESSOR
Provides intelligence to command and govern the activities of the entire
PLC systems.
PROGRAMMING DEVICE
used to enter the desired program that will determine the sequence of
operation and control of process equipment or driven machine.
456
Programming Device
Also known as:
Industrial Terminal ( Allen Bradley )
Program Development Terminal ( General Electric )
Programming Panel ( Gould Modicon )
Programmer ( Square D )
Program Loader ( Idec-Izumi )
Programming Console ( Keyence / Omron )
457
Programming Device
Types:
Hand held unit with LED / LCD display
Desktop type with a CRT display
Compatible computer terminal
458
I/O Module
The I/O interface section of a PLC connects it to
field devices.
external
The main purpose of the I/O interface is to condition the various signals
received from or sent to the external input and output devices.
Input modules converts signals from discrete or analog input devices to
logic levels acceptable to PLCs processor.
Output modules converts signal from the processor to levels capable of
driving the connected discrete or analog output devices.
459
I/O Module
DC INPUT MODULE
IS NEEDED TO:
Prevent voltage
transients from
damaging the
processor.
Helps reduce the
effects of
electrical noise
USE TO
DROP THE
VOLTAGE
TO LOGIC
LEVEL
FROM
INPUT
DEVICE
Current
Limiting
Resistor
OPTOISOLATOR
Buffer,
Filter,
hysteresis
Circuits
TO
PROCESSOR
460
I/O Module
AC INPUT MODULE
IS NEEDED TO:
Prevent voltage
transients from
damaging the
processor.
Helps reduce the
effects of
electrical noise
CONVERTS THE AC
INPUT TO DC AND
DROPS THE
VOLTAGE TO LOGIC
LEVEL
FROM
INPUT
DEVICE
Rectifier,
Resistor
Network
OPTOISOLATOR
Buffer,
Filter,
Hysteresis
Circuits
TO
PROCESSOR
461
462
463
464
I/O Module
DC / AC OUTPUT MODULE
IS NEEDED TO:
Prevent voltage
transients from
damaging the
processor.
Helps reduce the
effects of
electrical noise
FROM
PROCESSOR
TTL
Circuits
OPTOISOLATOR
Amplifier
RELAY
TRIAC
XSISTOR
TO
OUTPUT
DEVICE
465
466
I/O Circuits
DIFFERENT TYPES OF I/O CIRCUITS
1. Pilot Duty Outputs
Outputs of this type typically are used to drive high-current electromagnetic
loads such as solenoids, relays, valves, and motor starters.
These loads are highly inductive and exhibit a large inrush current.
Pilot duty outputs should be capable of withstanding an inrush current of
10 times the rated load for a short period of time without failure.
467
I/O Circuits
2. General - Purpose Outputs
These are usually low- voltage and low-current and are used to drive
indicating lights and other non-inductive loads. Noise suppression may or
may not be included on this types of modules.
3. Discrete Inputs
Circuits of this type are used to sense the status of limit switches, push
buttons, and other discrete sensors. Noise suppression is of great
importance in preventing false indication of inputs turning on or off
because of noise.
468
I/O Circuits
4. Analog I/O
Circuits of this type sense or drive analog signals.
Analog inputs come from devices, such as thermocouples, strain gages, or
pressure sensors, that provide a signal voltage or current that is derived
from the process variable.
Standard Analog Input signals: 4-20mA; 0-10V
Analog outputs can be used to drive devices such as voltmeters, X-Y
recorders, servomotor drives, and valves through the use of transducers.
Standard Analog Output signals: 4-20mA; 0-5V; 0-10V
469
I/O Circuits
5. Special - Purpose I/O
Circuits of this type are used to interface PLCs to very specific types of
circuits such as servomotors, stepping motors PID (proportional plus integral
plus derivative) loops, high-speed pulse counting, resolver and decoder
inputs, multiplexed displays, and keyboards.
This module allows for limited access to timer and counter presets and other
PLC variables without requiring a program loader.
470
OUTPUTS
INPUTS
MOTOR
CONTACTOR
LAMP
PUSHBUTTONS
PLC
471
Allen-Bradley 1746-1A16
I= Input
L2
L1
I:2
Module
slot # in rack
Module
Terminal #
Address I:2.0/0
P. B SWITCH
LADDER PROGRAM
INPUT MODULE
WIRING DIAGRAM
472
L2
CONTACTOR
L1
N.
O
L2
L1
FIELD WIRING
OUTPUT MODULE
WIRING
O:4
L1
CONTACTOR
L2
LADDER PROGRAM
473
MOTOR
SOLENOID
VALVES
LAMP
BUZZER
Discrete Input
A discrete input also referred as digital input is an input that is either ON or
OFF are connected to the PLC digital input. In the ON condition it is referred to
as logic 1 or a logic high and in the OFF condition maybe referred to as logic o
or logic low.
Normally Open
Pushbutton
Normally Closed
Pushbutton
Normally Open switch
Normally Closed switch
Normally Open contact
Normally closed contact
474
IN
OFF
Logic 0
PLC
Input
Module
24 V dc
IN
OFF
Logic 1
PLC
Input
Module
24 V dc
475
Analog Input
An analog input is an input signal that has a continuous
signal. Typical inputs may vary from 0 to 20mA, 4 to 20mA
or 0 to10V. Below, a level transmitter monitors the level of
liquid in the tank. Depending on the level Tx, the signal to the
PLC can either increase or decrease as the level increases
or decreases.
Level Transmitter
IN
PLC
Analog
Input
Module
Tank
476
Digital Output
A discrete output is either in an ON or OFF condition. Solenoids,

