Schlumberger

Contents
A1.0

INTRODUCTION TO OPEN HOLE LOG INTERPRETATION ................. 1

A.1 USES OF LOGS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

A.2 BASIC PETROLEUM GEOLOGY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

A.3 BASIC LOG INTERPRETATION

CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4

A.4 RESISTIVITY AS A BASIS FOR INTERPRETATION - THE ARCHIE EQUATION . . . . 5

A.5 DEFINITIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
a) Formation Porosity (F) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
b) Formation Resistivity (R) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
c) Formation Factor (F) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
d) Water Saturation:

Sw . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

e) Hydrocarbon Saturation (Shy ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

f) Clean Formations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
g) Shaly Formations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
h) Key Formulas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 1
i) Key Symbols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 1

A.6

LOG SCALES AND PRESENTATIONS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1 2

(05/96)

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

(05/96)

Schlumberger

A 1 . 0 Introduction to Open Hole Log

Interpretation
A.1 USES OF LOGS
A set of logs run on a well will usually mean
different things to different people. Let us examine the questions asked - and/or answers
sought by a variety of people.
The Geophysicist:
Are the tops where you predicted?
Are the potential zones porous as you have
assumed from seismic data?
What does a synthetic seismic section
show?
The Geologist:
What depths are the formation tops?
Is the environment suitable for accumulation of Hydrocarbons?
Is there evidence of Hydrocarbon in this
well?
What type of Hydrocarbon?
Are Hydrocarbons present in commercial
quantities?
How good a well is it?
What are the reserves?
Could the formation be commercial in an
offset well?

The Drilling Engineer:

What is the hole volume for cementing?
Are there any Key-Seats or severe Doglegs in the well?
Where can you get a good packer seat for
testing?
Where is the best place to set a Whipstock?
The Reservoir Engineer:
How thick is the pay zone?
How Homogeneous is the section?
What is the volume of Hydrocarbon per
cubic metre?
Will the well pay-out?
How long will it take?
The Production Engineer:
Where should the well be completed (in
what zone(s))?
What kind of production rate can be expected?
Will there be any water production?
How should the well be completed?
Is the potential pay zone hydraulically isolated?
Will the well require any stimulation?
What kind of stimulation would be best?

(05/96) A-1

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

Thus log evaluation can be many things to

many people. As the answers are sought each
individual will possibly use the available data
in a different manner. The common approach
will be in reading the logs and understanding
the various reactions produced by formation
characteristics on our logging devices. The
factors influencing log reading and the information they provide are what we wish to introduce to you in this course.

deposition is such that cross-bedding structures, channel patterns and gradational, rock
types are common. In areas of fresh water
deposition coal beds may occur indicating nonmarine conditions.

A.2 BASIC PETROLEUM GEOLOGY

In order to better understand log responses,
we should first review the types of rocks that
are encountered in the boreholes.

Carbonate Deposition
Carbonate deposition occurs in marine conditions by the precipitation of limestone from
organisms as fine particles, shells or massive
growths. Limestones are deposited either as
flat-lying beds on the ocean floor or as mounds
or pinnacle reefs.

Common sedimentary rocks are:

Sandstone, Siltstone, Shale, Limestone, Dolomite, Anhydrite.
In general, sedimentary rocks are deposited
as either clastic sequences containing sandstone, siltstones and shales or carbonate sequences of limestone, dolomite, anhydrite and
shale.
Clastic Deposition
Clastic rocks are formed from rock fragments and weathered particles of pre-existing
rocks. These sediments are transported by
wind and water and are usually deposited in
rivers, lakes and oceans as relatively flat-lying
beds. Current and wave action later sorts the
sediments such that in high energy environments coarse-grained sands are deposited and
in low energy environments fine-grained silts
and clays are deposited. The nature of the

(05/96) A-2

After deposition and with deeper burial of the

sequence, compaction occurs and the clastic
grains can become cemented together to form
sedimentary rock.

Barrier reef chains which grow in this manner may form restricted ocean basins landward, in which dolomite and anhydrite are
precipitated by the evaporation of sea water.
When limestones form near shore, there may
be mixing of limestone and eroded clastic material and in deeper ocean basins limestone and
shale mixtures are common.
After deposition, later burial may cause
dolomitization of the limestone in which the
actual composition of the rock is changed to
dolomite.
Because of their brittle nature compared to
other sediments, limestones tend to fracture
with deformation which increases permeability
and helps in the dolomitization process.

