Recommended Reference:

TEXT BOOK FOR ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

By
Erach Bharucha (UGC)
Syllabus Unit-4(Applied Chemistry)
Social

Issues

and

the

Environment-Unsustainable

to

Sustainable

development, Urban problems related to energy, Water conservation, Rain

water

harvesting,

water-shed

managements,

resettlements

and

rehabilitations of people: its application and concern. Case studies.

Environmental ethics: Issues and possible solutions

UNIT-IV

Lecture Handout-1 (CE-111)

Social issues and the environment, unsustainable to sustainable development

Sustainable Development
Human beings interact both with the social world and nature. Both, economic
development and stable environment are required for the continual improvement of lifestyle and
living standards. But until now, the development was human oriented and limited to rich nations.
The development was achieved by damaging the environment and over exploitation of natural
resources which were non-renewable. That caused instability of environment and crossed the
threshold limit of environmental damage.
Sustainable development can be defined as meeting the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It is effective use of
resources for economic development while preserving the environment and ecosystem so that not
only the needs of presents are fulfilled but also for the future generations. Sustainable
development also interlinks the development and carrying capacity of environment and
ecosystem.

Causes for Unsustainable Development

Some people argue that developing countries responsible for the degradation. Others
hold Developing Countries are responsible for them.
The important issues is not rate of increase of National Pollution, it is the rate of
increase of Total Pollution. In this regard developed countries contribute much more
than developing countries.
Some people argue that raising population in the third world countries to be the
crucial pollutant and it is essential to control it by all means.
People should look at environment as not only reserve of man but of all living
organism. So development has to sustain not only for man but also for all living
organisms.
True sustainable development
It aims at optimum use of natural resources with high degree of sustainity, minimum
wastage, least generation of toxic by-products and maximum productivity.
1. Inter-generational equity
We should minimize any adverse impacts on resources and environment for future
generation.
2. Intra-generational equity
Technological development of rich countries should support economic growth of poor
countries and lead to sustainability.
Dont use high quality energy to do a job that can be done with low quality energy.
Place more emphasis on pollution prevention and waste reduction.
Recycle and reuse as many of our waste products and resources possible.
Make more goods that last longer and easy to use, recycle and repair.
Depend on renewable source of energy, sun wind, biomass, flowing water, geo thermal
and tidal.
3

 Sustain Earths Biodiversity with emphasis on protecting vital habitats of the wild species.
Use potentially renewable resources such as wastes soil, plants, animals no faster than
they are renewed.
Increase the usage of non-renewable resources to minimize the resource depletion at a
faster rate.
Earth Degrading activities should be discouraged
Reduce poverty and rate of population growth

Measures for sustainable Development:

a) Using appropriate technology
It is one which is locally adaptable, ecofriendly efficient and culturally suitable. It
involves local labours, less resources and produces minimum waste, the Concept is Design
with Nature.
b) 3-R Approach
Reduce, Reuse and Recycle approach.
Reduce the usage and also reduce the wastage of resource by making things that last
longer and are easier to recycle, reuse and repair.
c) Promoting environmental education awareness
Environmental education will help in changing the thinking and attitude of people
towards environment.
d) Population stabilization
We can achieve sustainable development by controlling population.
4

e) Conservation of nonrenewable resources

It should be conserved by recycling and reusing.
f) Usage of renewable resources
Usage of renewable resources should not be faster than their regeneration capacity.

Sustainable development also looks at the equity between countries and continents, races
and classes, gender and ages. It includes social development and economic opportunity on one
hand and the requirements of environment on the other. It is based on improving the quality of
life for all, especially the poor and deprived within the carrying capacity of the supporting
ecosystems. It is a process which leads to a better quality of life while reducing the impact on the
environment. Its strength is that it acknowledges the interdependence of human needs and
environmental.
To ensure sustainable development, any activity that is expected to bring about economic
growth must also consider its environmental impacts so that it is more consistent with long term
growth and development. Many development projects, such as dams, mines, roads, industries
and tourism development, have severe environmental consequences that must be studied before
they are even begun. Thus for every project, in a strategy that looks at sustainable development,
there must be a scientifically and honestly done EIA, without which the project must not be
cleared. Large dams, major highways, mining, industry, etc. can seriously damage ecosystems
that support the ecological health of a region.
Forests are essential for maintaining renewable resources, reducing carbon dioxide levels
and maintaining oxygen levels in the earths atmosphere. Their loss impairs future human
development. Loss of forests depletes biodiversity which has to be preserved to maintain life on
earth. Major heavy industries if not planned carefully lead to environmental degradation due to
air and water pollution and generate enormous quantities of waste that lead to long term
5

