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Pakistan Machine Tool Factory (Pvt) Ltd. (PMTF)

is aprecision engineering goods manufacturing enterprise inPakistan, established in technical
collaboration with M/s.Oerlikon Buhrle & Co. of Switzerland who are the world'srenowned
manufacturers of Machine Tools. The factory cameinto regular production in 1971.It is located Off
National Highway, about 35 Km from KarachiCity near Landhi Industrial Estate and spread over an area
of 226 acres out of which 17 acres are occupied by works. Thefactory employs about 1900 engineers,
technician, workersand other service staff. The layout of the factory is accordingto the best European
standards. This factory is a unit of StateEngineering Corporation of Pakistan and is engaged in
theproduction of Machine Tools, Automotive Transmissions andAxles Components, Gears for
Locomotives, Pressure Die Castparts and other products.
PMTF
has rich experience in Designing and Manufacturing of precision engineering goods and its facilities
includeDesigning, Machining, Forging, Heat Treatment, Assembly, DieCasting etc.
PMTF
is certified to ISO 9001.Quality Assurance System andhas excellent Quality Control and Testing facilities
to meet theinternational quality requirement.

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Departments Introduction:

Design Centre

Machining

Tool Room

Material Testing

Heat Treating

Forging

Machine Tool Rebuilding

Design Centre:
Computer Aided Design & Manufacturing (CAD/CAM) facilitiesare installed for Product Design and
Tools/Jigs/Fixtures Designand CNC Shop in 1990. Engineering software from Computervision (USA) and
Autodesk namely:- CADDS 5- Design View- Personal Designer- Personal Designer/Personal MachinistMicro draft- Personal Data Extract- Mechanical Desktop power pack (with Auto Cad)are used for design
of products, tools, jigs, fixtures, cutters,forging & die casting dies, gears, equipments,
mechanicaldevices.

Machining:
The works facility consists of variety of conventional and CNCmachine tools capable of performing
various machiningoperations such as turning, planning, milling, drilling, jigboring, thread grinding, deep
hole drilling, gear hobbling

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shaping and shaving, gear grinding, spiral bevel gear cutting,broaching to the close tolerances specified
in the design. Themaximum machining capabilities are as follows:
Turning
: Max. 1000 mm dia x 4000 mm length x 800 kgwt.
Shaping/Planning
: Max. 6000 mm length x 1500 mm width x 2000kg wt.
Boring/Drilling
: Max. 600 mm dia/50 mm dia max.

Gear Cutting
: 10 module x 700 mm dia max.
Grinding
: Max. 400 mm dia x 2500 mm length x 500 kg wt.
Pressure DieCasting
: Max 650 ton locking force x 12 kg wt.
Besides above facilities special purpose machines areavailable for die-sinking, spark erosion, thread
grinding, jigboring, spine rolling, vertical turning, copy milling for intricateprecision components.

Tool Room:
The factory has a fully equipped Tool Room facility capable of manufacturing jigs & fixtures,
special tools like drills, gauges,cutters and holding devices, special high precision machinetools like jig
boring, thread grinding, die sinking, relievinglathes, vertical copying lathes, precision milling machines
andspecial purpose tool grinding of Swiss and German originsupplements the facility and ensures that all
specificationsand tolerances essential for tool room accuracy is met. The Tool Room is linked with Tool
Design Section fully equippedwith computer Aided Design facilities and supported byMetrology section
located in same area for precise calibrationand control of tool room products. All
recommendedinternational standards are followed for toolings.

Material Testing:
a. Metallographic:
Complete Evaluation of :Macro and Micro StructureNon - Metallic Inclusion & segregationCase
Hardening and Case DepthPhoto Micrograph of StructureFailure Analysis
b. Mechanical Testing:
Facilities to determine:Mechanical PropertiesStress - Strain Tensile and Compressive StrengthShear and
Impact Test
c. Chemical Testing:

Complete Analysis of:Metals and AlloysFerrous and Non Ferrous ElementsPaints, Chemicals, Ores, Oils
Greases etc
d. Non-Destructive Testing:
Determination of:Internal Cracks by Ultrasonic TestingSurface Cracks by Magnaflux and DyePenetration

Heat Treatment:
The Heat Treatment shop is the largest and the most wellequipped in the country. The equipment is of
French, Germanand Italian origin. The Facilities has
- For Carburizing and Case Hardening :Five Sealed Quench Furnaces Three Gas Fired Pit-type Muffle
Furnaces Two Rotary Hearth Furnaces with Quenching PressElectrically Heated Tempering FurnaceFor
Induction Hardening:Three High Frequency and Medium Frequency InductionHardening MachinesFor
Surface Hardening:Flame Hardening MachineFor Hardening High Speed Steel:Salt Bath
FurnacesHydraulic Presses, Shot Blasting Machines, Sand BlastingPlant are available for post-heat
treatment process.

Forging:
The Forging shop is equipped with two drop hammers of 3000kg and 1500 kg Pneumatic hammers of
600 kg and 300 kg, Trimming press of 320 tons and 1000 tons, Friction ScrewPress of 480 tons, Heating
of stock for forging is done in rotaryhearth furnace. Furnace car-bottom type is installed fornormalizing
the forged components. Removal of scales is donein Tumbler & Table type shot blasting machines. The
forgeshop is capable of production of forgings up to 20 kg and 200mm in diameter.

Machine Rebuilding:
Machine Rebuilding is a comparatively new technology in theindustrially developed countries. It should
not be mixed withmachine tool repair and maintenance and overhaul. The main

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characteristic of Machine Rebuilding are:
- The rebuilt machine has same performance andaccuracy as a new machine.- The warranty period is
same as for a new one.- Cost of Rebuilding is one-third of the price of newequivalent machine.PMTF

has

established this machine rebuilding facility in1994 with the assistance of UNIDO experts from UK and
sincethen has undertaken the rebuilding activity with targetedoutput set for 10 to 12 machines per
annum.
Quality Control:
Inspection and Testing is carried out according to proceduresestablished for ISO 9001 Quality Assurance
System. Theinspection activities are backed up with the facility forcalibration of measuring and testing
devices.
PMTF Products range includes:
MACHINE TOOLS:
1- Heavy duty & light duty Milling Machines(Horizontal,Universal & Vertical)2- Vertical Copying Milling &
Boring Machines3- Turret Milling Machine4- Precision Centre Lathes5- Universal Radial Drilling Machine
(Portable)6- Pantograph Engraving Machine7- Special Purpose Machine Tools8- Manual Arbor Press
TRANSMISSION:
1- Gear and Shafts for Agriculture Tractors like MasseyFerguson (MF 240, MF 375),and Fiat

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(Fiat 480, Fiat 640).2- Traction Gears and Pinions for Locomotives3- Gears for various Industrial
applications4- Components for Bedford Trucks & Buses etc.
DIE CAST COMPONENTS:
1- Aluminum Pressure Die Cast components for HondaMotorcycle Model CD 70 & CG 125, and Suzuki
Motorcycle;Model A80.2- Aluminum Pressure Die Cast components for DomesticAppliances3- Aluminum
Pressure Die Cast components of Gas Meter forGas distribution industries.4- Aluminum Pressure Die
Cast components for Suzuki CarModel SB 308
TEXTILE MACHINERY:
1- Ring Spinning Frame Model FA 506

MISCELLANEOUS:

1- Gears for various Industrial Applications.2- Spares for various plants/machinery.3- Machines /
Equipments as per customer's design /requirement.