Schlumberger

Figure A1: Clastic Deposition vs. Carbonate Deposition

(05/96) A-3

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

In many parts of the world multiple sequences

of clastic rocks overlie older carbonate sequences. Between each of the clastic and carbonate groups, erosional inconformities are
common and the nature of deposition within
each group is unique.

d. RW = Water Resistivity: The electrical

resistance of the water filling the pore
space in the rock. This value varies
with water salinity and temperature.
e. k = Permeability: The ability of the rock
to pass fluids through it.

A.3 BASIC LOG INTERPRETATION

CONCEPTS
Any given rock formation has numerous
unique physical properties associated with it.
Only those which can be measured and are useful will be considered in this course. They are:

Consider the following unit cubes (Figure

A2):

a. = Porosity: The void space between

grains that is generally filled with liquids or gases.
b. Sw = Water Saturation: The percentage of the pore space filled with water
(as opposed to hydrocarbon or air).
c. R = Resistivity: The resistance to
electrical current flow presented by a
unit volume of rock.

Cube A
If the porosity () is filled with water then,
by definition, the water saturation SW = 100%.
Cube B
If the porosity is 70% filled with water and
30% hydrocarbon, then, the water saturation
70
SW =
70 + 30
and hydrocarbon saturation

Cube B:
porosity = Hydrocarbon and
water in
SW = 70%

Cube A:
porosity = Water filled
SW = 100%

Figure A2

(05/96) A-4

% = 70%

Schlumberger

Shyc = 1 - Sw = 30%
Therefore the percentage volume of water
saturation
= x Sw

The usefulness of resistivity logging rests on

the fact that:
- water is a conductor (low resistivity)
- hydrocarbons and rocks are insulators
(high resistivity)
Consider the following unit cubes (Figure A3):

For example: if = 20% and Sw = 70%

Then: 14% of the bulk volume is water and
70% of the pore space is water filled.
A.4 RESISTIVITY AS A BASIS FOR
INTERPRETATION - THE ARCHIE EQUATION
In the previous section we introduced a number of parameters used to evaluate rock formations. If we could build on the effects of
resistivity in conjunction with the other parameters to develop a mathematical relationship,
we would have an extremely useful tool for our
work with potential hydrocarbon zones.

Cube C
The resistivity R t of the cube will vary with
water resistivity Rw (ie: as Rw increases, Rt increases and vice versa.)
Therefore: Rt Rw.

(1)

Cube D
Replace 25% of the cube with rock (hence
= 75%) but maintain a constant Rw. Resistivity
Rt increases with decreasing porosity (ie: as
decreases, Rt increases.)

The remainder of this section will be devoted

to developing such a formula.

Cube C Conditions:
- Constant Current
- Porosity = 100%
- Sw = 100%

Cube D Conditions:
- Constant Current
- Porosity = 75%
- Sw = 100%

Cube E Conditions:
- Constant Current
- Porosity = 75%
- Sw = 70%

Figure A3

(05/96) A-5

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

Therefore: Rt 1/.

Rw
(2)

Ro

(5)

Cube E
Replace 30% of remaining porosity with
hydrocarbon. Resistivity Rt increases with decreasing water saturation S w (ie: as Sw decreases, Rt increases.)
Therefore: Rt 1/Sw.

1
Rt Rw

(3)
Ro

(6)
Rw

Sw

1
F

or

Rw

Rt

(4)
Sw

To solve for the constants of proportionality

let us first limit the equation as follows:
Let Sw = 100% (ie: There is no hydrocarbon present and the porosity is 100%
water filled)
then define Ro = Rt (ie: Ro is the wet resistivity of the formation for the condition Sw =
100%)

(05/96) A-6

or F =

Returning to equation 5 and introducing porosity as a variable, it is clear that

Now let F = constant of proportionality

defined as Formation Factor.
Therefore: Ro = FRw

By combining the above observations (1,2

and 3), we can say:
x

Now let = 1, then Ro Rw

This is intuitively obvious as the relationship

between Ro and Rw is related to that particular
unit cube of rock and its porosity characteristics.
Through empirical measurements, it was determined that
a
(7)

F=

where
a = constant
m = cementation factor

Schlumberger

The cementation factor m relates to the porosity type and how it will transmit electrical
current to the actual rock (sometimes called
tortuosity).

aRw
or Sw =

(9)

Rt
m

Using the above equations

Recall Ro = FRw (Equation 6)
aRw
when Sw = 100%
m

R t = Ro =

The remainder of this course is dedicated to

measuring, evaluating and using porosity and
resistivity to calculate water saturation and
hence hydrocarbon reserves using the concepts
of this equation.

