Chapter 1 Matter, Measurement, and Problem Solving

1.1 Atoms and Molecules

Chemistry the science that seeks to understand the behaviour of matter by studying the
behaviour of atoms & molecules
Properties of matter are determined by the properties of molecules & atoms
o Atoms & molecules determine how matter behaves
If they are different, matter would be different
Ex. properties of water molecules determine how water behaves
Atoms submicroscopic particles that constitute the fundamental building blocks of ordinary
matter
Molecules two or more atoms joined in a specific geometrical arrangement
Properties of the substances around us depend on the atoms and molecules that compose them
o Details of how specific atoms bond to form a molecule & type of atoms in the molecule
o Ex. Properties of CO (g) depend on the properties of CO molecules
o CO (g) have the right properties that fit into cavities within hemoglobin molecules that are
normally reserved for O molecules
Too much CO (g) can lead to unconsciousness and even death
CO molecules can take place of oxygen
Reducing the amount of oxygen reaching the bodys tissues
Small amounts can result in headache, dizziness, weakness, and confused thinking
Hemoglobin a large protein molecule
Oxygen carrier in red blood cells
Each subunit contains an iron atom to which oxygen binds
o Any changes in molecules are likely to result in large changes in the properties of the
substances they compose
CO2(g) doesnt kill us extra oxygen
1.2 The Scientific Approach to Knowledge
Scientific knowledge is based on observation & experiment
o Some observations & experiments are qualitative (noting/describing how a process
happens), but many are quantitative (measuring/quantifying something about the
process)
o Observations often lead scientists to formulate a hypothesis (a tentative
interpretation/explanation of the observations)
A good hypothesis is falsifiable can be confirmed or refuted by further
observations
Test hypotheses by experiments (highly controlled procedure designed to
generate observations)
Results may support a hypothesis or prove it wrong
o Scientists must modify or discard the hypothesis
Series of similar observations can lead to the development of a scientific law
Brief statement that summarizes past observations & predicts future ones
Ex. Law of conservation of mass
o In a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed
Scientific laws describe how nature behaves often refer to them as
principles
o Generalizations of what nature does
One or more well-established hypotheses may form the basis for a scientific
theory
A model for the way nature is & tries to explain why the nature behaves
the way it does
Often predicting behaviour far beyond the observations/laws from which
they were developed
Ex. Atomic theory
o matter is composed of small, indestructible particles called atoms
o Over time, scientific community eliminates or corrects poor theories & laws, and good
theories & laws remain
1.3 The Classification of Matter
Matter anything that occupies space & has mass

Classified according to its state (its physical form) and its composition (the basic
components that make it up)
o Substance specific instance of matter (ex. air, water, or sand)
Can exist in 3 different states:
o Solid atoms/molecules pack close to each other in fixed locations
They vibrate
Has a fixed volume & rigid shape
May be crystalline atoms/molecules are in patterns with long-range, repeating
order (ex. diamond & table salt)
Or they may be amorphous atoms/molecules do not have long-range order (ex.
glass & plastic)
o Liquid atoms/molecules pack about as closely as they do in solid matter
Free to move relative to each other
Fixed volume but not a fixed shape
Takes shape of their container
(ex. water, alcohol, & gasoline at room temperature)
o Gas atoms/molecules have a lot of space between
Compressible
Free to move relative to one another
Takes the shape & volume of their container
(ex. helium, nitrogen, and CO2 at room temperature)
Classifying according to its composition
o First classification
Pure substance made up of only 1 component
Components can be individual atoms, or groups of atoms joined together
o Must always be exactly the same
o Does not vary from one sample to another
Elements substances that cannot be chemically broken down into
simple substances
o Ex. helium
Compounds substances composed of 2 or more elements in fixed &
definite proportion
o More common than pure elements on Earth
o Water, and table salt (NaCl)
Mixture composed of 2 or more components in proportions that can vary from
one sample to another
Heterogeneous composition varies from one region to another
o Atoms/molecules that compose them separate
o Ex. wet sand
Homogeneous same composition throughout
o Atoms/molecules that compose them mix uniformly
o Ex. sugar water
o

In general, mixtures are separable b/c different components have different physical/chemical
properties
o Decanting carefully pouring off
Ex. pouring the water into another container for a mixture of sand and water
o Distillation process in which the mixture is heated to boil off the more volatile (easily
vaporizable) liquid
Volatile liquid is then recondensed in a condenser & collected in a separate flask
Component with the lowest boiling point vaporizes first
o Filtration mixture is poured through filter paper in a funnel designed to pass only the
liquid
Mixture is composed of an insoluble solid & a liquid

1.4 Physical and Chemical Changes & Physical and Chemical Properties
Physical changes alter only state or appearance, but not composition
o Atoms/molecules that compose a substance do not change their identity
o Ex. water boiling changes its state from a liquid to a gas
o Physical property one that a substance displays wo/ changing its composition
Odour, taste, colour, appearance, MP, BP, and density
Chemical changes alter the composition of matter
o Atoms rearrange, transforming the original substances into different substances
o Ex. rusting of iron
Iron atoms combine with oxygen molecules from air to form iron oxide (rust)
o Chemical property one that a substance displaces only by changing its composition
via a chemical change
Corrosiveness, flammability, acidity, toxicity

1.5 Energy: A Fundamental Part of Physical & Chemical Change

Physical & chemical changes are usually accompanied by energy changes
o Ex. when water evaporates from your skin, water molecules absorb energy from your
body, making you feel cooler
Physical change
o Ex. when you burn natural gas on the stove, energy is released, heating the food you are
cooking
Chemical change
Energy capacity to do work
o Total energy of an object is a sum of its kinetic energy & potential energy
o Kinetic energy energy associated with its motion
Thermal energy energy associated with the temperature of an object
o Potential energy energy associated with its position or composition
o 1st principle
Law of conservation of energy
Energy is neither created nor destroyed
It can only change from one form to another
Total initial energy = total final energy
o 2nd principle
The tendency of systems with high potential energy to change in a way that
lowers their potential energy
Objects/systems with high PE tend to be unstable
o Ex. weight will naturally fall (lowering its PE), unless restrained
Can harness the high PE to do work lowers the PE become stable
Work the action of a force through a distance
1.6 The Units of Measurement
Units standard quantities used to specify measurements
o Critical in chemistry
o 2 common unit systems:
English system used in United States
Metric system used in most of the rest of the world
o Scientists use the International System of Units (S) based on the metric system
Mass of an object is a measure of the quantity of matter within it
Weight of an object is a measure of the gravitational pull on its matter
Temperature is a measure of the amount of average kinetic energy of the
atoms/molecules
Also determines the direction of thermal energy transfer heat
Transfer from hot objects to cold ones
F = English system
o Allows negative temperatures
C = metric system
o Allows negative temperatures
K = SI unit
o Avoids negative temperatures
o 0K = absolute zero
Which molecular motion virtually stops

Prefix multipliers multipliers that change the value of the unit by powers of 10
o When reporting a measurement, choose a prefix multiplier close to the size of the
quantity being measured