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Topics Covered:
N C & CNC
Numerical control
(
NC
) refers to the automation of machinetoolsthat are operated by abstractly programmed
commandsencoded on a storage medium, as opposed to manuallycontrolled via hand wheels or levers
or mechanicallyautomated via cams alone. The first NC machines were builtin the 1940s and 50s, based
on existing tools that weremodified with motors that moved the controls to follow pointsfed into the
system on paper tape. These earlyservomechanisms were rapidly augmented with analog anddigital
computers, creating the modern
ComputerNumerical Controlled
(
CNC
) machine tools that haverevolutionized the design process.In modern CNC systems, end-to-end
component design ishighly automated usingCAD/CAMprograms. The programsproduce a computer file
that is interpreted to extract thecommands needed to operate a particular machine, and thenloaded
into the CNC machines for production. Since anyparticular component might require the use of
a number of different tools - drills, saws, etc. - modern machines oftencombine multiple tools into a
single "cell". In other cases, anumber of different machines are used with an externalcontroller and
human or robotic operators that move thecomponent from machine to machine. In either
case thecomplex series of steps needed to produce any part is highlyautomated and produces a part
that closely matches theoriginal CAD design

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Earlier forms of automation:
Cams
The automation of machine tool control began in the 1800swithcamsthat "played" a machine tool in
the way that camshad long been playingmusical boxesor operating elaboratecuckoo clocks. Thomas
Blanchardbuilt his gun-stock-copyinglathes (1820s-30s), and the work of people such asChristopher
Miner Spencerdeveloped theturret latheinto thescrew machine(1870s). Cam-based automation had
alreadyreached a highly advanced state byWorld War I(1910s).However, automation via cams is
fundamentally different fromnumerical control because it cannot be abstractlyprogrammed. There is no
direct connection between thedesign being produced and the machining steps needed tocreate it. Cams
can encode information, but getting theinformation from the abstract level of anengineering
drawing into the cam is a manual process that requires sculptingand/ormachiningandfiling. At least two
forms of abstractlyprogrammable control had existed during the 1800s: those of the Jacquard loomand
of mechanical computerspioneered byCharles Babbageand others. These developments had
thepotential forconvergencewith the automation of machine toolcontrol starting in that century, but the
convergence did nothappen until many decades later.
Tracer control:
The application of hydraulicsto cam-based automationresulted in tracing machines that used a stylus
to trace atemplate, such as the enormousPratt & Whitney "KellerMachine", which could copy templates
several feet across.
[1]
Another approach was "record and playback", pioneered atGeneral Motors(GM) in the 1950s, which
used a storagesystem to record the movements of a human machinist, andthen play them back on
demand. Analogous systems arecommon even today, notably the "teaching lathe" which gives

4
new machinists a hands-on feel for the process. None of thesewere numerically programmable,
however, and required amaster machinist at some point in the process, because the"programming" was
physical rather than numerical.
Servos and selsyns:
One barrier to complete automation was the requiredtolerances of the machining process, which are
routinely onthe order of thousandths of an inch. Although it would berelatively easy to connect some
sort of control to a storagedevice like punch cards, ensuring that the controls weremoved to the correct
position with the required accuracy wasanother issue. The movement of the tool resulted in
varyingforces on the controls that would mean a linear output wouldnot result in linear motion of the
tool. The key development inthis area was the introduction of theservo, which producedhighly
accurate measurement information. Attaching twoservos together produced a selsyns, where a remote
servo'smotions was accurately matched by another. Using a varietyof mechanical or electrical systems,
the output of the selsynscould be read to ensure proper movement had occurred. The first serious
suggestion that selsyns could be used formachining control was made by Ernst F. W. Alexanderson,
aSwedish immigrant to the U.S. working atGeneral Electric (GE). Alexanderson had worked on the
problem of torqueamplification that allowed the small output of amechanicalcomputerto drive very
large motors, which GE used as part of a largergun layingsystem forUS Navyships. Like machining,gun
lying requires very high accuracies, less than a degree,and the motion of the gun turrets was non-linear.
In November1931 Alexanderson suggested to the Industrial EngineeringDepartment that the same
systems could be used to drive theinputs of machine tools, allowing it to follow the outline of atemplate

without the strong physical contact needed byexisting tools like the Keller Machine. He stated that it
was a

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"matter of straight engineering development." However, theconcept was ahead of its time from a
business developmentperspective, and GE did not take the matter seriously untilyears later, when
others had pioneered the field.
Parsons and the invention of NC:
The birth of NC is generally credited to John T. Parsons,

amachinist and salesman at his father's machining company,Parsons Corp. In 1942 he was told
thathelicopterswere goingto be the "next big thing" by the former head of Ford Trimotor production,
Bill Stout. He calledSikorsky Aircraftto inquireabout possible work, and soon got a contract to build
thewooden stringers in the rotor blades. After setting upproduction at a disused furniture factory and
ramping upproduction, one of the blades failed and it was traced to thespar. As at least some of the
problem appeared to stem fromspot welding a metal collar on the stringer to the metal spar,so Parsons
suggested a new method of attaching the stringersto the spar using adhesives, never before tried on an
aircraftdesign.But that development led to Parsons to wondering about thepossibility of using stamped
metal stringers instead of wood,which would be much easier to make and stronger too. Thestringers for
the rotors were built to a design provided bySikorsky, which was sent to them as a series of 17
pointsdefining the outline. Parsons then had to "fill in" the dots withaFrench curveto generate an
outline they could use as atemplate to build the jigs for the wooden versions. But how tomake a tool
able to cut metal with that shape was a muchharder problem. Parsons went to visit Wright Field to see
FrankStulen, who was the head of the Rotary Ring Branch at the