Sw

A.5 DEFINITIONS

if Sw 100%, then
aRw
Rt

Equation nine forms the Archie Relationship

that is the basis for all conventional log interpretation techniques. Enhancements and refinements may be applied for the more
complicated rock types.

a) Formation Porosity ()
Defined as the fraction of total volume occupied by pores or voids, where:

or Rt Ro x
Sw

Pore Volume

Ro
or Sw

(8)
Rt

Through laboratory measurements, it was

found that this relationship (8) is dependent on
the saturation exponent n as
Ro
Sw =
n

Rt
FRw
or Swn =
Rt

x 100%
Total Volume

When the pore space is intergranular it is

known as primary porosity. When the porosity
is due to void space created after deposition,
e.g. vugs or fractures in carbonates, the porosity is known as secondary porosity. When
shale is present, the pore space occupied by the
water in the shale is included with the pore
space in the rock to give Total Porosity ( T).
If only the rock pore space is considered in a
shaly formation, the pore space is called Effective Porosity (e).

(05/96) A-7

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

b) Formation Resistivity (R)

Is defined as the resistance offered by a formation to the flow of electrical current. It is
expressed in ohm-metre2/metre.
We use several terms to describe formation
resistivity under various circumstances of fluid
content.
Rt: Describes the resistivity of a formation undisturbed by the drilling
process.
Ro: Describes a special form of Rt. It is
the resistivity of a clean formation
when all pore space is filled with
connate water (Rw).
Rw: Is the symbol for the resistivity of
formation (connate) water.

For Porosity
In a 1942 paper Gus Archie proposed that
the relationship between formation factor and
porosity could be described by the formula:
a
F=
m
where
a = empirical constant.
m = cementation factor.
Some recommended F and relationships
are:
0.62
F=

(for sands)

2.15

0.81
c) Formation Factor (F)

F=

(for sands)

For Resistivity:
An important relationship exists between the
resistivity of a fully water saturated formation
and the resistivity of the contained water. The
ratio of these two values is called Formation
Resistivity Factor (or more commonly, Formation Factor) where:
Ro

1
F=

(for carbonates)

Chart Por-1 (figure A4) in the Log Interpretation Chart Book is based on several different
F- relationships.

F=
Rw
F is a constant for the formation under consideration. The value of F for any particular
formation depends on:
- formation porosity
- pore distribution
- pore size
- pore structure

(05/96) A-8

d) Water Saturation: Sw
Is defined as the fraction of pore volume
filled with water where:
Sw =

Water Filled Pore Volume

x 100%
Total Pore Volume

Schlumberger

e) Hydrocarbon Saturation (Shy)

Defined as the fraction of pore volume filled
with hydrocarbons where:

g) Shaly Formations
This describes formations where some of the
formation void space (porosity) is filled with
shale.

Hydrocarbon Filled Pore Volume

Shale distribution is considered to be:

- Laminated: The formation is built up of
thin laminae of sand and shale.
- Dispersed: The shale particles are dispersed in the pore space.
- Structural: The shale replaces matrix.

Shy =

x 100%
Total Pore Volume
OR

Shy = 1 - Sw.

f) Clean Formations
The term clean formation refers to those that
are shale free.

(05/96) A-9

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

Formation Resistivity Factor versus Porosity

50 2.5

10

20

50

100

200

500

1000

2000

5000

10,000

40
30
25
20
15

, porosity (p.u.)

FR =
10
9
8
7

1
2

m
Vugs or
spherical pores

6
5

FR =

0.62
2.15

FR =

1
m

2.8
2.5

Fractures
2.2

3
1.8

2.0

2
FR =

0.81
2

1.6
1.4

1
2.5

10

20

50

100

200

500

1000

2000

5000

10,000

FR, formation resistivity factor

This chart gives a variety of formation resistivity factor-to-porosity conversions. The proper choice is best determined by laboratory measurement or experience in the area. In the absence of this knowledge,
recommended relationships are the following:
0.62
For Soft Formations: Humble Formula: Fr =

2.15

0.81
or Fr =

0.62
For Hard Formations: Fr =

with appropriate cementation factor, m.

EXAMPLE: is 6% in a carbonate in which a cementation factor, m of 2 is appropriate

Therefore, from chart, Fr = 280.
Chart Por-1

Figure A4
(05/96) A-10

Schlumberger

h) Key Formulas

Formation Factor:
Ro

FRw
a. From deep resistivity

Archies Formula: Sw =
n

F =
Rw

Rt

R xo
where n usually taken as 2

b. From shallow resistivity

F =
R mf
a

c. From porosity

F =

i) Key Symbols
BHT
di
h
R IDPH
R IMPH
R SFL
Rm
R mf
R mc
Rw
R wa
Rt
Ro
R xo
R sh
F