environmental hazards. Toxic and Nuclear wastes can become serious economic problems as
getting rid of them is extremely costly.
In order to safeguard the existence of life and future of humanity, we have to change our
approach from unsustainable to sustainable development. A judicious balance between
developmental activities and environmental protection should be assured. It is possible only
trough sustainable development.
Urban problems related to energy use
With massive urbanization occurring on a global scale, the state of the environment and
human health in the cities of the world has become a prime concern. It is estimated that by the
year 2025, over five thousand million people will be living in the cities. In the developing
countries of the world, already more than 200 cities have populations of one million or more.
Living in cities has many positive benefits, such as increased job opportunities and better access
to essential services and facilities. However, many environmental, health and development
problems have reached near-crisis dimensions in cities all over the world. Urban growth has
exposed populations to serious environmental hazards and has outstripped the capacity of
municipal and local governments to provide even basic amenities (water, sanitation, power) and
essential health services. Millions of people in the urban areas of developing countries are living
under life- and health-threatening conditions. Cities have a significant impact on the broader
hinterland and global environment and the fate of cities will have a major influence on the fate of
nations and of the planet.
Poverty and health
Despite the unprecedented creation of wealth worldwide in the past two decades, the
number of people living in absolute poverty is growing steadily. Poverty remains the number

one killer, with the poor bearing a disproportionate share of the global burden of ill health. The
poor live in unsafe and overcrowded housing, often in semi-urban and urban slums, with
practically no access to safe water or to sewerage. These people are also exposed to pollution,
traffic and industrial and other risks at home, at work or in their communities, much more than
the wealthy people living in the same cities. They have insufficient food that too of poor quality
from the point of nutrition.
Energy consumption
Compared to the rural areas, people in towns and cities consume large amount of energy.
For example, the old type of Indian houses were made of wood, mud and unburnt bricks which
required very little temperature adjustments and consequently very little energy was required for
heating and cooling. The present buildings in towns and cities are mostly made of concrete,
cement, steel, aluminum, marble, well-burnt bricks and glass. These materials are energy
intensive and the houses made with them require a lot of power to keep them comfortable during
the winter and the summer and also for lighting and decoration. The process of manufacture of
these materials also consumes enormous amount of energy in different forms.
Urban problems related to energy
Cities are the main centers of Economic growth, trade, education, employment
Now ~50% population lives in Urban areas
Urban sprawl
Difficult to accommodate
Uncontrollable and unplanned growth
Densely populated, consume more resources, NEED MORE ENERGY
7

Energy demanding activities

Residential and Commercial lighting
Private and Public transport
Modern life style: electronic gadgets
Industries
Waste disposal
Prevention and Control of pollution
EFFECTs
Unequal distribution of energy
Power cuts and load shedding
Demand energy from other states
Overall society suffers
Economic development hampered

Lecture-2

Water Conservation

Water conservation encompasses the policies, strategies and activities to

manage fresh

water as

sustainable

resource,

to

protect

the

water

environment and to meet current and future human demand.

The goals of water conservation include:
Water is a vital resource.
Majority of water resources are polluted heavily
Its amount is limited for use
With deforestation surface runoff increases and the sub soil water
table drops as water has no time to seep slowly into the ground once
vegetation is cleared.
Deforestation and desertification leads to rapid surface flow of water
during the rains, which results in extensive floods with loss of life and
property.
So conservation is extremely important

Strategies
In implementing water conservation principles, there are a number of key
activities that may be beneficial.
Any beneficial reduction in water loss, use and waste of resources.
9

 Avoiding any damage to water quality.

Improving water management practices that reduce or enhance the
beneficial use of water.
Actions
Some researchers have suggested that water conservation efforts should
be primarily directed at farmers, in light of the fact that crop irrigation
accounts for 70% of the world's fresh water use.
Drip irrigation instead of sprinkle irrigation.
Common strategies include:

public outreach campaigns, tiered water

rates (charging progressively higher prices as water use increases), or

restrictions on outdoor water use such as lawn watering and car
washing.
House hold activities:
Low-flow shower heads sometimes called energy-efficient shower heads
as they also use less energy
Low-flush toilets and composting toilets
High-efficiency clothes washers
Weather-based irrigation controllers
Garden hose nozzles that shut off water when it is not being used,
instead of letting a hose run.
Low flow taps in wash basins
Swimming pool covers that reduce evaporation and can warm pool water
to reduce water, energy and chemical costs.