Derived unit combination of other units

o Ex. unit for speed = m/s
Volume measure of space
o Any unit of length when cubed
Density characteristic physical property of materials
o Differs from 1 substance to another
o Depends on temperature
Density of most substances as temperature
Increasing the temperature will expand the object
Mass remains constant so density decreases
o Intensive property independent of the amount of the substance
Often used to identify substances
o Mass is extensive property depends on the amount of the substance
1.7 The Reliability Measurement
More digits = more certainty
Fewer digits = less certainty
Scientific measurements are reported so that every digit is certain except the last, which is
estimated
o Assumed to be 1 in the last digit unless otherwise indicated
o Ex. reporting as 15.0 ppm, the scientists mean 15.00.1 ppm between 14.9 & 15.1
ppm
o Ex. reporting as 15 ppm, this would be 151 between 14 & 16 ppm
# of digits reported in a measurement depends on the measuring device

Significant figures non-place-holding digits

o Those that are not simply marking the decimal place
Ex. 0.0008 = 1 SD
Ex. 0.000800 = 3 SDs
o The greater the # of SF, the greater the certainty of the measurement
Exact numbers have no uncertainty
o Do not limit the # of SD in any calculation
Regard as having an unlimited # of SDs
o Ex. 3 atoms = 3.00000 atoms
1. In multiplication/division, the result carries the same # of significant figures as the factor with the
fewest significant figures

2. In addition/subtraction, the result carries the same # of decimal places as the quantity with the
fewest decimal places

3. When rounding to the correct # of SDs, round down if the last digit dropped is 4; round up if the
last digit dropped is 5

4. To avoid rounding errors in multistep calculations round only to the final answer do not round
intermediate steps. If you write down intermediate answers, keep track of SDs by underlining the
least significant digit

Scientists often repeat measurements several times to confidence in the result

2 different kinds of certainty:
o Accuracy refers to how close the measured value is to the actual value
o Precision refers to how close a series of measurements are to one another or how
reproducible they are
Series of measurements can be precise, but not accurate
o
Random error inconsistency inaccurate & imprecise
o Has equal probability of being too high/low
o Almost all measurement have some degree of random error
o Can average itself out with enough trials
Systematic error inaccurate & precise
o tends toward being either too high/low
o does not average out with repeated trials
1.8 Solving Chemical Problems
Dimensional analysis using units as a guide to solving problems

Conversion factor a fractional quantity with the units we are converting from on the bottom &
the units we are converting to on top
o Constructed from any 2 equivalent quantities

Chapter 2 Atoms and Elements

2.1 Imaging and Moving Individual Atoms
Scanning tunnelling microscopy (STM) a technique that can image & move individual atoms &
molecules
o Gerd Binnig & Heinrich Rohrer, March 16, 1981
o Works by moving an extremely sharp electrode (an electrical conductor) over a surface &
measuring the resulting tunnelling current
o Electrical current flows between the tip of the electrode & the surface even though the 2 are
not in physical contact
o Tunnelling current is extremely sensitive to distance
Possible to maintain a precise separation of approximately 2 atomic diameters
between tip & surface
Current is constant as long as the distance is constant
If current starts to a bit, the tip is moved up, away from the surface to the current

 If current starts to a bit, the tip is moved down towards the surface to the current
as the tip goes over an atom, the tip must move up to maintain constant current
Atom smallest identifiable unit of an element
o 91 different naturally occurring elements
o Over 20 synthetic elements (not found in nature) made my scientists
2.2 Early Ideas about the Building Blocks of Matter
Leucippus & Democritus proposed that:
o Matter were composed of small, indestructible particles(atoms)
o Many different kinds of atoms existed, each different in shape & size, and that they moved
randomly through empty space
Plato & Aristotle
o Matter had no smallest parts & that different substances were composed of various
proportions of fire, air, earth, & water
o No experimental way to test the idea
Nicolaus Copernicus
o Proposed that the sun, not Earth, was at the center of the universe
Marks the beginning of the scientific revolution
2.3 Modern Atomic Theory and the Laws That Led to It
3 most important laws that led to the development & acceptance of the atomic theory:
o Law of Conservation of Mass
Formulated by Antoine Lavoisier in 1789
in a chemical reaction, matter is neither created nor destroyed
Total mass of the substances involved in the reaction does not change
Mass of reactants = mass of product(s)
* particles rearrange during chemical rxn, but the amount of matter is conserved b/c
the particles themselves are indestructible
o Law of Definite Proportions
Proposed by Joseph Proust (1754 1826)
all samples of a given compound, regardless of their source or how they were
prepared, have the same proportions of their constituent elements
Applies to every compound
Applies to 2 or more samples of the sample compound
* compounds have definite proportions of their constituent elements b/c the atoms
that compose them, each with its own specific mass, occur in a definite ratio
o Law of Multiple Proportions
Published by John Dalton in 1804
when 2 elements (call them A & B) form 2 different compounds, the masses of
element B that combine with 1g of element A can be expressed as a ratio of small
whole numbers
Applies to 2 different compounds containing the same 2 elements (A & B)
Atomic Theory
o Explained the laws by John Dalton in 1808, which included the following concepts:
1. Each element is composed of tiny, indestructible particles called atoms
2. All atoms of a given element have the same mass & other properties that distinguish
them from the atoms of other elements
3. Atoms combine in simple, whole-number ratios to form compounds
4. Atoms of 1 element cannot change into atoms of another element. In a chemical rxn,
atoms only change the way that they are bound together with other atoms
o Matter is indeed composed of atoms
2.4 The Discovery of the Electron
Further experiments revealed that the atom itself was composed of even smaller, more
fundamental particles
Electrical charge fundamental property of some of the particles that compose atoms
o Results in attractive & repulsive forces electrostatic forces - between those particles
1. + & - electrical charges attract one another
2. + charges repel one another
3. - charges repel one another
4. + & - charges of exactly the same magnitude sum to zero when combined

o Electric field area around a charged particle where these forces exist
Millikans oil drop experiment
Charge = -1.60x10-19 C
Mass = 9.10x10-28 g
Charge of the electron is significant b/c it determines how strongly an atom holds its electrons
o If e- had a much smaller charge atoms will be held more loosely
o If e- had a greater charge atoms will be held more tightly
Could result in fewer compounds or maybe even none
2.5 The Structure of the Atom
Since atoms are neutrally charged, they must contain + charge that neutralizes the e J.J. Thomson e- were small particles held within a + charged sphere
o The raisin bread model
Raisins = e Bread = positively charged sphere
Radioactivity emission of small energetic particles from the core of certain unstable atoms
1. Alpha () particles
2. Beta () particles
3. Gamma () rays
Rutherford proposed the nuclear theory of the atom, with 3 basic parts
1. Most of the atoms mass & all of its + charge are contained in a small, dense core called the
nucleus
2. Most of the volume of the atom is empty space, throughout which tiny, - charged e- are
dispersed
3. There are as many charged e- outside the nucleus as there are + charged particles
(protons) within the nucleus, so that the atom is electrically neutral
H atoms contain 1 p+, and He atoms contain 2, yet H atom has only the mass of a helium atom
o Because the atom contains the previously unaccounted mass due to neutrons neutral
particles within the nucleus
Mass similar to that of a p+, but has no electrical charge
Ex. we can think of the e- that surround the nucleus in analogy to the water droplets that make up a
cloud
o Although their mass is almost negligibly small, they are dispersed over a very large volume
o Consequently, an atom, like a cloud, is mostly empty space
Matter appears solid b/c the variation in its density is on such a small scale that our eyes cannot
see it
2.6 Subatomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons in Atoms
All atoms are composed of the same subatomic particles protons, neutrons, and electrons
Atomic mass unit (amu) common unit to express the masses of subatomic particles
o 1/12 the mass of a carbon atom containing 6 p+ & 6 n 0
o Mass of p+ & n0 is approximately 1 amu