4
Propeller lab. Stulen concluded that Parsons didn't really knowwhat he was talking about, and realizing
this, Parsons hiredhim on the spot. Stulen started work on 1 April 1946 and hiredthree new engineers to
join him.Stulen's brother worked at Curtis Wright Propeller, andmentioned that they were usingpunch
cardcalculators forengineering calculations. Stulen decided to adopt the idea torun stress calculations on
the rotors, the first detailedautomated calculations on helicopter rotors. When Parsonssaw what Stulen
was doing with the punch card machines, heasked him if they could be used to generate an outline
with200 points instead of the 17 they were given, and offset eachpoint by the radius of the cutting tool
on a mill. If you cut ateach of those points, it would produce a relatively accuratecutout of the stringer
even in hard steel, and it could easily befiled down to a smooth shape. The resulting tool would beuseful
as a template for stamping metal stringers. Stulen hadno problem doing this, and used the points to
make largetables of numbers that would be taken onto the machine floor.Here, one operator read the
numbers off the charts to twoother operators, one each on the X and Y axis, and they wouldmove the
cutting head to that point and make a cut. This wascalled the "by-the-numbers method".At that point
Parsons conceived of a fully automated tool. Withenough points no manual working would be needed at
all, butwith manual operation the time saved by having the partmore closely match the outline
was offset by the time neededto move the controls. If the machine's inputs were attacheddirectly to the
card reader this delay, and any associatedmanual errors, would be removed and the number of
pointscould be dramatically increased. Such a machine couldrepeatedly punch out perfectly accurate
templates oncommand. But at the time he had no funds to develop theseideas.When one of Parsons
Salesmen was on a visit to Wright Field,he was told of the problems the newly-formedUS Air Force

was having with new jet designs. He asked if Parsons hadanything to help to them. Parsons
showedLockheedtheir ideaof an automated mill, but they were uninterested. They hadalready decided
to use 5-axis template copiers to produce thestringers, cutting from a metal template, and had ordered
theexpensive cutting machine already. But as Parsons noted:Now just picture the situation for a minute.
Lockheed hadcontracted to design a machine to make these wings. Thismachine had five axes of cutter
movement, and each of thesewas tracer controlled using a template. Nobody was using mymethod of
making templates, so just imagine what chancethey were going to have of making an accurate airfoil
shapewith inaccurate templates. Parsons worries soon came true, and in 1949 the Air Forcearranged
funding for Parsons to build his machines on hisown. Early work with Snyder Machine & Tool Corp
proved thatthe system of directly driving the controls from motors failedto have the accuracy needed to
set the machine for aperfectly smooth cut. Since the mechanical controls did notrespond in a linear
fashion, you couldn't simply drive it with acertain amount of power, because the differing forces
wouldmean the same amount of power would not always producethe same amount of motion in the
controls. No matter howmany points you included, the outline would still be rough.
Enter MIT:
This was not an impossible problem to solve, but wouldrequire some sort of feedback system, like a
selsyn, to directlymeasure how far the controls had actually turned. Faced withthe daunting task of
building such a system, in the spring of 1949 Parsons turned to theMIT Servomechanisms Laboratory,a
world leader in mechanical computing and feedback

4
systems. During the war the Lab had built a number of complex motor-driven devices like the motorized
gun turretsystems for theB-29and the automatic tracking system fortheSCR-584radar. They were
naturally suited to building aprototype of Parsons' automated "by-the-numbers" machine. The MIT team
was led by William Pease assisted by JamesMcDonough. They quickly concluded that Parsons'
designcould be greatly improved; if the machine did not simply cut
at
points A and B, but instead moved smoothly
between
thepoints, then not only would it make a perfectly smooth cut,but could do so with many fewer points the mill could cutlines directly instead of having to define a large number of cutting points to "simulate"
it. A three-way agreement wasarranged between Parsons', MIT and the Air Force, and theproject
officially ran from July 1949 to June 1950. The contractcalled for the construction of two "Card-a-matic
MillingMachines, a prototype and a production system. Both to behanded to Parsons for attachment to

one of their mills in orderto develop a deliverable system for cutting stringers.Instead, in 1950 MIT
bought a surplusCincinnati MillingMachine Company"Hydro-Tel" mill of their own and arrangeda new
contract directly with the Air Force that froze Parsonsout of further development. Parsons would later
comment thathe " never dreamed that anybody as reputable as MIT woulddeliberately go ahead and
take over my project." In spite of the development being handed to MIT, Parsons filed for apatent on
"Motor Controlled Apparatus for Positioning Machine Tool" on 5 May 1952, sparking a filing by MIT for a
"NumericalControl Servo-System" on 14 August 1952. Parsons' receivedUS Patent 2,820,187on 14
January 1958, and the companysold an exclusive license toBendix.IBM,FujitsuandGeneralElectricall took
sub-licenses after having already starteddevelopment of their own devices.

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MIT's machine:
MIT fit gears to the various hand wheel inputs and drove themwithroller chainsconnected to motors,
one for each of themachine's three axes (X, Y and depth). The associatedcontroller consisted of five
refrigerator-sized cabinets that,together, were almost as large as the mill they wereconnected to. Three
of the cabinets contained the motorcontrollers, one controller for each motor, the other two thedigital
reading system. Unlike Parsons' original punch card design, the MIT designused standard 7-trackpunch
tapefor input. Three of thetracks were used to control the different axes of the machine,while the
other four encoded various control information. Thetape was read in a cabinet that also housed sixrelaybasedhardware registers, two for each axis. With every readoperation the previously read point was
copied into the"starting point" register, and the newly read one into the"ending point". The tape was
read continually and the numberin the register increased until a "stop" instruction, four holesin a line,
was encountered. The final cabinet held a clock that sent pulses through theregisters, compared them,
and generated output pulses thatinterpolated between the points. For instance, if the pointswere far
apart the output would have pulses with every clockcycle, whereas closely spaced points would only
generatepulses after multiple clock cycles. The pulses are sent into asumming register in the motor
controllers, counting up by thenumber of pulses every time they were received. Thesumming registers
were connected to adigital to analog