contactors coils, lamps are example of devices connected to the
Discrete or digital outputs. Below, the lamp can be turned ON or OFF by the PLC
output it is connected to.
OUT
PLC
Lamp
Digital
Output
Module
477
Analog Output
An analog output is an output signal that has a continuous

signal. Typical outputs may vary from 0 to 20mA, 4 to 20mA
or 0 to10V.
Electric to pneumatic transducer
OUT
PLC
0 to 10V
Analog
Output
Module
Supply air
Pneumatic control valve
478
Processor
The processor module contains the PLCs microprocessor, its supporting
circuitry, and its memory system.
The main function of the microprocessor is to analyze data coming from
field sensors through input modules, make decisions based on the users
defined control program and return signal back through output modules to
the field devices. Field sensors: switches, flow, level, pressure, temp.
transmitters, etc. Field output devices: motors, valves, solenoids, lamps, or
audible devices.
The memory system in the processor module has two parts: a system
memory and an application memory.
479
Memory Map Organization
SYSTEM
System memory includes an area called the EXECUTIVE,

composed of permanently-stored programs that direct all
system activities, such as execution of the users control
program, communication with peripheral devices, and other
system activities.
The system memory also contains the routines that
implement the PLCs instruction set, which is composed of
specific control functions such as logic, sequencing, timing,
counting, and arithmetic.
System memory is generally built from read-only memory
devices.
APPLICATION
Data Table
User Program
The application memory is divided into the data table area