# of protons defines the element

Isotopes elements with the same # of protons but have different # of neutrons
During chemical changes, atoms can lose/gain e- & become charged particles = ions
o Cations positively charged
o Anions negatively charged
o Act very differently than the atoms from which they are formed
2.7 Finding Patterns: The Periodic Law and the Periodic Table
Periodic law
o When the elements are arranged in order of increasing mass, certain sets of properties recur
periodically
Listed in order of increasing atomic number
Metals good conductors of heat & electricity

o can be pounded into flat sheets (malleability)

o can be drawn into wires (ductility)
o are often shiny
o tend to lose electrons when they undergo chemical changes
Non-metals some are solids at room temperature, other are liquids or gases
o Poor conductors of heat and electricity
o Tend to gain e- when undergo chemical changes
Metalloids elements that lie along the zigzag diagonal line that divides metals & non-metals
o Exhibit mixed properties
o Semiconductors
Periodic table can also be divided into main-group elements & transition elements/metals
o Family/group each column within the main-group regions
Usually have similar properties
Alkali metals group 1A reactive metals
Alkaline earth metals group 2A fairly reactive metals
Halogens group 7A very reactive non-metals
2.8 Atomic Mass: The Average Mass of an Elements Atoms
Atomic mass average mass of the isotopes that compose that element
o Weighted according to the natural abundance of each isotope
o Atomic mass = (fraction of isotope n)(mass of isotope n)
Ex. Chlorine atomic mass = (0.7577)(34.97 amu) + (0.2423)(36.97) = 35.45 amu
Mass spectrometry measuring the masses of atoms & molecules & percent abundances of
isotopes of elements
1. Sample is injected into the instrument & vaporized
2. Vaporized atoms are then ionized by an e- beam
3. E- in the beam collide w/ the atoms, removing e- & creating + charged ions
4. Charged plates w/ slits in them accelerate the + charged ions into a magnetic field, which
deflects them
Amount of deflection depends on the mass of the ions
Lighter ions are deflected more than heavier ones
5. Ions strike a detector & produce an electrical signal that is recorded
6. Result is the separation of the atoms in the sample according to their
mass
Position of each peak on the x-axis indicates the mass of the
isotope that was ionized
Intensity (indicated by the height of the peak) indicates the
relative abundance of that isotope
Peaks are specific to the molecule
Can be used to identify an unknown molecule & to determine how much of it is present in a
particular sample

2.9 Molar Mass: Counting Atoms by Weighing Them

Atoms are counted by weighing them
o Far too small to count by any ordinary means
Mole the amount of material containing 6.02214x1023 particles
o 1 mol of particles = 6.02214x1023 particles
o Avogadros number
o ** the value of the mole is equal to the # of atoms in exactly 12g of pure C-12

12g C = 1 mol C atom = 6.02214x1023 C atoms

o Gives a relationship between mass & # of atoms
Molar mass mass of 1 mol of atoms of an element
o Equal to the elements atomic mass in amu
o g/mol

Chapter 3 Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Equations

Elements combine w/ each other to form compounds
o Each with its own specific properties
Life could not exist with just 91 different elements
3.1 Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Water
H2 is an explosive gas used as a fuel in the space shuttle

O2 is a inflammable gas as a natural component of the air on Earth

However, when H2 and O2 combine to form H2O, a dramatically different substance results

An entirely new substance results when 2 elements combine to form a compound

o Properties of compounds are generally very different from the properties of the elements
that compose them
Although some of the substances that we encounter in everyday life are elements, most are
compounds
Free atoms are rare on Earth
In a compound, elements combine in fixed, definite proportions
In a mixture, elements can mix in any proportions

3.2 Chemical Bonds

Compounds are composed of atoms held together by chemical bonds
o Result of interactions between the charged particles (e- & p+) that compose atoms
o Electrostatic forces are responsible for chemical bonding
Like charges repel & opposite charges attract
2 types of chemical bonds:
o Ionic bonds occur between metal & non-metals
Involve the transfer of e- from 1 atom to another
Metals have the tendency to lose eo Becomes a cation (+ charged ion)
Non-metals have a tendency to gain eo Becomes an anion (- charged ion)
Oppositely charged ions are then attracted to 1 another by electrostatic forces
Solid phase is composed of a lattice (regular 3D array) of alternating cations
& anions
o Covalent bonds occur between 2 or more non-metals
Involve the sharing of e- between 2 atoms
Shared e- interact with the nuclei of both atoms
Lowering the potential energy of the system through electrostatic interactions
Result is a molecular compound
Composed of individual covalently-bonded molecules
3.3 Representing Compounds: Chemical Formulas and Molecular Models
Chemical formula indicates the elements present in the compound & the relative # of
atoms/ions of each
o Quickest & easiest way to represent a compound

Normally list the more metallic (or more positively charged) elements first, followed by the
less metallic elements
o 3 types:
Empirical formula gives the relative # of atoms of each element in a compound
Lowest whole-number ratio
Ex. hydrogen peroxide = HO
Molecular formula gives the actual # of atoms of each element in a molecule of a
compound
Ex. hydrogen peroxide = H2O2
Whole-number multiple of the empirical formula
Indicates the number & type of each atom in he molecule
Structural formula uses lines to represent covalent bonds & shows how atoms in
a molecule are connected/bonded to each other
Ex. hydrogen peroxide = HOOH
Gives a sense of the molecules shape
Shows the different types of bonds that occur between molecules how
atoms are connected
o Single bond
1 shared e- pair
o Double bond
2 shared e- pair
Generally stronger & shorter than a single bond
o Triple bond
3 shared e- pair
Stronger & shorter than double bond
o Structural formula communicates the most information
o Empirical formula communicates the least
Molecular models
o Ball-and-stick models atoms = balls & chemical bonds = sticks
Balls are typically colour-coded to specific elements
Portrays the geometry of the molecule
Ex. the C atom sits in the center of a tetrahedron formed by the 4 H atoms
o Space-filling molecular models atoms fill the space between each other to more closely
represent best estimates for how a molecule might appear if scaled to a visible size
Gives the best sense of the relative sizes of the atoms & how they merge together in
bonding
The atoms that composed a molecule, the lengths of the bonds between atoms, the angles of the
bonds between atoms, & its overall shape determine the properties of the substance that the
molecule composes
o Change any of these details changes the properties
o
o

3.4 An Atomic-Level View of Elements and Compounds

Pure substances are either elements or compounds
o Subcategorize elements & compounds according to the basic units that compose them
o Elements may be:
Atomic elements exist in nature with single atoms as their basic units
Ex. helium is composed of helium atoms & iron is composed of iron atoms
Molecular elements exist as molecules 2 or more atoms of the element bonded
together
Most molecular elements exist as diatomic molecules
o Ex. hydrogen is composed of H2 molecules
Few exist as polyatomic molecules
o Ex. phosphorus exists as P4 & sulphur exists as S8
o Compounds may be:
Molecular compounds usually composed of 2 or more covalently bonded nonmetals
Basic units are molecules composed of the constituent atoms
Ionic compounds composed of cations & anions bound together by ionic bonds
Basic unit is the formula unit
o Smallest, electrically neutral collection of ions
o Different from molecules in that they do not exist as discrete entities,
but only as part of a larger lattice
o Ex. formula unit of sodium chloride is NaCl
Many common ionic compounds contain ions that are themselves composed
of a group of covalently bonded atoms w/ an overall charge
o Polyatomic ion an ion composed of 2 or more atoms
Ex. ClO-

