Extratropical cyclone

1 Terminology
Extratropical cyclones encompass a class of storms with
many names. The term "cyclone" applies to numerous
types of low pressure areas. The descriptor extratropical
signies that this type of cyclone generally occurs outside
the tropics in the middle latitudes of Earth. The term
mid-latitude cyclones may be used because of where they
form; post-tropical cyclones if extratropical transition has
occurred.[1][2] Weather forecasters and the general public
often describe them as depressions or lows. Terms
like frontal cyclone, frontal depression, frontal low, extratropical low, non-tropical low and hybrid low are often
used as well.
Extratropical cyclones are classied mainly as baroclinic,
because they form along zones of temperature and dewpoint gradient known as frontal zones. They can become
barotropic late in their life cycle, when the distribution of
heat around the cyclone becomes fairly uniform with its
radius.[3]

GOES-13 Imagery of an intense extratropical cyclone near the

NE United States on March 26, 2014, with Wind gusts of
101mph+ were reported.

2 Formation

This animation shows an extratropical cyclone developing over

the United States, starting late on October 25 and running through
October 27, 2010.
Approximate areas of extratropical cyclone formation worldwide

Extratropical cyclones, sometimes called mid-latitude

cyclones or wave cyclones, are an everyday phenomenon
which, along with anticyclones, drive the weather over
much of the Earth. They are capable of producing anything from cloudiness and mild showers to heavy gales
and thunderstorms. These types of cyclones are dened
as synoptic scale low pressure weather systems that occur
in the middle latitudes of the Earth (outside the tropics)
not having tropical characteristics, and are connected
with fronts and horizontal gradients in temperature and
dew point otherwise known as baroclinic zones.[1]

Extratropical cyclones form anywhere within the extratropical regions of the Earth (usually between 30 and
60 latitude from the equator), either through cyclogenesis or extratropical transition. A study of extratropical
cyclones in the Southern Hemisphere shows that between
the 30th and 70th parallels, there are an average of 37
cyclones in existence during any 6-hour period.[4] A separate study in the Northern Hemisphere suggests that approximately 234 signicant extratropical cyclones form
each winter.[5]
1

2 FORMATION
On 14 and 15 December 1986, an extratropical cyclone
near Iceland deepened to below 920 hectopascals (27
inHg),[11] which is a pressure equivalent to a category
5 hurricane. In the Arctic, the average pressure for cyclones is 980 millibars (28.94 inHg) during the winter,
and 1,000 millibars (29.53 inHg) during the summer.[12]

2.2 Extratropical transition

An upper level jet streak. DIV areas are regions of divergence
aloft, which will lead to surface convergence and aid cyclogenesis.

2.1

Cyclogenesis

Main article: Cyclogenesis

Extratropical cyclones form along linear bands of temperature/dewpoint gradient with signicant vertical wind
shear, and are thus classied as baroclinic cyclones. Initially, cyclogenesis, or low pressure formation, occurs
along frontal zones near a favorable quadrant of a maximum in the upper level jetstream known as a jet streak.
The favorable quadrants are usually at the right rear and
left front quadrants, where divergence ensues.[6] The divergence causes air to rush out from the top of the air
column. This in turn forces convergence in the low-level
wind eld and increased upward motion within the column. The increased upward motion causes atmospheric
pressure at ground level to lower. This is because the upward air motion counteracts gravity, lessening the weight
of the atmosphere in that location. The lowered pressure strengthens the cyclone (a low pressure system). As
the cyclone strengthens, the cold front sweeps towards
the equator and moves around the back of the cyclone.
Meanwhile, its associated warm front progresses more
slowly, as the cooler air ahead of the system is denser,
and therefore more dicult to dislodge. Later, the cyclones occlude as the poleward portion of the cold front
overtakes a section of the warm front, forcing a tongue,
or trowal, of warm air aloft. Eventually, the cyclone will
become barotropically cold and begin to weaken.