and user program area.
The data table stores any data associated with the users
control program, such as system input and output status data,
and any stored constants, variables, or preset values. The
data table is where data is monitored, manipulated, and
changed for control purposes.
The user program area is where the programmed
instructions entered by the user are stored as an application
control program.
480
Memory Designs
VOLATILE.
A volatile memory is one that loses its stored information when power is
removed.
Even momentary losses of power will erase any information stored or
programmed on a volatile memory chip.
Common Type of Volatile Memory
RAM. Random Access Memory(Read/Write)
Read/write indicates that the information stored in the memory can be
retrieved or read, while write indicates that the user can program or write
information into the memory.
481
Memory Designs
The words random access refer to the ability of any location (address) in
the memory to be accessed or used. Ram memory is used for both the
user memory (ladder diagrams) and storage memory in many PLCs.
RAM memory must have battery backup to retain or protect the stored
program.
482
Memory Designs
Several Types of RAM Memory:
1.MOS
2.HMOS
3.CMOS
The CMOS-RAM (Complimentary Metal Oxide Semiconductor) is probably
one of the most popular. CMOS-RAM is popular because it has a very low
current drain when not being accessed (15microamps.), and the information
stored in memory can be retained by as little as 2Vdc.
483
Memory Designs
NON-VOLATILE
Has the ability to retain stored information when power is removed,
accidentally or intentionally. These memories do not require battery back-up.
Common Type of Non-Volatile Memory
ROM, Read Only Memory
Read only indicates that the information stored in memory can be read only
and cannot be changed. Information in ROM is placed there by the
manufacturer for the internal use and operation of the PLC.
484
Memory Designs
Other Types of Non-Volatile Memory
PROM, Programmable Read Only Memory
Allows initial and/or additional information to be written into the chip.
PROM may be written into only once after being received from the PLC
manufacturer; programming is accomplish by pulses of current.
The current melts the fusible links in the device, preventing it from being
reprogrammed. This type of memory is used to prevent unauthorized
program changes.
485
Memory Designs
EPROM, Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory
Ideally suited when program storage is to be semi-permanent or additional
security is needed to prevent unauthorized program changes.
The EPROM chip has a quartz window over a silicon material that contains
the electronic integrated circuits. This window normally is covered by an
opaque material, but when the opaque material is removed and the
circuitry exposed to ultra violet light, the memory content can be erased.
The EPROM chip is also referred to as UVPROM.
486
Memory Designs
EEPROM, Electrically Erasable Programmable Read
Memory
Only
Also referred to as E2PROM, is a chip that can be programmed using a

standard programming device and can be erased by the proper signal being
applied to the erase pin.
EEPROM is used primarily as a non-volatile backup for the normal RAM
memory. If the program in RAM is lost or erased, a copy of the program
stored on an EEPROM chip can be down loaded into the RAM.
487
PLC Operation
Basic Function of a Typical PLC
Read all field input devices via the input interfaces, execute the user
program stored in application memory, then, based on whatever control
scheme has been programmed by the user, turn the field output devices on
or off, or perform whatever control is necessary for the process application.
This process of sequentially reading the inputs, executing the program in
memory, and updating the outputs is known as scanning.
488
While the PLC is running, the scanning process includes the following four
phases, which are repeated continuously as individual cycles of operation:
PHASE 1
Read Inputs
Scan
PHASE 2
Program
Execution
PHASE 3
Diagnostics/
Comm
PHASE 4
Output
Scan
489
PHASE 1 Input Status scan

A PLC scan cycle begins with the CPU reading the status
of its inputs.
PHASE 2 Logic Solve/Program Execution

The application program is executed using the status of the inputs
PHASE 3 Logic Solve/Program Execution

Once the program is executed, the CPU performs diagnostics and
communication tasks
490
PHASE 4 - Output Status Scan

An output status scan is then performed, whereby the stored output
values are sent to actuators and other field output devices. The cycle
ends by updating the outputs.
491
As soon as Phase 4 are completed, the entire cycle begins again with
Phase 1 input scan.
The time it takes to implement a scan cycle is called SCAN TIME. The scan
time composed of the program scan time, which is the time required for
solving the control program, and the I/O update time, or time required to
read inputs and update outputs. The program scan time generally depends
on the amount of memory taken by the control program and type of
instructions used in the program. The time to make a single scan can vary
from 1 ms to 100 ms.
492
PLC Communications
Common Uses of PLC Communications Ports
Changing resident PLC programs - uploading/downloading from a
supervisory controller (Laptop or desktop computer).
Forcing I/O points and memory elements from a remote terminal.
Linking a PLC into a control hierarchy containing several sizes of PLC