3.5 Ionic Compounds: Formulas and Names

Ionic compounds are generally very stable b/c the attractions between cations & anions within ionic
compounds are strong, & b/c each ion interacts with several oppositely charged ions in the
crystalline lattice
Criss-crossing method for formula
Summarizing Ionic Compound Formulas:
1. Ionic compounds always contain + & - ions
2. In a chemical formula, the sum of the charges of the cations must equal the sum of the charges of
the anions
3. A formula reflects the smallest whole-number ratio of ions
Some ionic compounds have common names (Ex. sodium chloride = table salt)
However, chemists have developed systematic names
for different types of compounds
o Determined from its chemical formula
Ionic compounds can be categorized into 2 types,
depending on the metal in the compound
o 1st type contains a metal whose charge is invariant
from 1 compound to another
No need to be specified in the name of the
compound
Charges of these metals can be inferred from their group # in the periodic table

2nd type contains a metal w/ a charge that can be differ in different compounds
Are often transition metals
Can determine the charge of the metal cation by inference from the sum of the
charges of the non-metal anions
Sum of all the charges must be zero

ionic compounds that contain a polyatomic ion are named in the same way as other ionic
compounds, except that the name of the polyatomic ion is used whenever it occurs
o most polyatomic ions are oxyanions
anions containing oxygen & another element
one with more oxygen atom has the ending ate
one with few has the ending ite

hydrates ionic compounds containing a specific # of water molecules associated w/ each formula
unit
o Ex. MgSO4 7H2O = magnesium sulphate heptahydrate
o Waters of hydration can usually be removed by heating the compound
3.6 Molecular Compounds: Formulas and Names
Formula for a molecular compound cannot readily be determined from its constituent elements b/c
the same combination of elements may form many different molecular compounds
o Ex. nitrogen and oxygen form all of the following unique molecular compounds: NO, NO 2,
N2O, N2O3, N2O4, and N2O5
Like ionic compounds, many molecular compounds have common names (H2O and NH3 = water &
ammonia)
o Requires a systematic approach to naming them
First element is the more metal-like one (toward the left & bottom of the periodic
table)

Acids molecular compounds that release hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water
o Composed of hydrogen (usually written first in their formula) & one or more non-metals
(written second)
o Characterized by their sour taste & ability to dissolve many metals
o Binary acids composed of hydrogen & a non-metal

Ex. HCl (aq) = hydrochloric acid

Oxyacids contain hydrogen & an oxyanion/polyatomic ions (anion containing a non-metal
& oxygen)
# of H+ ions depends on the charge of the oxyanion
Formula is always charge-neutral
Name of oxyacids depend on the ending of he oxyanion

3.7 Formula Mass and the Mole Concept for Compounds

Formula mass average mass of a molecule (or a formula unit) of a compound
o Molecular mass/weight
o Sum of the atomic masses of all the atoms in its chemical formula

o Equivalent to molar mass of a compound

3.8 Composition of Compounds
A chemical formula, in combination w/ the molar masses of its constituent elements, indicates the
relative quantities of each element in a compound
Mass percent composition method to express how much an element is in a given compound in
percentage

Mass percent of element X =

mass of element X 1 mol of compound

mass of 1 mol of the compound

X 100%

Conversion factor between mass of the element and mass of the compound
Ex. 58.64% of Cl in CCl2F2 = 58.64g Cl : 100g CCl2F2
o Conversion factor between moles of atoms and moles of molecules
Ex. 1 mol CCl2F2 : 2 mol Cl
3.9 Determining a Chemical Formula from Experimental Data
Calculate a chemical formula from mass percent composition
o Obtains an empirical formula only
o

To get a molecular formula, molar mass of the compound is required

Molecular formula = empirical formula x n, where n = 1, 2, 3,

3.10

3.11

n=

molar mass
empirical formula molar mass

combustion analysis another common way of obtaining empirical formulas for unknown
compounds
o especially those containing C and H
1. unknown compound undergoes combustion in the presence of pure oxygen
2. when the sample is burned, all of the C in the sample is converted to CO 2, and all of the H is
converted to H2O
3. CO2 and H2O produced are weighed
4. Determine the amounts of C and H in the original sample using numerical relationships
between moles
5. Any other elemental constituents (O, Cl, or N) can be determined by subtracting the original
mass of the sample from the sum of the masses of C & H
Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
Chemical reaction 1 or more substances are converted into 1 or more different ones
o Compounds form & change
o Combustion reaction particular type of chemical reaction
A substance combines w/ oxygen to form 1 or more oxygen-containing compounds
Emit heat
o Represented by a chemical equation
Reactants substances on the left side of the equation
Products substances on the right side
Add coefficients to balance the chemical equation
Mass conservation law
# of atoms on the right = # of atoms on the left
Organic Compounds
2 types of compounds:
o Organic originate from living things
Composed of C and H and a few other elements (N, O, S)
C is the key element
Ex. Sugar from sugarcane/sugar beet
Easily decomposed
Major components of living organisms
Hydrocarbons organic compounds that contain only C & H
Main components of most fuels (gasoline, oil, & natural gas)
Alkanes hydrocarbons containing only single bonds
Alkenes containing only double bonds

Alkynes containing only triple bonds

Functionalized Hydrocarbons hydrocarbons containing a functional group (a

characteristic atom or group of atoms)
Ex. alcohol functional group = -OH
Hydrocarbon portion of the molecule is represented as R
o R OH
Family group of organic compounds with the same functional group
Inorganic originate from the Earth
Ex. salt mined from the ground/ocean
Typically more difficult to decompose

Have different properties

Chapter 4 Chemical Quantities and Aqueous Reactions

The amount of product formed in a chemical reaction is related to the amount of reactant that
reacts
4.1 Global warming and the Combustion of Fossil Fuels
Greenhouse gas allows sunlight to enter the atmosphere & warm Earths surface
o Prevent some of the heat generated by the sunlight from escaping
Balancing between incoming & outgoing energy from the sun determines Earths average
temperature
If greenhouse gases were not present, more heat energy would escape, & Earths average
temperature would be colder than it is now
If the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere were to , Earths average temperature
would rise
4.2 Reaction Stoichiometry: How Much Carbon Dioxide?

Stoichiometry numerical relationships between chemical amounts in a balanced chemical

equation
o Allows to predict the amounts of products that will form in a chemical rxn based on the
amounts of reactants that react
o Allows to determine the amount of reactions necessary to form a given amount of product

o
o

16 moles of CO2 are produced for every 2 moles of octane burned

Ex. how many moles of CO2 will form if we burn 22.0 moles of C8H18?