Rain water harvesting:

RAINWATER HARVESTING is a process involving collection and storage
of rain water (with the help of artificially designed system) that runs off
natural or man-made catchment areas e.g. roof top, compounds, rock

10

surface or hill slopes or artificially repaired impervious/semi-pervious

land surface.
Due to deforestation and the consequent ecological imbalance, the water
level beneath the ground is being depleted day by day. As known to all,
the constant rising demand of water supply, especially from the urban
areas does not match with the surface water sources, as a result of
which the water reserves beneath the ground level are overexploited. This
consequently results in the water level depletion
WHY RAIN WATER HARVESTING:
Rain water harvesting is essential because: Surface water is inadequate to meet our demand and we have to depend
on ground water.
Due to rapid urbanization, infiltration of rain water into the sub-soil has
decreased drastically and recharging of ground water has diminished.
RAIN WATER HARVESTING TECHNIQUES:
There are two main techniques of rain water harvestings.
1. Storage of rainwater on surface for future use.
2. Recharge to ground water.
The storage of rain water on surface is a traditional techniques and structures
used were underground tanks, ponds, check dams, weirs etc. Recharge to
ground water is a new concept of rain water harvesting and the structures
generally used are:Pits and trenches: - Recharge pits are constructed for recharging the shallow
aquifer. These are constructed 1 to 2 m, wide and to 3 m. deep which are back
filled with boulders, gravels, coarse sand.

11

Dug wells:- Existing dug wells may be utilised as recharge structure and water
should pass through filter media before putting into dug well.
Recharge wells and shafts:- Recharge wells of 100 to 300 mm. diameter are
generally constructed for recharging the deeper aquifers and water is passed
through filter media to avoid choking of recharge wells.
Lateral shafts with bore wells:- For recharging the upper as well as deeper
aquifers lateral shafts of 1.5 to 2 m. wide & 10 to 30 m. long depending upon
availability of water with one or two bore wells are constructed. The lateral
shafts is back filled with boulders, gravels & coarse sand.
Do's and Donts
Harvested rainwater is used for direct usage or for recharging aquifers. It is
most important to ensure that the rainwater caught is free from pollutants.
Following precautionary measures should be taken while harvesting
rainwater:

Roof or terraces uses for harvesting should be clean, free from dust, algal
plants etc.

Roof should not be painted since most paints contain toxic substances
and may peel off.

Do not store chemicals, rusting iron, manure or detergent on the roof.

Nesting of birds on the roof should be prevented.

Terraces should not be used for toilets either by human beings or by

pets.

Provide gratings at mouth of each drainpipe on terraces to trap leaves

debris and floating materials.

Provision of first rain separator should be made to flush off first rains.

Do not use polluted water to recharge ground water.

Ground water should only be recharged by rainwater.

Before recharging, suitable arrangements of filtering should be provided.

Filter media should be cleaned before every monsoon season.

12

During rainy season, the whole system (roof catchment, pipes, screens,
first flush, filters, tanks) should be checked before and after each rain
and preferably cleaned after every dry period exceeding a month.

At the end of the dry season and just before the first shower of rain is
anticipated, the storage tank should be scrubbed and flushed off all
sediments and debris.

WHY NEED TO PROTECT GROUND WATER?

There is more ground water than surface water

Ground water is less expensive and economic resource.

Ground water is sustainable and reliable source of water supply.
Ground water is relatively less vulnerable to pollution
Ground water is usually of high bacteriological purity.
Ground water is free of pathogenic organisms.
Ground water needs little treatment before use.
Ground water has no turbidity and colour.
Ground water has distinct health advantage as art alternative for lower
sanitary quality surface water.
Ground water is usually universally available.
Ground water resource can be instantly developed and used.
Ground water is key to life in arid and semi-arid regions.
Ground water is source of dry weather flow in rivers and streams.

Case study
The area surrounding the River Ruparel in Rajasthan, is an example
of proper water conservation. The site does not receive even half the
rainfall

received

by

Cherrapunji,

but

proper

management

and

conservation have meant that more water is available than in

Cherrapunji.
The water level in the river began declining due to extensive deforestation
and agricultural activities along the banks and, by the 1980s, a droughtlike situation began to spread.
Under the guidance of some NGOs (non-government organizations), the
women living in the area were encouraged to take the initiative in
building johads (round ponds) and dams to hold back rainwater.
13

 Gradually, water began coming back as proper methods of conserving

and harvesting rainwater were followed.
The revival of the river has transformed the ecology of the place and the
lives of the people living along its banks. Their relationship with their
natural environment has been strengthened.
Watershed management:
Concept of Watershed

Watershed is a geo hydrological unit or piece of land that drain at a

common point.