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convertorthat output increasing power to the motors as thecount in the registers increased. The
registers were decremented by encoders attached to themotors and the mill itself, which would reduce
the count byone for every one degree of rotation. Once the second pointwas reached the pulses from
the clock would stop, and themotors would eventually drive the mill to the encodedposition. Each 1

degree rotation of the controls produced a0.0005 inch movement of the cutting head.. The
programmercould control the speed of the cut by selecting points thatwere closer together for slow
movements, or further apart forrapid ones. The system was publicly demonstrated in September
1952,appearing in that month's
Scientific American
. MIT's systemwas an outstanding success by any technical measure, quicklymaking any complex cut
with extremely high accuracy thatcould not easily be duplicated by hand. However, the systemwas
terribly complex, including 250vacuum tubes, 175 relaysand numerous moving parts, reducing its
reliability in aproduction setting. It was also very expensive, the total billpresented to the Air Force was
$360,000.14, $2,641,727.63 in2005 dollars. Between 1952 and 1956 the system was used tomill a
number of one-off designs for various aviation firms, inorder to study their potential economic impact.
Proliferation of NC:
The Air Force funding for the project ran out in 1953, butdevelopment was picked up by the Giddings
and LewisMachine Tool Co. In 1955 many of the MIT team left to formConcord Controls, a commercial
NC company with Giddings'backing, producing theNumericordcontroller. Numericord wassimilar to the
MIT design, but replaced the punch tape with amagnetic tapereader thatGeneral Electricwas working
on. The tape contained a number of signals of different phases,

4
which directly encoded the angle of the various controls. Thetape was played at a constant speed in the
controller, whichset its half of the selsyns to the encoded angles while theremote side was attached to
the machine controls. Designswere still encoded on paper tape, but the tapes weretransferred to a
reader/writer that converted them intomagnetic form. The magtapes could then be used on any of the
machines on the floor, where the controllers were greatlyreduced in complexity. Developed to produce
highly accuratedies for an aircraft skinning press, the Numericord "NC5" wentinto operation at G&L's
plant atFond du Lac, WIin 1955.Monarch Machine Tool also developed an NC-controlled lathe,starting in
1952. They demonstrated their machine at the1955 Chicago Machine Tool Show, along with a number
of other vendors with punch card or paper tape machines thatwere either fully developed or in
prototype form. Theseincluded Kearney & Trekkers Milwaukee-Matic II that couldchange its cutting tool
under NC control. A Boeing report noted that "numerical control has proved itcan reduce costs, reduce
lead times, improve quality, reducetooling and increase productivity. In spite of thesedevelopments,
and glowing reviews from the few users,uptake of NC was relatively slow. As Parsons later noted: The
NC concept was so strange to manufacturers, and so slowto catch on, that the US Army itself finally had
to build 120 NCmachines and lease them to various manufacturers to beginpopularizing its use. In 1958
the MIT published its report on the economics of NC. They concluded that the tools were competitive
with humanoperators, but simply moved the time from the machining tothe creation of the tapes. In

Forces of production
Noble claimsthat this was the whole point as far as the Air Force wasconcerned; moving the process off
of the highly unionized

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factory floor and into the un-unionizedwhite collardesignoffice.
CNC arrives:
Many of the commands for the experimental parts wereprogrammed "by hand" to produce thepunch
tapesthat wereused as input. While the system was being experimentedwith, John Runyon made a
number of subroutines on thefamousWhirlwindto produce these tapes under computercontrol. Users
could input a list of points and speeds, and theprogram would generate the punch tape. In one instance,
thisprocess reduced the time required to produce the instructionlist and mill the part from 8 hours to 15
minutes. This led to aproposal to the Air Force to produce a generalized"programming" language for
numerical control, which wasaccepted in June 1956.Starting in September Ross and Pople outlined a
language formachine control that was based on points and lines,developing this over several years into
theAPT programminglanguage. In 1957 theAircraft Industries Association(AIA) andAir Material
Commandat theWright-Patterson Air Force Base joined with MIT to standardize this work and produce
a fullycomputer-controlled NC system. On 25 February 1959 thecombined team held a press conference
showing the results,including a 3D machined aluminum ash tray that was handedout in thepress
kit.Meanwhile,Patrick Han rattywas making similardevelopments at GE as part of their partnership
with G&L onthe Numericord. His language, PRONTO, beat APT intocommercial use when it was
"released" in 1958. Han rattythen went on to developMICRmagnetic ink characters thatwere used in
cherub processing, before moving toGeneralMotorsto work on the groundbreakingDAC-1CAD system.

4
APT was soon extended to include "real" curves in 2D-APT-II.With its release, MIT reduced its focus on
CNC as it moved intoCAD experiments. APT development was picked up with theAIA in San Diego, and
in 1962, to Illinois Institute of Technology Research. Work on making APT an internationalstandard
started in 1963 under USASI X3.4.7, but manymanufacturers of CNC machines had their own oneoff additions (like PRONTO), so standardization was notcompleted until 1968, when there were 25
optional add-ins tothe basic system. Just as APT was being released in the early 1960s, a
secondgeneration of lower-cost transistorized computers was hittingthe market that were able to
process much larger volumes of information in production settings. This so lowered the cost

of implementing a NC system that by the mid 1960s, APT runsaccounted for a third of all computer time
at large aviationfirms.
CAD meets CNC:
While the Servomechanisms Lab was in the process of developing their first mill, in 1953 MIT's
MechanicalEngineering Department dropped the requirement thatundergraduates take courses
in drawing. The instructorsformerly teaching these programs were merged into theDesign Division,
where an informal discussion of computerizeddesign started. Meanwhile the Electronic Systems
Laboratory,the newly rechristened Servomechanisms Laboratory, hadbeen discussing whether or not
design would ever start withpaper diagrams in the future.In January 1959, an informal meeting was
held involvingindividuals from both the Electronic Systems Laboratory andthe Mechanical Engineering
Department's Design Division.Formal meetings followed in April and and May, which resultedin the
"Computer-Aided Design Project". In December 1959,
Proliferation of CNC
The price of computer cycles fell drastically during the 1960swith the widespread introduction of
usefulminicomputers.Eventually it became less expensive to handle the motorcontrol and feedback with
a computer program than it waswith dedicated servo systems. Small computers werededicated to a
single mill, placing the entire process in a smallbox.PDP-8's andData General Novacomputers were
commonin these roles. The introduction of themicroprocessorin the1970s further reduced the cost of
implementation, and todayalmost all CNC machines use some form of microprocessor tohandle all
operations. The introduction of lower-cost CNC machines radicallychanged the manufacturing industry.
Curves are as easy tocut as straight lines, complex 3-D structures are relativelyeasy to produce, and the
number of machining steps thatrequired human action have been dramatically reduced. Withthe
increased automation of manufacturing processes withCNC machining, considerable improvements
in consistencyand quality have been achieved with no strain on theoperator. CNC automation reduced
the frequency of errors andprovided CNC operators with time to perform additional tasks.CNC
automation also allows for more flexibility in the wayparts are held in the manufacturing process and
the timerequired to change the machine to produce differentcomponents