4.3 Limiting Reactant, Theoretical Yield, and Percent Yield

Limiting reactant reactant that limits the amount of product in a chemical reaction
o Produces the least amount of product
o Completely consumed in a chemical rxn
Reactant in excess - reactant that do not limit the amount of product
o Occurs in a greater quantity than is required to completely react with the limiting reactant
Theoretical yield amount of product that can be made in a chemical reaction based on the
amount of limiting reactant
Actual yield amount of product actually produced by a chemical reaction
o Always equal or less than the theoretical yield
Small amount of product is usually lost to other rxns or does not form during a rxn
Percent yield - percentage of the theoretical yield that was actually attained
o

% yield =

actual yield
theoretical yield

X 100%

Convert masses to amounts in moles

4.4 Solution Concentration and Solution Stoichiometry
Solution a homogeneous mixture of 2 substances
o Ex. salt & water
o Aqueous solution water acts as the solvent
o Dilute solution contains small amount of solute relative to the solvent
o Concentrated solution large amount of solute relative to the solvent
Solvent majority component of the mixture
Solute minority component
Molarity (M) common way to express solution concentration
o

M=

amount of solute( mol)

volume of solution( L)

Laboratories often store solutions in concentrated formed called stock solutions

o To save space in storerooms
o

Concentration =

mole
volume

M1V1 = M2V2
For solving dilution problems
# of moles of solute does not change when diluting a solution

4.5 Types of Aqueous Solutions and Solubility

When a solid is put into a liquid solvent, the attractive forces that
hold the solid together (the solute-solute interactions) come into
competition w/ the attractive forces between the solvent molecules
& the particles that compose the solid (the solvent-solute
interactions)
Electrolytes substances that dissolve in water to form solutions that conduct electricity

Ex. salt ionic compound

Dissociate into their component ions when dissolved in water
Dissolved ions act as charge carriers
allowing the solution to conduct
electricity
o Strong electrolytes substances that
completely dissociate into ions
Resulting solutions are strong electrolyte
solutions
Strong acid completely ionizes in
solution
HCl (aq) hydrochloric acid
Represent complete ionization w/ a single rxn arrow between the acid & its ionized
form
o Weak electrolytes substances that dissociate partially into ions
Weak acid do not completely ionize in water
CH3COOH (aq) acetic acid
Composed mostly of the non-ionized acid
Only a small % of acid molecules ionize
Represent w/ reverse arrows
Conduct electricity only weakly
Non-electrolyte compounds that do not dissociate into ions when dissolved in water
o Ex. sugar molecular compound
Sugar solution is composed of intact C12H22O11 molecules homogeneously mixed w/
the water molecules
o Most molecular compounds (except acids) dissolve in water as intact molecules
o Resulting solutions (non-electrolyte solutions) do not conduct electricity
o
o
o

Not all ionic compounds dissolve in water

o Soluble if a compound dissolves in water
o Insoluble if it does not dissolve
Forms precipitation
4.6 Precipitation Reactions
Precipitation reactions forms precipitate (solid) when mix 2 solutions
Only insoluble compounds form precipitates
4.7 Representing Aqueous Reactions: Molecular, Ionic, and Complete Ionic Equations
Molecular equation shows the complete neutral formulas for each compound in the reaction as
if they existed as molecules
o Ex. Pb(NO3)2 (aq) + 2KCl (aq) PbCl2 (s) + 2KNO3 (aq)
o However, in actual solutions of soluble ionic compounds, dissolved substances are present
as ions
Complete ionic equations list all the ions present as either reactants/products in a chemical
reaction
o Ex. Pb2+ (aq) + 2NO3- (aq) + 2K+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq) PbCl2 (s) + 2K+ (aq) + 2NO3- (aq)

o Spectator ions ions in solution appear unchanged on both sides of the equation
Net ionic equations show only the species that actually change during the reaction
o Without spectator ions
o Ex. Pb2+ (aq) + 2Cl- (aq) PbCl2 (s)
4.8 AcidBase and Gas-Evolution Reactions
Acid-base reaction an acid reacts w/ a base & neutralize each other, producing water (or in
some cases a weak electrolyte)
o AKA neutralization reaction
o Arrhenius definitions
Acid substance that produces H+ ions in (aq) solution
H+ ions normally associate w/ water molecule to form hydronium ions
o H+ (aq) + H2O H3O+ (aq)
Polyprotic acids contain more than 1 ionizable proton & release them
sequentially
o Ex. H2SO4 is a diprotic acid

Base substance that produce OH- ions in (aq) solution

Some bases such as Sr(OH)2 produce 2 moles of OH- per mole of the base

Antacids employ different bases as neutralizing agents

When an acid & a base is mixed, the H+ (aq) combines with the OH- (aq) to form H2O (l)
Acid-base rxns generally form water and salt that usually remains dissolved in the solution
Titration a substance in a solution of known concentration is reacted w/ another
substance in a solution of unknown concentration
Equivalent point the point when the # of moles of OH- equals the # of moles of H+
in solution
Typically signalled by an indicator (a dye whose colour depends on the
acidity/basicity of the solution)
Gas-evolution reaction 2 aq solutions mix to form a gaseous product that bubbles out of
solution
o Many are also acid-base rxns
When cation of one reactant combines with the anion of the other
o Often form an intermediate product that then decomposes to form a gas
o
o
o
o

Ex.
4.9 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
Oxidation-reduction reactions e- transfer from one reactant to another
o AKA redox reactions
Combustion rxn is one type of redox rxn
o Ex. metal (loses e-) reacts with a non-metal (gains e-)
o Oxidation loss of electrons (LEO)
Increase in oxidation state
o Reduction gain of electrons (GER)
Decrease in oxidation state
o Transfer of e- need not to be a complete transfer (as occurs in the formation of an ionic
compound) for the rxn to qualify as redox rxn
o Oxidation state/number a charge given to each atom based on the electron
assignment
To keep tract of e- before & after a rxn
Ex. H has an oxidation state of +1 & Cl has an oxidation state of -1
Different from ionic charges (1+ & 1-)

Use to identify redox reactions

o
o

C changes from an oxidation state of 0 to an oxidation state of +4

o C loses e- & is oxidized
S changes from an oxidation state of 0 to -2
o S gains e- & is reduced
Oxidation & reduction must occur together
Oxidizing agent substance that causes the oxidation of another substance
Oxidizing agent is always reduced
Ex. oxygen
Reducing agent substance that cause the reduction of another substance
Reducing agent is always oxideized
Ex. hydrogen

Chapter 5 Gases
5.1 Breathing: Putting Pressure to Work

Pressure force exerted per unit area by gas molecules as they strike the surfaces around them

Bodys ability to create pressure differences to move air into & out of the lungs
Total pressure exerted by a gas depends on several factors

The higher the concentration = the greater the pressure

The greater the volume = the lower the pressure

Concentration

How the lungs work:

o When exhale, the chest cavity muscles relax which the lung volume = the pressure & forcing air
back out
o When inhale, the chest cavity muscle expands which lung volume = the pressure & gaseous
molecules flow into lungs
5.2 Pressure: The Result of Molecular Collisions

Variation in pressure in Earths atmosphere creates wind

Changes in pressure help us to predict weather

o
o

force
area

Pressure =

F
A

The fewer the gas particles = the lower the pressure

Pressure with altitude

Imbalance pressure within ear cavities when at a higher altitude

o external pressure drops while internal pressure remains the same
o greater internal pressure forces eardrum to bulge outward causing pain

pressure can be measured in several different units:

o mmHg (millimetre of mercury) measurement originates from a barometer

unit of mmHg is often called torr

1 mmHg = 1 torr
o Atm (atmosphere) average pressure at sea level

1 atm = 760 mmHg

o Pa (pascal) SI unit of pressure

1 Pa = 1 N/m2

1 atm = 101,325 Pa
o in Hg (inches of mercury)