and computer.
Monitoring data and alarms, etc. via printers or Operator Interface Units
(OIUs).
493
PLC Communications
Serial Communications
PLC communications facilities normally provides serial transmission of
information.
Common Standards
RS 232
Used in short-distance computer communications, with the majority of
computer hardware and peripherals.
Has a maximum effective distance of approx. 30 m at 9600 baud.
494
PLC Communications
Local Area Network (LAN)
Local Area Network provides a physical link between all devices plus
providing overall data exchange management or protocol, ensuring that each
device can talk to other machines and understand data received from them.
LANs provide the common, high-speed data communications bus which
interconnects any or all devices within the local area.
LANs are commonly used in business applications to allow several users to
share costly software packages and peripheral equipment such as printers
and hard disk storage.
495
PLC Communications
RS 422 / RS 485
Used for longer-distance links, often between several PCs in a
distributed system. RS 485 can have a maximum distance of about 1000
meters.
496
PLC Communications
Programmable Controllers and Networks
Dedicated Network System of Different Manufacturers
Manufacturer
Network
Allen-Bradley
Data Highway
Gould Modicon
Modbus
General Electric
GE Net Factory LAN
Mitsubishi
Melsec-NET
Square D
SY/NET
Texas Instruments
TIWAY
497
Specifications
Several factors are used for evaluating the quality and performance of
programmable controllers when selecting a unit for a particular application.
These are listed below.
NUMBER OF I /O PORTS
This specifies the number of I/O devices that can be connected to the
controller. There should be sufficient I/O ports to meet present requirements
with enough spares to provide for moderate future expansion.
498
Selecting a PLC
Criteria
Number of logical inputs and outputs.

Memory
Number of special I/O modules
Scan Time
Communications
Software
A Detailed Design Process

1. Understand the process
2. Hardware/software selection
3. Develop ladder logic
4. Determine scan times and memory requirements
Specifications
OUTPUT-PORT POWER RATINGS
Each output port should be capable of supplying sufficient voltage and
current to drive the output peripheral connected to it.
SCAN TIME
This is the speed at which the controller executes the relay-ladder logic
program. This variable is usually specified as the scan time per 1000 logic
nodes and typically ranges from 1 to 200 milliseconds.
501
Specifications
MEMORY CAPACITY
The amount of memory required for a particular application is related to the
length of the program and the complexity of the control system. Simple
applications having just a few relays do not require significant amount of
memory. Program length tend to expand after the system have been used
for a while. It is advantageous to a acquire a controller that has more
memory than is presently needed.
502
PLC Status Indicators

Power On
Run Mode
Programming Mode
Fault
Troubleshooting
1. Look at the process
2. PLC status lights
HALT - something has stopped the CPU
RUN - the PLC thinks it is OK (and probably is)
ERROR - a physical problem has occurred with the PLC
3. Indicator lights on I/O cards and sensors
4. Consult the manuals, or use software if available.
5. Use programming terminal / laptop.
List of items required when working with PLCs:

1. Programming Terminal - laptop or desktop PC.
2. PLC Software. PLC manufacturers have
their own specific software and license key.
3. Communication cable for connection from Laptop
to PLC.
4. Backup copy of the ladder program (on diskette, CDROM,
hard disk, flash memory). If none, upload it from the PLC.
5. Documentation- (PLC manual, Software manual, drawings,
ladder program printout, and Seq. of Operations manual.)
Examples of PLC Programming Software:

1. Allen-Bradley Rockwell Software RSLogix500
2. Modicon - Modsoft
3. Omron - Syswin
4. GE-Fanuc Series 6 LogicMaster6
5. Square D- PowerLogic
6. Texas Instruments Simatic
6. Telemecanique Modicon TSX Micro
PROGRAMMING
Normally Open
(NO)
Normally Closed
(NC)
Power flows through these contacts when they are closed. The
normally open (NO) is true when the input or output status bit
controlling the contact is 1. The normally closed (NC) is true
when the input or output status bit controlling the contact is 0.
507
Coils
Coils represent relays that are energized when power flows to

them. When a coil is energized it causes a corresponding
output to turn on by changing the state of the status bit controlling
the output to 1. That same output status bit maybe used to control
normally open or normally closed contact anywhere in the program.
508
Boxes
Boxes represent various instructions or functions that are