4
During the early 1970s the Western economies were mired inslow economic growth and rising
employment costs, and NCmachines started to become more attractive. The major U.S.vendors were
slow to respond to the demand for machinessuitable for lower-cost NC systems, and into this void
steppedthe Germans. In 1979, sales of German machines surpassedthe U.S. designs for the first time.
This cycle quickly repeateditself, and by 1980 Japan had taken a leadership position, U.S.sales dropping
all the time. Once sitting in the #1 position interms of sales on a top-ten chart consisting entirely of
U.S.companies in 1971, by 1987 Cincinnati Milacron was in 8thplace on a chart heavily dominated
by Japanese firms.Many researchers have commented that the U.S. focus onhigh-end applications left

them in an uncompetitive situationwhen the economic downturn in the early 1970s led to
greatlyincreased demand for low-cost NC systems. Unlike the U.S.companies, who had focused on
the highly profitableaerospace market, German and Japanese manufacturerstargeted lower-profit
segments from the start and were ableto enter the low-cost markets much more easily.
Today
Although modern data storage techniques have moved onfrom punch tape in almost every other role,
tapes are stillrelatively common in CNC systems. This is because it wasoften easier to add a punch tape
reader to a microprocessorcontroller than it was to re-write large libraries of tapes into anew format.
One change that was implemented fairly widelywas the switch from paper tomylartapes, which are
muchmore mechanically robust.Floppy disks,USB flash drivesandlocal area networkinghave replaced the
tapes to somedegree, especially in larger environments that are highlyintegrated

4
The proliferation of CNC led to the need for new CNCstandards that were not encumbered by licensing
or particulardesign concepts, like APT. A number of different "standards"proliferated for a time, often
based aroundvector graphicsmarkup languagessupported byplotters. One such standardhas since
become very common, the "G-code" that wasoriginally used onGerber Scientificplotters and then
adaptedfor CNC use. The file format became so widely used that it hasbeen embodied in anEIAstandard.
In turn, G-code wassupplanted bySTEP-NC, a system that was deliberatelydesigned for CNC, rather than
grown from an existing plotterstandard.A more recent advancement in CNC interpreters is support
of logical commands, known as parametric programming.Parametric programs include both device
commands as wellas a control language similar toBASIC. The programmer canmake if/then/else
statements, loops, subprogram calls,perform various arithmetic, and manipulate variables tocreate a
large degree of freedom within one program. Anentire product line of different sizes can be
programmed usinglogic and simple math to create and scale an entire range of parts, or create a stock
part that can be scaled to any size acustomer demands.As digital electronics has spread, CNC has fallen
in price to thepoint where hobbyists can purchase any number of small CNCsystems for home use. It is
even possible tobuild your own.
Description:
Modern CNC mills differ little in concept from the originalmodel built at MIT in 1952. Mills typically
consist of a tablethat moves in the Y axis, and a tool chuck that moves in X andZ (depth). The position of
the tool is driven by motors througha series of step-down gears in order to provide highly accurate

movements, or in modern designs, direct-drivesteppermotors.As the controller hardware evolved, the

mills themselves alsoevolved. One change has been to enclose the entiremechanism in a large box as a
safety measure, often withadditional safety interlocks to ensure the operator is farenough from the
working piece for safe operation. Mechanicalmanual controls disappeared long ago.CNC-like systems
are now used for any process that can bedescribed as a series of movements and operations.
Theseincludelaser cutting,welding, friction stir welding,ultrasonicwelding, flame andplasma cutting,
bending, spinning,pinning, gluing, fabric cutting, sewing, tape and fiberplacement, routing, picking
and placing (PnP), and sawing.
Programmable logic controller
A programmable logic controller (PLC) or programmablecontroller is adigital computerused
forautomationof electromechanicalprocesses, such as control of machinery onfactoryassembly lines,
amusement rides, or lighting fixtures.PLCs are used in many industries and machines, such aspackaging
and semiconductor machines. Unlike general-purpose computers, the PLC is designed for multiple
inputsand output arrangements, extended temperature ranges,immunity to electrical noise,
and resistance to vibration andimpact. Programs to control machine operation are typicallystored in
battery-backed ornon-volatile memory. A PLC is anexample of areal timesystem since output results
must beproduced in response to input conditions within a boundedtime, otherwise unintended
operation will result

4
Features:
The main difference from other computers is that PLCs arearmored for severe conditions (such as dust,
moisture, heat,cold) and have the facility for extensiveinput/output(I/O)arrangements. These connect
the PLC tosensorsandactuators. PLCs read limitswitches, analog process variables(such as temperature
and pressure), and the positions of complex positioning systems. Some usemachine vision. Onthe
actuator side, PLCs operateelectric motors,pneumaticorhydrauliccylinders, magneticrelays,solenoids, or
analogoutputs. The input/output arrangements may be built into asimple PLC, or the PLC may have
external I/O modulesattached to a computer network that plugs into the PLC.
System scale:
A small PLC will have a fixed number of connections built infor inputs and outputs. Typically, expansions
are available if the base model has insufficient I/O.Modular PLCs have a chassis (also called a rack) into
whichare placed modules with different functions. The processorand selection of I/O modules is
customized for the particularapplication. Several racks can be administered by a singleprocessor, and
may have thousands of inputs and outputs. Aspecial high speed serial I/O link is used so that racks can
bedistributed away from the processor, reducing the wiring costsfor large plants.
User interface:

4
PLCs may need to interact with people for the purpose of configuration, alarm reporting or everyday
control.AHuman-Machine Interface(HMI) is employed for thispurpose. HMIs are also referred to as
MMIs (Man MachineInterface) and GUI (Graphical User Interface).A simple system may use buttons and
lights to interact withthe user. Text displays are available as well as graphical touchscreens. More
complex systems use a programming andmonitoring software installed on a computer, with the
PLCconnected via a communication interface.
Communications:
PLCs have built in communications ports usually 9-PinRS232,and optionally
forRS485andEthernet.ModbusorDF1isusually included as one of thecommunications protocols.Others'
options include variousfieldbusessuch asDeviceNet orProfibus. Other communications protocols that
may be usedare listed in theList of automation protocols.Most modern PLCs can communicate over a
network to someother system, such as a computer running aSCADA (Supervisory Control And Data
Acquisition) system or webbrowser.PLCs used in larger I/O systems may have peer-to-peer
(P2P)communication between processors. This allows separateparts of a complex process to have
individual control whileallowing the subsystems to co-ordinate over thecommunication link. These
communication links are also oftenused forHMIdevices such as keypads orPC-typeworkstations. Some of
today's PLCs can communicate over awide range of media including RS-485, Coaxial, and
evenEthernetfor I/O control at network speeds up to 100 Mbit/s