A watershed is defined as any spatial area from which rain or irrigation

water is collected and drained through a common point.

The watershed and drainage basin are synonymous term indicating an

area surrounded by a ridge line that is drained through a single outlet.

A watershed is simply the land that water flows across or through on its
way to a common stream, river, or lake.

A watershed can be very large (e.g. draining thousands of square miles

to a major river or lake or the ocean), or very small, such as a 20-acre
watershed that drains to a pond.

Objectives of watershed management

1. To control damaging runoff and degradation and thereby conservation of
soil and water.
2. To manage and utilize the runoff water for useful purpose.
3. To protect, conserve and improve the land of watershed for more
efficient and sustained production.
14

4. To protect and enhance the water resource originating in the watershed.

5. To check soil erosion and to reduce the effect of sediment yield on the
watershed.
6. To rehabilitate the deteriorating lands.
7. To moderate the floods peaks at down stream areas.
8. To increase infiltration of rainwater.
9. To improve and increase the production of timbers, fodder and wild life
resource.
10. To enhance the ground water recharge, wherever applicable.
Watershed management practices

Watershed management involves many techniques such as : Grassland

development, Gully Plugs, Tree plantation and contour trenching on hill
tops and slopes, Contour bunding, Water conservation structures, Lift
irrigation schemes, Land leveling etc.

Public participation and awareness

INTEGRATED WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT PROJECT

The Integrated Watershed Development Project (Hills-II) started in April

1999.

It has a budget of US$24.4 million and is being run by experts from

different line departments.

It is World Bank-funded and operated in Haryana, Jammu and Kashmir,

Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal.

15

One of its working areas lies in northeast Haryana in the most degraded
watersheds of the Siwalik hills and their adjoining piedmont plains. The
project area has been identified as one of Indias eight most degraded
rainfed agro-ecosystems.
Case Study: The Sukhomajri - Water Shed Management Project: A
Success Story of Participatory Approach

Sukhomajri, a small hamlet of about one hundred families with average

land holding of 0.57 ha, is located in the foothills of Shivaliks in
Panchkula district of Haryana.

In the year 1975, the continuing problem of silting of the prestigious

man-made Sukhna Lake in Chandigarh drew the attention of the Central
Soil and Water Conservation Research and Training Center, Chandigarh.

Sedimentation was caused by the erosion of the bare hill slopes caused
by over-grazing particularly by goats whose rearing had been the
traditional occupation of the Gujjars inhabiting the village.

To address the problem the Research Center applied soil conservation

techniques developed by comprising of mechanical and vegetative
measures.

This reduced the runoff sediment from the highly eroded Shivaliks at a
spectacular rate from eighty tonnes to less than one tonne per hectare,
within a short span of a decade.

The vegetative measures consisted of planting of tree species like khair

(Acacia catechu) and shisham (Dalbergia sissoo), in pits and bhabbar
grass (Eulaliopsis binata) at mounds of trenches, and also Agave
americana and Ipomea cornea, in critical areas to protect the soil against
erosion.

16

However, all these measures for containing the sediment in situ did not
succeed in the absence of the willing cooperation from the people of
Sukhomajri, who depended for their sustenance on the resources
available in the catchment area.

Hence, to promote agriculture and water availability in the area earthern

dams were constructed. This resulted in rain water harvesting & storage
which could be used by the villages for agriculture through out the year.

Villagers agreed to protect the hilly watersheds from grazing and illicit
cutting of vegetation and in turn, were allowed to cut grass to stall feed
their cattle and collect dry and dead wood or pruned branches for their
domestic fuel consumption.

As a result, the forest areas which had a desolate look in the beginning of
the project were covered with grass and trees within a period of 10 to 15
years. Grass production increased more than double in the same period
(from 3.82 t/ha to 7.72 t/ha).