1 atm = 29.92 in Hg
o psi (pounds per square inch)

1 atm = 14.7 psi

Manometer U-shaped tube containing a dense liquid (usually

mercury) to measure the pressure of a gas sample in the laboratory
o One end of the tube is open to atmospheric pressure
o Other end is attached to a flask containing the gas sample
o Mercury levels on both sides of the tube will be the same if
the pressure of the gas sample = atmospheric pressure
o Mercury level is higher on opened side if the pressure of the
sample > atmospheric pressure
o Mercury level is higher on the closed side if the pressure of
sample < atmospheric pressure
5.3 The Simple Gas Laws: Boyles Law, Charless Law, & Avogadros Law

4 basic properties of a gas sample:

o Pressure (P)
o Volume (V)
o Temperature (T)
o Amount in moles (n)
o These properties are interrelated

When one changes, it affects the others

Boyles Law inverse relationship between volume & pressure

o An of 1 results in a of the other

If the volume of gas sample , the same # of gas particles is crowded into a smaller volume,
resulting in a more collisions w/ the walls & in the pressure
o

1
p

(constant T & n)

V = (constant) x

PV = constant

1
p

P1V1 = constant = P2V2

P1V1 = P2V2

As long as the temperature & the amount of gas are constant

Charless Law linear proportional relationship between volume & temperature
o An of 1 results in a of the other with a same factor

When the temperature of a gas sample , the gas particles move faster; collisions w/ the walls
are more frequent, & the force exerted w/ each collision is greater

Only way for the pressure to remain constant is for the gas to occupy a larger volume, so that
collisions become less frequent & occur over a larger area

Ex. when air is heated, its volume , resulting in a lower density

2nd floor of a house is usually warmer than the ground floor

Hot-air balloon floats in the colder, denser surrounding air

o VT
(constant P and n)

V = (constant) x T

V
T

V1
T1

= constant

V2
T2

As long as the pressure & the amount of gas are constant

If linearly related lines between volume & temperature on a graph is extended/extrapolated backwards
from the lowest measured temperature, it shows absolute zero

Gas will have a zero volume at -273.15C

Coldest possible temperature

Gas with negative volume is impossible

Avogadros Law direct proportional relationship between volume & amount of gas
o in amount of gas results in a of volume
o V n (constant T and P)
o

v1
n1

v2
n2

As long as the pressure & temperature of the gas are constant

Gay-Lussacs Law direct relationship between pressure & temperature
o As the temperature , the pressure
o PT

As long as the amount of gas and volume is fixed

5.4 The Ideal Gas Law

Combination of Boyles law, Charless law, & Avogadros law

PV = nRT

1
p

nT
P

V=

nRT
P

,VT,Vn

Ideal gas constant R= 0.08206

L atm
mol K

Quantities in the ideal gas law must be expressed in the units within R

Pressure (p) in atm

Volume (V) in L

Moles (n) in mol

Temperature (T) in K
5.5 Applications of the Ideal Gas Law: Molar Volume, Density, and Molar Mass of a Gas

Molecular volume volume occupied by 1 mole of a substance

o Molar volume of an ideal gas under standard temperature (273K) and pressure (1 atm) = 22.4L
o

molar mass
molar volume

Density =
o
o

Under standard conditions

Density of a gas is directly proportional to its molar mass

Greater the molar mass of a gas = more dense the gas

molar mass lower than that of air tends to rise

n=

PV = nRT

m
M

m
V

d=

n
V

P
RT

d=

PM
RT

Derived

Density as molar mass

Molar mass can be calculated to determine an unknown gas
o

m
M

PV = nRT PV =

RT M =

mRT
PV

5.6 Mixtures of Gases & Partial Pressures

Many gas samples exist as mixtures of gases

o Ex. air is a mixture of nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide & a few other gases in trace amount
o Each type of gas is independent of the other gases in the mixture

Partial pressure (Pn) pressure of individual component in a gas mixture

o Can be calculated using ideal gas law by assuming that each gas component acts independently

Ex. Pa = na

RT
V

; Pb = nb

; Pc = nc

RT
V

Daltons law of partial pressures - sum of the partial pressures of the components in a gas mixture must
equal the total pressure
o Ptotal = Pa + Pb + Pc +
= na

RT
V

+ nb

RT
V

= (na + nb + nc + )

= (ntotal)

RT
V

Pa
Ptotal

Pa = aPtotal

+ nc

Mole fraction (a) =

RT
V

RT
V
RT
)
V
RT
ntotal(
)
V
na (

RT
V

na
ntotal

na
ntotal

o Equivalent to its percent by volume divided by 100%

When the desired product of a chemical rxn is a gas, its often collected by the displacement of water
5.7 Gases in Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry Revisited

Ex. use the conversion factors to determine the mass of product obtained in a chemical rxn based on a given
mass of reactant
o Conversion factor between amounts (in moles) of each comes from the stoichiometric coefficients in
the balanced chemical equation

Use the ideal gas law to determine the amounts in moles from the volumes, or vice versa
5.8 Kinetic Molecular Theory: A Model for Gases

Kinetic molecular theory models gas as a collection of particles (either molecules/atoms, depending on
the gas) in constant motion
o A single particle moves in a straight line until it collides with another particles (or with the wall of the
container)
o Basic assumptions of kinetic molecular theory are
1. The size of a particle is negligibly small

Assumes that the particles themselves occupy no volume, even though they have
mass
o Space between atoms/molecules in a gas is very large compared to the size of
an atom/molecule itself under normal pressures
2. The average kinetic energy of a particle is proportional to the temperature in Kelvins

Motion of atoms/molecules in a gas is due to thermal energy (distributed among the

particles in the gas)

At any given moment, some particles are moving faster than others (there is a
distribution of velocities)

The higher the temperature, the faster the overall motion the greater the average
KE

KE T
o The atoms in a sample of He & a sample of argon at the same temperature
have the same average kinetic energy

Not the same average velocity

Since He atoms are lighter, they must move faster to have the
same KE as argon atom
3. The collision of 1 particle with another (or with the walls of its container) is completely elastic

When 2 particles collide, they may exchange energy, but there is no overall loss of
energy
o Any KE lost by one particle is completely gained by the other

Completely elastic = particles have no stickiness & they are not deformed by the
collision
o Particles do not exert an forces on one another between collisions
o Ex. billiard balls
Ideal gas law can be mathematically derived from kinetic molecular theory
o ideal gas law follows directly from KE theory

Boyles Law force the gas to occupy a smaller space if volume is

# of collisions with the surrounding surfaces must necessarily , resulting in a

greater pressure

As long as the temperature remains the same

1
P

Charless Law average speed (average KE) as temperature

Greater KE results in more frequent collision P

o Only way for pressure to remain constant = volume

VT

Avogardros Law # of collisions with the surrounding surfaces as the # of particles

Greater # of collisions = greater the pressure

o For pressure to remain constant, volume must

Vn

Daltons Law total pressure of a gas mixture is the sum of the partial pressures of its
components

Particles have negligible size & they do not interact

Mass is the only property that would distinguish one type of particle from another

Particles with different masses have the same average kinetic energy at a given
temperature
o exerting the same amount of force upon collision with a surface
o same amount of pressure