Hurricane Florence in the north Atlantic after completing its transition to an extratropical cyclone from a hurricane

Tropical cyclones often transform into extratropical cyclones at the end of their tropical existence, usually between 30 and 40 latitude, where there is sucient
forcing from upper-level troughs or shortwaves riding the
Westerlies for the process of extratropical transition to
begin.[13] During this process, a cyclone in extratropical
transition (known across the eastern North Pacic and
North Atlantic oceans as the post-tropical stage),[14][15]
will invariably form or connect with nearby fronts and/or
troughs consistent with a baroclinic system. Due to this,
the size of the system will usually appear to increase,
while the core weakens. However, after transition is
complete, the storm may re-strengthen due to baroclinic
Atmospheric pressure can fall very rapidly when there are energy, depending on the environmental conditions surstrong upper level forces on the system. When pressures rounding the system.[13] The cyclone will also distort in
fall more than 1 millibar (0.030 inHg) per hour, the pro- shape, becoming less symmetric with time.[16][17][18]
cess is called explosive cyclogenesis, and the cyclone can
be described as a (weather) bomb.[7][8][9] These bombs During extratropical transition, the cyclone begins to tilt
rapidly drop in pressure to below 980 millibars (28.94 back into the colder airmass with height, and the cyclones
inHg) under favorable conditions such as near a natural primary energy source converts from the release of latemperature gradient like the Gulf Stream, or at a pre- tent heat from condensation (from thunderstorms near the
ferred quadrant of an upper level jet streak, where up- center) to baroclinic processes. The low pressure system
loses its warm core and becomes a cold-core
per level divergence is best. The stronger the upper level eventually
[18][16]
system.
divergence over the cyclone, the deeper the cyclone can
become. Hurricane-force extratropical cyclones are most The peak time of subtropical cyclogenesis (the midpoint
likely to form in the northern Atlantic and northern Pa- of this transition) in the North Atlantic is in the months of
cic oceans in the months of December and January.[10] September and October, when the dierence between the

3.1

Surface pressure and wind distribution

temperature of the air aloft and the sea surface temperature is the greatest, leading to the greatest potential for
instability.[19] On rare occasions, an extratropical cyclone
can transit into a tropical cyclone if it reaches an area
of ocean with warmer waters and an environment with
less vertical wind shear.[20] An example of this happening is in the 1991 Perfect Storm.[21] The process known
as tropical transition involves the usually slow development of an extratropically cold core vortex into a tropical
cyclone.[22][23]
The Joint Typhoon Warning Center uses the extratropical
transition (XT) technique to subjectively estimate the intensity of tropical cyclones becoming extratropical based
on visible and infrared satellite imagery. Loss of central
convection in transitioning tropical cyclones can cause
the Dvorak technique to fail;[24] the loss of convection
results in unrealistically low estimates using the Dvorak
technique.[25] The system combines aspects of the Dvorak technique, used for estimating tropical cyclone intensity, and the Hebert-Poteat technique, used for estimating
subtropical cyclone intensity.[26] The technique is applied
when a tropical cyclone interacts with a frontal boundary
or loses its central convection while maintaining its forward speed or accelerating.[27] The XT scale corresponds
to the Dvorak scale and is applied in the same way, except
that XT is used instead of T to indicate that the system is undergoing extratropical transition.[28] Also, the
XT technique is only used once extratropical transition
begins; the Dvorak technique is still used if the system
begins dissipating without transition.[27] Once the cyclone
has completed transition and become cold-core, the technique is no longer used.[28]

QuikSCAT image of typical extratropical cyclones over the ocean.

Note the maximum winds are on the outside of the occlusion.

A clockwise spinning extratropical cyclone o southern Australia,

in the southern hemisphere.

Structure

See also: Weather fronts

3.1

Surface pressure and wind distribution

The windeld of an extratropical cyclone constricts with

distance in relation to surface level pressure, with the lowest pressure being found near the center, and the highest
winds typically just on the cold/poleward side of warm
fronts, occlusions, and cold fronts, where the pressure
gradient force is highest.[29] The area poleward and west
of the cold and warm fronts connected to extratropical
cyclones is known as the cold sector, while the area equatorward and east of its associated cold and warm fronts is
known as the warm sector.
The wind ow around an extratropical cyclone is
counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere, and clockwise in the southern hemisphere, due to the Coriolis effect (this manner of rotation is generally referred to as

A typical counterclockwise spinning extratropical cyclone o

northeastern Japan on December 26, 2012, in the Northern
Hemisphere.

cyclonic). Near this center, the pressure gradient force

(from the pressure at the center of the cyclone compared
to the pressure outside the cyclone) and the Coriolis force
must be in an approximate balance for the cyclone to
avoid collapsing in on itself as a result of the dierence
in pressure.[30] The central pressure of the cyclone will
lower with increasing maturity, while outside of the cyclone, the sea-level pressure is about average. In most
extratropical cyclones, the part of the cold front ahead
of the cyclone will develop into a warm front, giving the

4
frontal zone (as drawn on surface weather maps) a wavelike shape. Due to their appearance on satellite images,
extratropical cyclones can also be referred to as frontal
waves early in their life cycle. In the United States, an old
name for such a system is warm wave.[31]

MOTION

4.2 Shapiro-Keyser model

A second competing theory for extratropical cyclone development over the oceans is the Shapiro-Keyser model,
developed in 1990.[38] Its main dierences with the Norwegian Cyclone Model are the fracture of the cold front,
treating warm-type occlusions and warm fronts as the
same, and allowing the cold front to progress through the
warm sector perpendicular to the warm front. This model
was based on oceanic cyclones and their frontal structure,
as seen in surface observations and in previous projects
which used aircraft to determine the vertical structure of
fronts across the northwest Atlantic.