Executed when power flows to the box. Some of these
Functions are timers, counters and math operations.
509
AND OPERATION
Rung
Each rung or network on a ladder program represents

a logic operation. In the rung above, both inputs A and B
must be true (1) in order for the output C to be true (1).
510
OR OPERATION
C
A
Rung
B
In the rung above, it can be seen that either input A or B

is be true (1), or both are true, then the output C is true (1).
511
NOT OPERATION
C
A
Rung
In the rung above, it can be seen that if input A is be true (1),

then the output C is true (0) or when A is (0), output C is 1.
512
SCADA
SCADA (supervisory control and data acquisition) generally refers
to industrial control systems: computer systems that monitor and
control industrial, infrastructure, or facility-based processes.
A SCADA System usually consists of the following subsystems:
A Human-Machine Interface or HMI is the apparatus which presents

process data to a human operator, and through this, the human
operator monitors and controls the process.
A supervisory (computer) system, gathering (acquiring) data on the
process and sending commands (control) to the process.
Remote Terminal Units (RTUs) connecting to sensors in the process,
converting sensor signals to digital data and sending digital data to the
supervisory system.
Programmable Logic Controller (PLCs) used as field devices because
they are more economical, versatile, flexible, and configurable than
special-purpose RTUs.
Communication infrastructure connecting the supervisory system to
the Remote Terminal Units.
Supervision vs. control

SCADA systems and distributed control systems (DCS):
Generally speaking, a SCADA system always refers to a
system that coordinates, but does not control processes in
real time.
The real-time control is dependent on telecommunications
technology, enabling reliable, low latency, high speed
communications over wide areas.
DCS is process oriented, while SCADA is data acquisition oriented.

DCS is process state driven, while SCADA is event driven.
DCS is commonly used to handle operations on a single locale,
while SCADA is preferred for applications that are spread over a
wide geographic location.
DCS operator stations are always connected to its I/O, while
SCADA is expected to operate despite failure of field
communications.
SCADA architecture
Definitions
The term SCADA usually refers to centralized systems
which monitor and control entire sites, or complexes of
systems spread out over large areas.
Most control actions are performed automatically by
Remote Terminal Units ("RTUs") or by programmable
logic controllers ("PLCs"). Host control functions are
usually restricted to basic overriding or supervisory
level intervention.
The feedback control loop passes through the RTU or
PLC, while the SCADA system monitors the overall
performance of the loop.
Data management in SCADA.

Data acquisition begins at the RTU or PLC level
and includes meter readings and equipment
status reports that are communicated to SCADA
as required.
Data is then compiled and formatted in such a
way that a control room operator using the HMI
can make supervisory decisions to adjust or
override normal RTU (PLC) controls.
Data may also be fed to a Historian, often built on
a commodity Database Management System, to
allow trending and other analytical auditing.

SCADA systems typically implement a distributed
database, commonly referred to as a tag
database, which contains data elements called
tags or points.
A point represents a single input or output value
monitored or controlled by the system. Points can
be either "hard" or "soft".
A hard point represents an actual input or output
within the system, while a soft point results from
logic and math operations applied to other
points.

Points are normally stored as value-timestamp
pairs: a value, and the timestamp when it was
recorded or calculated.
A series of value-timestamp pairs gives the
history of that point. It's also common to store
additional metadata with tags, such as the
path to a field device or PLC register, design
time comments, and alarm information
Human Machine Interface

A Human-Machine Interface or HMI is the
apparatus which presents process data to a
human operator, and through which the human
operator controls the process.
An HMI is usually linked to the SCADA system's
databases and software programs, to provide
trending, diagnostic data, and management
information such as scheduled maintenance
procedures, logistic information, detailed
schematics for a particular sensor or machine,
and expert-system troubleshooting guides

The HMI system usually presents the information
to the operating personnel graphically, in the
form of a mimic diagram.
This means that the operator can see a
schematic representation of the plant being
controlled.
Mimic diagrams may consist of line graphics and
schematic symbols to represent process
elements, or may consist of digital photographs
of the process equipment overlain with animated
symbols.