4
PLC compared with other control systems:
PLCs are well-adapted to a range of automationtasks. Theseare typically industrial processes in
manufacturing where thecost of developing and maintaining the automation system ishigh relative to
the total cost of the automation, and wherechanges to the system would be expected during
itsoperational life. PLCs contain input and output devicescompatible with industrial pilot devices and
controls; littleelectrical design is required, and the design problem centerson expressing the desired
sequence of operations inladderlogic(orfunction chart) notation. PLC applications aretypically highly
customized systems so the cost of a packagedPLC is low compared to the cost of a specific custombuiltcontroller design. On the other hand, in the case of mass-produced goods, customized control
systems are economicdue to the lower cost of the components, which can beoptimally chosen instead
of a "generic" solution, and wherethe non-recurring engineering charges are spread overthousands or
millions of units.For high volume or very simple fixed automation tasks,different techniques are used.
For example, a consumerdishwasherwould be controlled by an electromechanicalcamtimercosting only
a few dollars in production quantities.Amicrocontroller-based design would be appropriate

wherehundreds or thousands of units will be produced and so thedevelopment cost (design of power
supplies and input/outputhardware) can be spread over many sales, and where the end-user would not
need to alter the control. Automotiveapplications are an example; millions of units are built eachyear,
and very few end-users alter the programming of thesecontrollers. However, some specialty vehicles
such as transitbusses economically use PLCs instead of custom-designedcontrols, because the volumes
are low and the developmentcost would be uneconomic.

4
Very complex process control, such as used in the chemicalindustry, may require algorithms and
performance beyond thecapability of even high-performance PLCs. Very high-speed orprecision controls
may also require customized solutions; forexample, aircraft flight controls.Programmable controllers are
widely used in motion control,positioning control and torque control. Some manufacturersproduce
motion control units to be integrated with PLC so thatG-code(involving aCNCmachine) can be used to
instructmachine movements.PLCs may include logic for single-variable feedback analogcontrol loop, a
"proportional, integral, derivative" or "PIDcontroller." A PID loop could be used to control
thetemperature of a manufacturing process, for example.Historically PLCs were usually configured with
only a fewanalog control loops; where processes required hundreds orthousands of loops, adistributed
control system(DCS) wouldinstead be used. As PLCs have become more powerful, theboundary between
DCS and PLC applications has become lessdistinct.PLCs have similar functionality asRemote Terminal
Units. AnRTU, however, usually does not support control algorithms orcontrol loops. As hardware
rapidly becomes more powerfuland cheaper,RTUs, PLCs andDCSsare increasingly beginningto overlap in
responsibilities, and many vendors sell RTUs withPLC-like features and vice versa. The industry
hasstandardized on the IEC 61131-3 functional block language forcreating programs to run on RTUs and
PLCs, although nearlyall vendors also offer proprietary alternatives and associateddevelopment
environments
Digital and analog signals:
Digital or discrete signals behave as binary switches, yieldingsimply an On or Off signal (1 or 0, True or
False, respectively).Push buttons, limit switches, andphotoelectric sensorsare

4
examples of devices providing a discrete signal. Discretesignals are sent using eithervoltageorcurrent,
where aspecific range is designated as
On
and another as

Off
. Forexample, a PLC might use 24 V DC I/O, with values above 22 VDC representing
On
, values below 2VDC representing
Off
, andintermediate values undefined. Initially, PLCs had onlydiscrete I/O.Analog signals are like volume
controls, with a range of valuesbetween zero and full-scale. These are typically interpreted asinteger
values (counts) by the PLC, with various ranges of accuracy depending on the device and the number of
bitsavailable to store the data. As PLCs typically use 16-bit signedbinary processors, the integer values
are limited between-32,768 and +32,767. Pressure, temperature, flow, and weightare often represented
by analog signals. Analog signals canusevoltageorcurrentwith a magnitude proportional to thevalue of
the process signal. For example, an analog4-20 mA or 0 - 10 V input would beconvertedinto an integer
value of 0- 32767.Current inputsare less sensitive to electrical noise (i.e. fromwelders or electric motor
starts) thExample:
As an example, say a facility needs to store water in a tank. The wateris drawn from the tank by another
system, as needed, and ourexample system must manage the water level in the tank.Using only digital
signals, the PLC has two digital inputs fromfloatswitches(Low Level and High Level). When the water
level is above theswitch it closes a contact and passes a signal to an input. The PLC usesa digital output
to open and close the inletvalveinto the tank.When the water level drops enough so that the Low Level
float switchis off (down), the PLC will open the valve to let more water in. Once thewater level rises
enough so that the High Level switch is on (up), thePLC will shut the inlet to stop the water from
overflowing. This rung isan example of seal in logic. The output is sealed in until some conditionbreaks
the circuit.
an voltage inputs
4
| Low Level High Level Fill Valve ||------[/]------|------[/]----------------------(OUT)--------|| | || | || | || Fill Valve | ||------[ ]------| || || |
An analog system might use a waterpressure sensoror aloadcell, and an adjustable (throttling) dripping
out of the tank,the valve adjusts to slowly drip water back into the tank.In this system, to avoid 'flutter'
adjustments that can wear outthe valve, many PLCs incorporate "hysteresis" whichessentially creates a
"deadband" of activity. A technicianadjusts this deadband so the valve moves only for asignificant
change in rate. This will in turn minimize themotion of the valve, and reduce its wear.A real system
might combine both approaches, using floatswitches and simple valves to prevent spills, and a rate
sensorand rate valve to optimize refill rates and preventwaterhammer. Backup and maintenance
methods can make a realsystem very complicated.