Sw

Bottom Hole Temperature in degrees

Celsius.
- Average Diameter of Invaded Zone.
(Di)
- Bed Thickness in Metres.
- Resistivity from the Deep Phasor Induction.
- Resistivity from the Medium Phasor
Induction.
- Resistivity from the Spherically Focused Log.
- Resistivity of the Mud.
- Resistivity of the Mud Filtrate.
- Resistivity of the Mud Cake.
- Resistivity of the Formation Water.
- Apparent Resistivity of the Formation Water.
- Resistivity of the Formation - Uncontaminated Zone.
- Resistivity of the Formation when
100% water filled.
- Resistivity of the Flushed Zone
(Close to Borehole).
- Resistivity of the Shales.
- Formation Resistivity Factor.
- Porosity in Per Cent.
- Water Saturation, Per Cent of Pore
Space occupied by water in uncontaminated zone.

S xo

S hc

K
SSP

PSP

S
D
N

e
2
V sh
Pe

Water Saturation, as above, in

Flushed Zone.
Hydrocarbon Saturation as Per Cent
of Pore Space; = (1 - Sw).
Coefficient in the SP Formula
Static Spontaneous Potential - The
Maximum Possible for a particular
R mf / Rw .
Pseudostatic Spontaneous Potential
- The SP Found in a Thick Shaly
Sand.
Permeability in millidarcies.
Pore Volume
Porosity =
*100%.
Total Volume
Sonic Porosity.
Density Porosity.
Neutron Porosity.
N + D
Total Porosity .
2
Effective Porosity.
Secondary Porosity.
Volume of Shale.
Photoelectric Index.

A complete list of Symbols and Subscripts is

included in Section J (Miscellaneous)

(05/96) A-11

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

A.6 LOG SCALES AND PRESENTATIONS

a. Well logs provide a continuous graph of
formation parameters versus depth.
Normal depth scales are:
- 1:240 1 metre of log per 240
metres of measured hole depth.
Each line is one metre, with
heavy lines every 5 metres, and
heavier lines every 25 m for
ease of reading. Depths are indicated every 25 metres
(Figures A5 and A6).
- 1:600 1 metre of log per 600
metres of measured hole depth.
Each line is 5 m, with heavy
lines every 25m. Depths are indicated every 25 metres (Figure
A7).
- Other scales are available.
These include 1:1200, 1:120,
1:48 and 1:5.
- Log grids may be either logarithmic (Resistivity logs - Figure A6) or linear (Porosity logs
- Figure A5).
b. If a caliper device is present or the log being generated is a type of sonic log, event
markers will be placed on each side of the
depth track integrating the quantity of hole
volume or transit time recorded.
1) Integrated Hole Volume - Requires
caliper device (Figure A5)
- placed on the left side of the
depth track
3
- small marks indicate 0.1m
while large marks represent
3
1.0m .
2) Integrated Cement Volume - Requires
caliper device plus future casing size
- placed on the right side of the
depth track when space permits
- and if sonic not present
3
- small marks indicate 0.1m
while large marks represent
3
1.0m .

(05/96) A-12

3) Integrated Transit Time - Requires

sonic tool (Figure A5)
- placed on the right side of the
depth track
- small marks indicate 1 millisecond while large marks represent 10 milliseconds of time.
If the log recorded is via Logging-WhileDrilling methods, event markers on both
sides of the depth track (Figure A6) represents the conversion from a time-based
sampling to a depth-based presentation.
The markers therefore indicate the number
of data samples per unit depth. In other
words, the larger the concentration of
markers over a depth interval, the greater
the number of data samples used to make
the log.
c. Logs also have headings and inserts
- Log headings provide such information
as well depth, casing depth, mud parameters, maximum temperature, and
other comments pertinent to evaluation
of log data (Figure A8 and A9).
- Inserts provide such information as
curve scaling, coding, date/time of acquisition, data curve first reading points
and constants pertinent to the logging
run following the insert. Curve coding
on the log data indicates the deepest
reading primary measurement (long
dashed), to the shallowest reading primary measurement (solid), when two or
more measurements are combined
(Figure A10).

Schlumberger

Figure A5: Linear Grid 1/240 Scale

(05/96) A-13

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

a) Logarithmic Grid 1/240 Scale

b) Data Sample Event Markers for LWD Curves
Figure A6

(05/96) A-14

Schlumberger

Figure A7: Linear Grid 1/600 Scale

(05/96) A- 15

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

Figure A8: Log Heading (page 1)

(05/96) A-16

Schlumberger

Figure A9: Log Heading (page 2) and Log Tail

(05/96) A- 17

Introduction to Open Hole Logging

Figure A10: Log Insert

(05/96) A-18