An important part of most SCADA implementations is
alarm handling. The system monitors whether certain
alarm conditions are satisfied, to determine when an
alarm event has occurred.
Once an alarm event has been detected, one or more
actions are taken such as the activation of one or more
alarm indicators.
In many cases, a SCADA operator may have to
acknowledge the alarm event; this may deactivate
some alarm indicators, whereas other indicators
remain active until the alarm conditions are cleared.
SCADA alarm handling

An alarm point is a digital status point that has either the
value NORMAL or ALARM that is calculated by a formula
based on the values in other analogue and digital points or implicit: the SCADA system might automatically
monitor whether the value in an analogue point lies
outside high and low limit values associated with that
point.
Alarm indicators include a siren, a pop-up box on a
screen, or a colored or flashing area on a screen.
In designing SCADA systems, care is needed in coping
with a cascade of alarm events occurring in a short time,
otherwise the underlying cause (which might not be the
earliest event detected) may get lost in the noise.
Remote Terminal Unit (RTU)

The RTU connects to physical equipment.
Typically, an RTU converts the electrical signals
from the equipment to digital values such as the
open/closed status from a switch or a valve, or
measurements such as pressure, flow, voltage or
current.
By converting and sending these electrical signals
out to equipment the RTU can control
equipment, such as opening or closing a switch or
a valve, or setting the speed of a pump. It can
also control the flow of a liquid.
Supervisory Station
The term "Supervisory Station" refers to the
servers and software responsible for
communicating with the field equipment
(RTUs, PLCs, etc.), and then to the HMI
software running on workstations in the
control room, or elsewhere.
In smaller SCADA systems, the master station
may be composed of a single PC.
Supervisory Station
In larger SCADA systems, the master station
may include multiple servers, distributed
software applications, and disaster recovery
sites. To increase the integrity of the system
the multiple servers will often be configured in
a dual-redundant or hot-standby formation
providing continuous control and monitoring
in the event of a server failure.
INTEGRATED BRIDGE SYSTEM
IBS COMPONENTS
THANK
YOU

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Human Performance in Automated Systems

Source: PARASURAMAN, R., & RILEY, V. (1997). Humans and

Reasons for the March Towards

Grounding of the Cruise Ship Royal Majesty,

Grounding of the Cruise Ship Royal Majesty,

Grounding of the Cruise Ship Royal Majesty,

Grounding of the Cruise Ship Royal Majesty,

NTSB Report Conclusions (Extracts)

the GPS receiver antenna cable connection separated

Human Performance in Automated Systems

Automation and Human

Automation and Human

Automation Can But Does Not Always

Sources: WIENER, C. E. (1988). Cockpit automation. In E. L. Wiener & D. C. Nagel (Eds.)

Effects of Level of Automation on

Source: Endsley, M., & Kiris, E. (1995). The out-of-the-loop performance

EFFECTS OF LEVEL OF AUTOMATION

LEVEL OF AUTOMATION BEFORE AUTOMATION FAILURE

Trust Affects Automation Usage

Automation Trust and

Human Operators Are Poor at Monitoring Automated Systems When

Effects of Display Integration on HumanAutomation Interaction

DETECTION RATE OF UNCOMMANDED

Certain automation designs can lead to

Evaluative Criteria: Human

Additional Evaluative Criteria

Production and Operating Costs

Implementing Human Factors in Automation Design

Human Factors Fixes

HUMAN-MACHINE SYSTEMS APPROACH

Human Factors Science and Engineering

Bourdon tube type

BALANCING AGAINST DENSITY

BALANCING AGAINST FORCE

BALANCING AGAINST THE STRESS in

Absolute Pressure = h1mm Hg

Diff. Pressure = (P2 P1) Hg

INCLINED TUBE MANOMETER

BOURDON TUBE TYPE

C TYPE BOURDON TUBE

Chassis of Bourdon gauge

This is the commonly used gauge for pressure

The applied pressure acts within the tube, entering

HIGH PRESICIAN TYPE

SPIRAL & HELIX BOURDON

SPIRAL BOURDON TUBE

The spiral bourdon tube used for lower

HELICAL BOURDON TUBE

The helix bourdon tube used for higher

The material used for seamless tube from which

Schaffer diagram gauge

High precision capsule type

STIFF METALLIC DIAPHRAGM

The upper flange is flat to prevent further

Its used for measuring pressures which are

Servo-operated pressure mechanism

STRAIN GAUGE METHOD

STRAIN GAUGE METHOD

Liquid expansion type

Temperature measurement by instruments

The degree of hotness or coldness of a body

As absolute scale has been devised based on a

Bimetallic strip thermometers