Programming:
PLC programs are typically written in a special application ona personal computer, then downloaded
by a direct-connectioncable or over a network to the PLC. The program is stored inthe PLC either
in battery-backed-upRAMor some other non-volatileflash memory. Often, a single PLC can be
programmedto replace thousands of relays.Under theIEC 61131-3standard, PLCs can be
programmedusing standards-based programming languages. A graphicalprogramming notation
calledSequential Function Chartsisavailable on certain programmable controllers.Recently, the
International standardIEC 61131-3has becomepopular. IEC 61131-3 currently defines five
programminglanguages for programmable control systems: FBD (Function

4
block diagram), LD (Ladder diagram), ST (Structured text,similar to thePascal programming language), IL
(Instructionlist, similar toassembly language) and SFC (Sequentialfunction chart). These techniques
emphasize logicalorganization of operations.While the fundamental concepts of PLC programming
arecommon to all manufacturers, differences in I/O addressing,memory organization and instruction
sets mean that PLCprograms are never perfectly interchangeable betweendifferent makers. Even within
the same product line of a singlemanufacturer, different models may not be directly
History
Origin:
The PLC was invented in response to the needs of theAmerican automotive manufacturing industry.
Programmablecontrollers were initially adopted by the automotive industrywhere software revision
replaced the re-wiring of hard-wiredcontrol panels when production models changed.Before the PLC,
control, sequencing, and safety interlock logicfor manufacturing automobiles was accomplished
usinghundreds or thousands of relays,cam timers, anddrumsequencersand dedicated closed-loop
controllers. Theprocess for updating such facilities for the yearly modelchange-overwas very time
consuming and expensive, as therelay systems needed to be rewired by skilled electricians.In 1968 GM
Hydramatic (the automatic transmission divisionof General Motors) issued a request for proposal for
anelectronic replacement for hard-wired relay systems. The winning proposal came from Bedford
Associates of Bedford, Massachusetts. The first PLC, designated the 084because it was Bedford
Associates' eighty-fourth project, wasthe result. Bedford Associates started a new company

4
dedicated to developing, manufacturing, selling, and servicingthis new product: Modicum, which
stood for Modular DigitalController. One of the people who worked on that project wasDick Morley,
who is considered to be the "father" of the PLC. The Modicum brand was sold in 1977 toGould

Electronics,and later acquired by German CompanyAEGand then byFrenchSchneider Electric, the current
owner.One of the very first 084 models built is now on display atModicums headquarters inNorth
Andover, Massachusetts. Itwas presented to Modicum byGM, when the unit was retiredafter nearly
twenty years of uninterrupted service. Modicumused the 84 moniker at the end of its product range
until the984 made its appearance. The automotive industry is still one of the largest users of PLCs.
Development:
Early PLCs were designed to replace relay logic systems. These PLCs were programmed in "ladder logic",
whichstrongly resembles a schematic diagram of relay logic.Modern PLCs can be programmed in a
variety of ways, fromladder logic to more traditional programming languages suchas BASIC and C.
Another method isState Logic, aVery HighLevel Programming Languagedesigned to program PLCsbased
onState Transition Diagrams.Many of the earliest PLCs expressed all decision making logicin
simpleladder logicwhich appeared similar to electricalschematic diagrams. This program notation was
chosen toreduce training demands for the existing technicians. Otherearly PLCs used a form
of instruction listprogramming, basedon a stack-based logic solver.
Programming:
rive system
or
hydraulicpower transmission
is a drive or transmission system thatuses hydraulic fluid under pressure to drive machinery. Theterm
hydrostatic refers to the transfer of energy from flow andpressure, not from thekineticenergy of the
flow. Such asystem basically consists of three parts. The generator (e.g. a

4
hydraulic pump, driven by anelectric motor, a combustionengineor awindmill); valves, filters, piping etc.
(to guide andcontrol the system); the motor (e.g. ahydraulic motororhydraulic cylinder) to drive the
machinery.
Principle of a hydraulic drive:
Pascal's law is the basis of hydraulicdrive systems. As the pressure in thesystem is the same, the force
that thefluid gives to the surroundings istherefore equal to pressure x area. Insuch a way, a small piston
feels asmall force and a large piston feels alarge force. The same counts for a hydraulic pumpwith a
small swept volume, that asksfor a smalltorque, combined with ahydraulic motor with a large
sweptvolume, that gives a large torque.In such a way a transmission with a certain ratio can be
built.Most hydraulic drive systems make use of hydraulic cylinders.Here the same principle is used- a
small torque can betransmitted in to a large force.By throttling the fluid between generator part and

motor part,or by using hydraulic pumps and/or motors with adjustableswept volume, the ratio of the
transmission can be changedeasily. In case throttling is used, the efficiency of thetransmission is limited;
in case adjustable pumps and motorsare used, the efficiency however is verylarge. In fact, up to around
1980, ahydraulic drive system had hardly anycompetition from other adjustable(electric) drive
systems.Nowadays electric drive systems usingelectric servo-motors can be controlled

in an excellent way and can easily compete with rotatinghydraulic drive systems. Hydraulic cylinders are
in factwithout competition for linear (high) forces. For thesecylinders anyway hydraulic systems will
remain of interestand if such a system is available, it is easy and logical to usethis system also for the
rotating drives of the cooling systems

Hydraulic cylinder:
Hydraulic cylinders(also called linear hydraulic motors) aremechanical actuators that are used to give a
linear forcethrough a linear stroke. A hydraulic cylinder is without doubtthe best known hydraulic
component. Hydraulic cylinders areable to give pushing and pulling forces of millions of metrictons, with
only a simple hydraulic system. Very simplehydraulic cylinders are used in presses; here the
cylinderconsists out of a volume in a piece of iron with a plungerpushed in it and sealed with a cover. By
pumping hydraulicfluid in the volume, the plunger is pushed out with a force of plunger-area *
pressure.More sophisticated cylinders have a body with end cover, apiston-rod with piston and a
cylinder-head. At one side thebottom is for instance connected to a single clevis, whereas atthe other
side, the piston rod also is foreseen with a singleclevis. The cylinder shell normally has hydraulic
connectionsat both sides. A connection at bottom side and one at cylinderhead side. If oil is pushed
under the piston, the piston-rod ispushed out and oil that was between the piston and thecylinder head
is pushed back to the oil-tank again. The pushing or pulling force of a hydraulic cylinder is:F = Ab * pb Ah * phF = Pushing Force in NAb = (/4) * (Bottom-diameter)^2 [in m2]Ah = (/4) * ((Bottomdiameter)^2-(Piston-rod-diameter)^2))[in m2]pb = pressure at bottom side in [N/m2]

4
ph = pressure at cylinder head side in [N/m2]Apart from miniature cylinders, in general, the
smallestcylinder diameter is 32 mm and the smallest piston roddiameter is 16 mm.Simple hydraulic
cylinders have a maximum working pressureof about 70 bar, the next step is 140 bar, 210 bar,
320/350bar and further, the cylinders are in general custom build. Thestroke of a hydraulic cylinder
is limited by the manufacturingprocess. The majority of hydraulic cylinders have a strokebetween 0,3
and 5 metres, whereas 12-15 metre stroke is alsopossible, but for this length only a limited number of
suppliersare on the market.In case the retracted length of the cylinder is too long for thecylinder to be
build in the structure. In this casetelescopiccylinderscan be used. One has to realize that for
simplepushing applications telescopic cylinders might be availableeasily; for higher forces and/or double
acting cylinders, theymust be designed especially and are very expensive. If hydraulic cylinders are only
used for pushing and the pistonrod is brought in again by other means, one can also useplunger
cylinders. Plunger cylinders have no sealing over thepiston, or the piston does not exist. This means
that only oneoil connection is necessary. In general the diameter of theplunger is rather large compared
with a normal pistoncylinder, because this large area is needed.Whereas a hydraulic motor will always
leak oil, a hydrauliccylinder does not have a leakage over the piston nor over thecylinder head sealing,
so that there is no need for amechanical brake.