17

Resettlement and Rehabilitation

Lecture-3

People are forced to move out of their land due to both natural and man-made
disasters. Natural disasters like earthquakes, cyclones, tsunami etc. render
thousands of people homeless and sometime even force them to move and
resettle in other areas. Similarly, developmental projects like construction of
roads, dams, canals and flyovers displace people form their home. You must all
be aware of the recent nuclear leakage in Japan due to which millions of people
were forced to leave the area for their safety. Thus, resettlement refers to the
process of settling again in a new area. Rehabilitation means restoration to the
former state.
Reasons for displacement of people
1. Natural disasters like earthquake, cyclones, tsunamis, volcanic
eruptions, prolonged droughts conditions, floods, hurricanes etc.
2. Man-made disasters like industrial accidents (e.g. Bhopal gas tragedy),
nuclear accidents (Current disaster in Japan), oil spills (Exxon Valdez oil
spill), toxic contamination of sites etc.
3. In search of better employment opportunities.
Developmental projects like:
4. Construction of dams, irrigation canals, reservoirs etc.
5. Infrastructural projects like flyovers, bridges, roads etc.
6. Transportation activities like roads, highway, canal etc.
7. Energy related project like power plants, oil exploration, mining
activities, pipelines like HBJ pipeline etc.
Agricultural projects
8. Projects related with the conservation of wildlife like national parks,
sanctuaries and biosphere reserves.

18

Resettlement issues
As per the World Bank estimates, nearly 10 lakh people are displaced
worldwide for a variety of reasons. I have tried to mention a few of the
sufferings that these people have to face but we are unable to feel for them:
Little or no support: Displacement mainly hits tribal and rural people
who usually do not figure in the priority list of any political authorities or
parties. Why do you think that the rural people have become the red
Robinhoods of today which are the Maoists?
Meager compensation: The compensation for the land lost is often not
paid, it is delayed or even if paid, is too small both in monetary terms
and social changes forced on them by these mega developmental
projects.
Loss of livelihood: Displacement is not a simple incident in the lives of
the displaced people. They have to leave their ancestral land and forests
on which they depend for their livelihood. Many of them have no skills to
take up another activity or pick up any other occupation. Usually, the
new land that is offered to them is of poor quality and the refugees are
unable to make a living.
Lack of facilities: When people are resettled in a new area, basic
infrastructure and amenities are not provided in that area. Very often,
temporary camps become permanent settlements. It is also a major
problem of displacement or resettlement that people have to face.

19

 Increase in stress: Resettlement disrupts the entire life of the people.

They are unable to bear the shocks of emptiness and purposelessness
created in their life. Payment of compensation to the head of the family
often lead to bitter quarrels over sharing of compensation amount within
the family, leading to stress and even withering of family life. Moreover,
land ownership has a certain prestige attached to it which cannot be
compensated for even after providing the new land. With the loss of
property and prestige, marriages of young people also become difficult as
people from outside villages are not willing to marry their daughters to
the refugees.
Increase in health problems: Lack of nutrition due to the loss of
agriculture and forest based livelihood, lead to the general decline in the
health of the people. People are used to traditional home remedies. But
th herbal remedies and plants gets submerged due to the developmental
projects.
Secondary displacement: Occupational groups residing outside the
submergence area but depending on the area for the livelihood also
experience unemployment. Village artisans, petty traders, laborers etc,
lose their living.
Loss of identity: Tribal life is community based. The tribal are simple
people who have a lifestyle of their own. Displacement have a negative
impact on their livelihood, culture and spiritual existence in the following
ways:
20

 Break up of families and communities are the important social issues of

displacement. The women suffer the most as they are deprived even a
little compensation.
Inter-community marriages, cultural functions, folk songs and dances do
not take place among the displaced people. When they are resettled, it is
generally individual based resettlement, which ignores communal
character.
Resettlement increases the poverty of the tribal due to the loss of land,
livelihood, food insecurity, jobs, skills etc.
Loss of identity of individuals and the loss of connection between the
people and the environment is the greatest loss in the process. The
indigenous knowledge that they have regarding the wildlife and the
herbal plants are lost.
The land acquisition laws do not pay attention to the idea of communal
ownership of property which increases stress within the family.
The tribal people are not familiar with the market trends, prices of
commodities and policies. As such, they are exploited and get alienated
in the modern era. My mother often says about the plight of people from
Nepal who came newly to the city of Gangtok. Earlier, when they
demanded four meters cloth piece, the shopkeeper used to measure the
same from all the four sides of the piece. Actually it was only one meter
in length but they used to charge the priced of four meter cloth.
Objectives of rehabilitation
The following objectives of rehabilitation should be kept in mind before
the people are given an alternative site for living:1.
21