Adding different kinds of gases has the same effect as simply adding more particles
o ** PAGE 208 for derivation **
5.9 Mean Free Path, Diffusion, & Effusion of Gases

Although gases particles travel at tremendous speeds, they also travel in haphazard paths
o Molecule travels only a short distance before it collides with another molecule, changes direction, only
to collide again, etc

A molecule in the air experiences several billion collisions per second

Mean free path average distance that a molecule travels between collisions

Increases with decreasing pressure

Diffusion process by which gas molecules spread out in response to a concentration gradient
o Root mean square velocity influences the rate of diffusion

Heavier molecules diffuse slowly than lighter ones

first molecules we smell are the lighter ones

Effusion process by which gas escapes from a container into a vacuum through a small hole
o rate of effusion also depends on root mean square velocity

heavier molecules effuse more slowly than lighter ones

o rate of effusion is inversely proportional to the square root of the molar mass of the gas

rate

1
M

Grahams law of effusion ratio of effusion rates of 2 different gases

ratea
rateb

Mb
Ma

Ex. explains why He balloons only float for a day or so

He escapes from the balloon quite quickly since it has a low molar mass

Air-filled balloon will remain inflated longer

5.10 Real Gases: The Effects of Size & Intermolecular Forces

Gases behave ideally when:

1. The volume of the gas particles is small compared to the space between them

Size of gas particles becomes important at high pressure

at low pressure, molar volume of a gas is nearly identical to that of an ideal gas

at high pressure, molar volume becomes greater than that of an ideal gas

volume of the particles themselves occupy a significant portion of the total gas volume
2. The forces between the gas particles are not significant

Intermolecular forces attractions between the atoms/molecules that compose any

substance

Typically small in gases

o do not matter how much at low pressure b/c the molecules are too far apart
to feel the force
o Do not matter much at high temperatures b/c he molecules have a lot of KE

When 2 particles with high KE collide, a weak attraction between them

doesnt affect the collision much

Ex. if 2 billiard balls collide at high velocity, the stickiness will not
have much effect

Ex. if the 2 billiard balls might stick together and not bounce off one
another at low velocity

At high temperature, pressure of a gas is nearly identical to that of an ideal gas

At low temperature, the pressure of the gas is less than that of an ideal gas

Gas atoms will spend more time interacting w/ each other & less time colliding with the
walls
o These assumptions are valid for most common gases at STP

But assumptions break down at higher pressure or lower temperatures

Van der Waals equation combines the effects of particle volume & particle intermolecular forces to
describe non-ideal gas behaviour

[P + a(

n
v

)2] x [V nb] = nRT

1 mol of an ideal gas

Chapter 9 Chemical Bonding I: Lewis Theory

Chemical bonding is at the heart of chemistry
3 theories:
o Lewis Theory simple model of chemical bonding
Used dots, dashes, and chemical symbols
o Valence bond theory a chemical bond is the overlap of 2 orbitals that together contain two
electrons
treats e- in a more quantum-mechanical manner
o Molecular orbital theory essentially a full quantum-mechanical treatment of the molecule &
its e- as a whole
Has great predictive power, but at the expense of great complexity & intensive
computational requirements
9.1 Bonding Models & AIDS Drugs
X-ray crystallography a technique in which X-rays are scattered from crystals of the molecule of
interest
o To determine the structure of HIV-protease (protein synthesized by HIV)
This particular protein is crucial to the viruss ability to multiply & cause AIDS
Wo/ HIV-protease, HIV cannot spread in the human body b/c the virus cannot
replicate AIDS cant develop
pharmaceutical companies create a molecule that would disable HIV-protease by
inhibiting its active site
Bonding theories models to predict how atoms bond together to form molecules
Explain why some combinations of atoms are stable & others are not
Predict the shape of molecules
o Determine many of the physical & chemical properties of compounds
In this case, its used to stimulate the shape of potential molecules & how
they would interact with the protease molecule

Lewis theory valence e- are represented as dots

o Lewis structure predict molecules
o Simplest model for making quick, everyday predictions about most molecules
o Predict whether a particular set of atoms will form a stable molecule or not
o Predict what the molecule might look like
9.2 Types of Chemical Bonds
Wo/ bonding, there would be just 91 different kinds of naturally occurring elements
o Life would be impossible
Chemical bonds form b/c they lower the potential energy between the charged particles that
compose atoms
3 types of chemical bonds:
o Ionic transfer of an e- from metal to non-metal
Metal becomes a cation
Non-metal becomes an anion
Lowering their overall PE when attrated
o Covalent sharing of e- between non-metals
b/c non-metals have high IE (their e- are relatively difficult to remove)
shared e- interact with the nuclei of both of the bonding atoms
lowering their PE
o Metallic occurs in metals
Metals have low IE (tend to lose e- easily)
Electron sea all of the atoms in a metal lattice pool their valence e Pooled e- are no longer localized on a single atom, but delocalized over the
entire metal
+ charged metal atoms are then attracted to the sea of e-, holding the metal
together

9.3 Representing Valence Electrons with Dots

Lewis structure represents valence e- as dots surrounding the symbol for that element
o With a max. of 2 dots per side
o
o Octet rule stable configuration of 8 e- in the outermost shell
o Predicts compounds
9.4 Ionic Bonding: Lewis Structures & Lattice Energies

o
o
o

Transfer of e- gives Cl an octet & leaves K wo/ any valence e- but w/ an octet in the previous
principal energy level
K becomes + charged (cation)
Cl becomes charged (anion)
Lewis structure of an anion is usually written within brackets with charge in the upper
right-hand corner, outside

o 2 Na atoms each lose their 1 valence eo S atom gains 2 e- & forms an octet
Formation of an ionic compound from its constituent elements is usually quite exothermic
o Energy comes from the crystal lattice
o Lattice energy the energy associated with forming a crystalline lattice of alternating
cations & anions from the gaseous ions
Ex. Na & Cl bond together to lower the PE
Energy is emitted as heat when the lattice forms
Born-Haber cycle hypothetical series of steps that represents the formation of
ionic compound from its constituent elements
Easiest way to calculate lattice energy
Enthalpy of each step is known except for the last one, which is the lattice
energy
Change in enthalpy for the overall process is also known
Enthalpy change for the unknown last step can be determined using Hesss
law
Hf = Hstep 1 + Hstep 2 + Hstep 3 + Hstep 4 + Hstep 5
Hlattice = Hstep 5 = Hf (Hstep 1 + Hstep 2 + Hstep 3 + Hstep 4 )
Lattice energies become less exothermic (less negative) with ionic radius
As the ionic radii as we move down the column, the ions cannot get as close
to each other & therefore do not release as much energy when the lattice
forms
Lattice energies become more exothermic (more negative) with magnitude of ionic
charge
9.5 Covalent Bonding: Lewis Structures
Sharing some (or all) of their valence e- in order to attain octets