Hydraulic motor:

4
The hydraulic motor is the rotary counterpart of thehydrauliccylinder.Conceptually, a hydraulic
motor should be interchangeablewithhydraulic pump, because it performs the oppositefunction -- much
as the conceptual DCelectric motorisinterchangeable with a DCelectrical generator. However,most
hydraulic pumps cannot be used as hydraulic motorsbecause they cannot beback driven. Also, a
hydraulic motoris usually designed for the working pressure at both sides of the motor.
Hydraulic valves:
These valves are usually very heavy duty to stand up to highpressures. Some special valves can control
the direction of theflow of fluid and act as a control unit for a system.
Pneumatics
Pneumatics
is the use of pressurized gasto affectmechanical motion.Pneumatic power is used inindustry, where
factory machinesare commonly plumbed forcompressed air; other compressedinert gasescan also be
used. Pneumatics also hasapplications indentistry,construction,mining, and otherareas.
Examples of pneumatic systems:

Pneumatic drill(jackhammer) used by road workers

Pneumatic nail gun

Electro-pneumatic action

Pneumatic switches

Air compressors

Vacuum pump

Barostatsystems used inNeuro gastroenterologyand forresearching electricity

Cable jetting, a way to install cables in ducts

Gases used in pneumatic systems:
Pneumatic systems in fixed installations such as factories usecompressed air because a sustainable
supply can be made bycompressing atmospheric air. The air usually has moistureremoved and a small
quantity of oil added at the compressor,to avoid corrosion of mechanical components and to
lubricatethem.Factory-plumbed, pneumatic-power users need not worryabout poisonous leakages as
the gas is commonly just air.Smaller or stand-alone systems can use other compressedgases which are
anasphyxiationhazard, such asnitrogen-often referred to asOFN (oxygen-free nitrogen), whensupplied in
cylinders.Any compressed gas other than air is anasphyxiationhazard -including nitrogen, which makes
up approximately 80% of air.Compressedoxygen(approx. 20% of air) would notasphyxiate, but it would
be an extreme fire hazard, so is neverused in pneumatically powered devices.Portable pneumatic tools
and small vehicles such asRobotWarsmachines and other hobbyist applications are oftenpowered by
compressedcarbon dioxidebecause containersdesigned to hold it such assoda streamcanisters and
fireextinguishers are readily available, and thephase change

4
between liquid and gas makes it possible to obtain a largervolume of compressed gas from a lighter
container thancompressed air would allow.Carbon dioxideis both anasphyxiant and poisonous, and
can also be a freezing hazardwhen vented.
Comparison to hydraulics:
Both pneumatics and hydraulics are applications of fluidpower. Pneumatics uses an easily compressible
gas such asair or a suitable pure gas, whilehydraulicsuses relativelyincompressible liquid media such as
oil. Most industrialpneumatic applications use pressures of about 80 to 100pounds per square inch (psi)
(500 to 700kilopascals).Hydraulics applications commonly use from 1,000 to 5,000 psi(7 to 35 MPa), but
specialized applications may exceed 10,000psi (70 MPa).
Advantages of pneumatics:

Simplicity of Design And Control

Machines are easily designed using standard cylinders & othercomponents. Control is as easy as it is
simple ON - OFF typecontrol.

Reliability
Pneumatic systems tend to have long operating lives andrequire very little maintenance.Because gas is
compressible, the equipment is less likely tobe damaged by shock. The gas in pneumatics
absorbsexcessive force, whereas the fluid of hydraulics directlytransfers force.

Storage

4
Compressed Gas can be stored, allowing the use of machineswhen electrical power is lost.

Safety
Very small fire hazards (compared to hydraulic oil).Machines can be designed to be overload safe.
Advantages of hydraulics:

Fluid does not absorb any of the supplied energy.

Capable of moving much higher loads and providingmuch higher forces due to the incompressibility.

The hydraulic working fluid is basically incompressible,leading to a minimum of springaction. When

hydraulicfluid flow is stopped, the slightest motion of the loadreleases the pressure on the load; there is
no need to"bleed off" pressurized air to release the pressure on theload.
Pneumatic Logic:

Pneumatic logic systems are often used to control industrialprocesses, consisting of primary logic units
such as:

AndUnits

OrUnits

'Relay or Booster' Units

Latching Units

'Timer' UnitsPneumatic logic is a reliable and functional control method forindustrial processes.
In recent years, these systems havelargely been replaced by electrical control systems, due to
thesmaller size and lower cost of electrical components.Pneumatic devices are still used in processes
wherecompressed air is the only energy source available or upgradecost, safety, and other
considerations outweigh the advantageof modern digital control.
Abstracts
Successes and Short ComingsSuccesses

4
There were many successes, both on our side and on thecompany side. Personally the following is what
we succeededon:

First, to us it was a success having been given a chanceto handle work on various machines that we
believe willnever see like these.

Through the work that we used to do; our knowledgerelated to the machines was largely broadened.
We canclearly understand how one can effectively study issuesconcerning.

We werent familiar practically with CNC, PLC, controlsand Pneumatic Hydraulic Systems, but now
we canconfidently use it with ease. The Pakistan Machine Tool Factory largely succeeded a lotthrough
our skills, competence and the overall output of mywork because;

We used our skills, studies and hands too in workshopsand departments. Therefore enabling to
meet deadlines
Short Comings
There werent many short comings since as an intern we weregiven a lot of support by our supervisors
and other fellowstaff. Therefore the major short comings that I did face were:

Time was limited and therefore I had to leave pre-maturely before the complete products of my effort
werefinalized.

In terms of cultural differences I must say that nobodyshould expect it as easy to integrate in a different
culture.
4
But the difficulty was not based on the way, we werewelcomed here, it was that we needed some time
to feelcomfortable with our new environmentSS