 Tribal people should be allowed to live along the lives of their own
patterns and others should avoid imposing anything on them.
They should be provided means to develop their own traditional art and
culture in every way.
Villagers should be given the option of shifting out with others to enable
them to live a community based life.
Removal of poverty should be one of the objectives of rehabilitation.
The people displaced should get an appropriate share in the fruits of the
development.
Villagers

should

be

taken

into

confidence

at

every

stage

of

implementation of the displacement and they should be educated,

through public meetings, discussion about the legalities of the Land
Acquisition act and other rehabilitation provisions.
The elderly people of the village should be involved in the decision
making.
CASE STUDIES of resettlement and rehabilitation
1. Displacement due to dams
India has been constructing dams and other hydel projects.In the last 50
years, 20 million people have been affected by the construction of such
projects. The Hirakud dam displaced about 20000 people living in about 250
villages. The Bhakra Nangal dam was constructed around 1950's and
displaced a number of people. Some of them could not be rehabilitated even
today
2. Displacement due to mining
Due to possibility of the accidents or sinking of the land, people have to
displaced in and around the mining area. Mining take up several hectares of
land

thousands

of

people
22

have

to

be

evacuated.

Jharia coal fields posed a problem years ago to the local residents due to the
underground fire. Some 3 lakh people were to be shifted and it became a
problem to find n alternative site. A huge amount of money to the tune of Rs
115 crores has been spent to put out the fire. Still the problem persists.
3. Displacement in Japan due to nuclear crisis
You must all be aware of the current nuclear crisis in Japan where there
was an explosion in three of the major reactors of Fukushima city due to
tsunami. Currently, more than 2,00,000 people have been displaced form
their native place and yet many are unable to find an alternative home.
people were evacuated to protect them for the possible nuclear hazard and
exposure. They are suffering from acute hunger as all the food supply was
interrupted due to contamination of food particles by radiation.

23

Environmental Ethics

Lecture-4

If there is to be a war, let it be against environmental contamination, nuclear

contamination, chemical contamination of soil and water systems. The four
basic tents of biocentrism are:
Humans are members of Earths living community in the same way
and on the same terms as all other living things,
Humans and other species are inter-dependent,
Each organism is a unique individual pursuing its own way, and
Human beings are not inherently superior to other living things.
Three principles of ethical conduct are:
We should not harm any natural entity that has an intrinsic worth.
We should not try to manipulate, control, modify, manage or
interfere with the normal functioning of natural ecosystems, biotic
communities or individual wild organisms, and
We should not try to deceive or mislead any animal capable of
being deceived or misled.
CASE STUDY
Chipko movement
About 300 years ago, a ruler in Rajasthan decided to fell khejri trees in
his State to create lime. Local women led by a Bishnoi woman, Amrita Devi,
clung to the trees to prevent the felling of the trees that formed the basis of the
scarce resources on which they were dependent. The women were ruthlessly
24

massacred. It is said that the ruler later realised his mistake. The story
however has been remembered and was revived in the 1970s when severe tree
felling for timber in the Himalayas prompted local women, supported by people
such as Sunderlalji Bahuguna and Chandi Prasad Bhat, led a peoples
movement to prevent deforestation by timber contractors. They called their
movement the Chipko movement in memory of the event during which women
had clung to their trees and given up their lives. The movement followed the
path the 300 Bishnoi women had taken three centuries ago in Rajasthan.
Chipko is a movement primarily begun and supported by local women in
the hills of Uttarakhand and Garhwal, where the women have had to bear the
brunt of deforestation. They have not only realised that their fuel wood and
fodder resources have receded away from their resource use areas around
their settlements due to commercial timber extraction, but that this has led to
serious floods and loss of precious soil.
Chipko activists have made long padyatras across the Himalayas
protesting against deforestation. The movement has been highly successful and
has been primarily supported by empowering local womens groups who are the
most seriously affected segment of society by deforestation. The movement has
proved to the world that the forests of the hills are the life support systems of
local communities of immense value in terms of local produce that is essential
for the survival of local people and that the forest has less quantifiable
but even more important ecological services such as soil conservation and the
maintenance of the natural water regime of the whole region.
25

The ability of local women to band themselves together in the foothills of

the Himalayas goes back to the pre Independence days when women such as
Miraben, a disciple of Gandhiji, moved to this region and understood that it
was the deforestation that led to floods and devastation of villages in the valleys
and in the Gangetic plains below. They also appreciated that substitutions of
oak and other broadleaved forests of the Himalayas by planting fast growing
pine for timber and resin was an ecological and social disaster which reduced
the forest resources used by traditional hill communities.

26