Bonding pair a shared pair of e Often represented by a dash to emphasize that it constitutes a
chemical bond
o Lone pair e- not involved in bonding
AKA nonbonding electrons
Double bond when 2 e- pairs are shared between 2 atoms
o Shorter & stronger than single bonds
Triple bond sharing of 3 e- pairs between 2 atoms
o Shorter & stronger than double bonds
Intermolecular forces bonding interactions between molecules
o

o Weaker
o Overcome this relatively weak force for a substance to boil
Intramolecular forces bonding interactions within a molecules
o stronger
9.6 Electronegativity & Bond Polarity
1 limitation to the Lewis structure of representing e- as dots & covalent bonds as 2 dots shared
between 2 atoms is that the shared e- always appear to be equally shared
o Not always true
o Ex. hydrogen fluoride H side of the molecule have a slight + charge & F side has a slight
charge
E- density is greater on the F atom than on the H atom
e- in HF is unequally shared in reality
Electronegativity ability of an atom to attract e- to itself in a chemical bond (which results in
polar & ionic bonds)
o Ex. F is more electronegative than H b/c it takes a greater share of the e- density in HF
1. Generally across a period in the periodic table
2. Generally down a column
3. Fluorine is the most electronegative element
4. Francium is the least electronegative element (sometimes called the most electropositive)
o Inversely related to atomic size
The larger the atom, the less ability it has to attract e- to itself in a chemical bond
Degree of polarity in a chemical bond depends on the electronegativity difference (EN) between 2
bonding elements
o The greater the EN, the more polar the bond
o Purely covalent equally shared e If 2 elements with identical
electronegativities form a covalent bond
Molecules = nonpolar
o Polar covalent bond between a pure covalent
bond & an ionic bond
- & + poles
o ionic bond complete transfer of e9.7 Lewis Structures of Molecular Compounds & Polyatomic Ions
writing Lewis structures for molecular compounds
1. write the correct skeletal structure for the molecule
hydrogen atoms are always terminal (at the end)
central atoms must form at least 2 bonds
put the more electronegative elements in the terminal position & the less
electronegative (other than H) in the centre
2. calculate the total number of e- for the Lewis structure by summing the valence e- of each
atom in the molecule
3. distribute the e- among the atoms, giving octets (or duets in the case of H) to as many
atoms as possible
begin by placing 2 e- between every 2 atoms
then distribute the remaining e- as lone pairs
first to the terminal atoms
then to the central atom
4. if any atoms lack an octet, form double/triple bonds as necessary to give them octets
writing Lewis structure for polyatomic ions
o follows the same procedure
charge of the ion must be considered when calculating the total # of e- for a
polyatomic ion
add 1 e- for each charge & subtract 1 e- for each + charge
o usually written within brackets with the charge of the ion in the upper right-hand corner,
outside the bracket
9.8 Resonance & Formal Charge
2 additional concepts to write the best possible Lewis structures for a large # of compounds
Resonance when 2 or more valid Lewis structures can be drawn for the same compound

o
o
o

Molecule exists as an average of the 2 Lewis structures

Bonds are equivalent & each is intermediate in strength & length
Resonance structures method of representing the molecule with both structures, with a
double-headed arrow between them
Same skeletal formula, but different e- arrangement

Resonance hybrid actual structure of the molecule

intermediated between 2 or more resonance structures
Only structure that actually exists
E- are localized either on the atom (lone pair) or between atoms (bonding
pair) in Lewis structure
E- are delocalized over several atoms/bonds in nature
o Resonance stabilization stabilizes the structure by lowering their
PE
Formal charge fictitious charge assigned to each atom in a Lewis structure that helps to
distinguish among competing Lewis structures
o The charge it would have if all bonding e- were shared equally between the bonded atoms
Calculated charge for an atom if we completely ignore the effects of electronegativity
o Formal charge = # of valence electrons (# of nonbonding electrons + # of bonding
electrons)
Ex. formal charge for H in HF = 1 [0 + (2)] = 0
Ex. formal charge for F in HF = 7 [6 + (2)] = 0
1. Sum of all formal charges in a neutral molecule must be zero
2. Sum of all formal charges in an ion must equal to the charge of the ion
3. Small (or zero) formal charges on individual atoms are better than large ones
4. When formal charge cannot be avoided, negative formal charge should reside on the most
electronegative atom
9.9 Exceptions to the Octet Rule: Odd-Electron Species, Incomplete Octets, and Expanded
Octets
Octet rule in Lewis theory has some exceptions
1. Odd-electron species
Molecules/ions with an odd # of electrons called free radicals (simply radicals)
Tend to be somewhat unstable & reactive
Ex. nitrogen monoxide has 11 e React with oxygen in the air to form NO2 (17 e-)
o React with water to form nitric acid
2. Incomplete octets
Molecules/ions with fewer than 8 e- around an atom
3. Expanded octets
Molecules/ions with more than 8 e- around an atom
Often for elements in the 3rd row of the periodic table &
beyond of up to 12 (& occasionally 14) e b/c the d orbitals in these elements are
energetically accessible & can accommodate the extra electrons
never occur in 2nd period elements
9.10 Bond Energies & Bond Lengths
bond energy energy required to break 1 mole of the bond in the gas phase
o used when standard enthalpies of formation are not available for all of the reactants &
products of a rxn
estimate enthalpy changes of rxn
o Always positive
b/c it always takes energy to break a bond
o compounds with stronger bonds tend to be more chemically stable than compounds with
weak bonds
less chemically reactive
o Particular type of bond can have different bond energies in different molecules
Calculate an average bond energy for a chemical bond
Found in a table
o

 Depend on the kind of atom & type of bond (single/double/triple)

Hrxn = (Hs bonds broken) + (Hs bonds formed)
A rxn is exothermic when weak bonds break & strong bonds form
A rxn is endothermic when strong bonds break & weak bonds form
o Breaking a chemical bonds always require energy
o Forming a chemical bond always releases energy
Bond length average length of a bond between 2 particular atoms in a large # of compounds
o Depend on the kind of atoms involved in the bond & type of bond (single/double/triple)
o Triple bond is shorter than double bond
o Double bond is shorter than single bond
o As the bond gets longer, it also becomes weaker
Triple bond is stronger than double bond
Double bond is stronger than single bond
9.11 Bonding in Metals: The Electron Sea Model
Metallic bonding occur between metals
o Each metal atom donates 1 or more e- to an electron sea when bond together to form a solid
Ex. each sodium atom donates its 1 valence e- to the sea and becomes a sodium
ion
Held together by their attraction to the sea of e metals conduct electricity
E- in a metal are free to move
Movement/flow of e- in response to an electric potential (voltage) is an electric
current
Excellent conductors of heat
Mobile e- help to disperse thermal energy throughout the metal
Accounts for the malleability of metals
Capacity to be pounded into sheets
No localized or specific bonds in a metal it can be deformed relatively
easily by forcing the metal ions to slide past one another
Accounts for the ductility of metals
Capacity to be drawn into wires
o

25% short answer

75%
20-25 exam 1
20-25 exam 2
30-60 exam 3 + new
Exam 1
Building block of atoms
Proton
Newton
Electron istopes
Moles
Empiralnformula
Percent compostion
Mass data
Combustion
Carbon always co2 g
Hydrogen h20 l
Balancing equation
Stoichemistry
Nimenculture
Yield
Actual in grams
Theoretical

Molarity
Lewis structure
Group number
Valence elctron
Valence shell expansion
More than 4 atoms
Nomenclature t 3-6 atom
Electronic
Molecular geometry

Exam 2
Chemical reaction
Solubility problems
Acid base
Antihydrztes
Redox
Oxidation number
Covalent bonding
Assign
Proportion same species oxidizated and reduced
Vander waals
Phase

Exam 3 uili
Molarity
Molarity