In the northern hemisphere, once a cyclone occludes, a

trough of warm air aloftor trowal for shortwill be
caused by strong southerly winds on its eastern periphery rotating aloft around its northeast, and ultimately into
its northwestern periphery (also known as the warm conveyor belt), forcing a surface trough to continue into the
cold sector on a similar curve to the occluded front. The
trowal creates the portion of an occluded cyclone known
as its comma head, due to the comma-like shape of the
mid-tropospheric cloudiness that accompanies the fea- 4.2.1 Warm seclusion
ture. It can also be the focus of locally heavy precipitation, with thunderstorms possible if the atmosphere along A warm seclusion is the mature phase of the extratropithe trowal is unstable enough for convection.[32]
cal cyclone lifecycle. This was conceptualized after the
ERICA eld experiment of the late 1980s, which produced observations of intense marine cyclones that in3.2 Vertical structure
dicated an anomalously warm low-level thermal structure, secluded (or surrounded) by a bent-back warm front
Extratropical cyclones slant back into colder air masses and a coincident chevron-shaped band of intense surface
and strengthen with height, sometimes exceeding 30,000 winds.[39] The Norwegian Cyclone Model, as developed
feet (approximately 9 km) in depth.[33] Above the sur- by the Bergen School of Meteorology, largely observed
face of the earth, the air temperature near the center of cyclones at the tail end of their lifecycle and used the term
the cyclone is increasingly colder than the surrounding occlusion to identify the decaying stages.[40]
environment. These characteristics are the direct oppoWarm seclusions may have cloud-free, eye-like features
site of those found in their counterparts, tropical cyclones;
at their center (reminiscent of tropical cyclones), signif[34]
thus, they are sometimes called cold-core lows. Varicant pressure falls, hurricane force winds, and moderious charts can be examined to check the characteristics
ate to strong convection. The most intense warm secluof a cold-core system with height, such as the 700 milsions often attain pressures less than 950 millibars (28.05
libars (20.67 inHg) chart, which is at about 10,000 feet
inHg) with a denitive lower to mid-level warm core
(3,048 meters) in height. Cyclone phase diagrams are
structure.[39] A warm seclusion, the result of a baroclinic
used to tell whether a cyclone is tropical, subtropical, or
lifecycle, occurs at latitudes well poleward of the tropics.
extratropical.[35]
As latent heat ux releases are important for their development and intensication, most warm seclusion events
occur over the oceans; they may impact coastal na4 Cyclone evolution
tions with hurricane force winds and torrential rain.[38][41]
Climatologically, the Northern Hemisphere sees warm
There are two models of cyclone development and life- seclusions during the cold season months, while the
cycles in common usethe Norwegian model and the Southern Hemisphere may see a strong cyclone event
Shapiro-Keyser Model.[36]
such as this during all times of the year.
In all tropical basins, except the Northern Indian Ocean,
the extratropical transition of a tropical cyclone may re4.1 Norwegian cyclone model
sult in reintensication into a warm seclusion. For example, Hurricane Maria of 2005 reintensied into a strong
Of the two theories on extratropical cyclone structure and baroclinic system and achieved warm seclusion status at
life cycle, the older is the Norwegian Cyclone Model, maturity (or lowest pressure).[42]
developed during World War I. In this theory, cyclones
develop as they move up and along a frontal boundary, eventually occluding and reaching a barotropically
cold environment.[37] It was developed completely from 5 Motion
surface-based weather observations, including descriptions of clouds found near frontal boundaries. This theory Extratropical cyclones are generally driven, or steered,
still retains merit, as it is a good description for extratrop- by deep westerly winds in a general west to east motion
across both the Northern and Southern hemispheres of
ical cyclones over continental landmasses.

5
or can less commonly result in a mere change of direction of either one or both of the cyclones.[46] The precise results of such interactions depend on factors such as
the size of the two cyclones, their strength, their distance
from each other, and the prevailing atmospheric conditions around them.

6 Eects

A zonal ow regime. Note the dominant west-to-east ow as

shown in the 500 hPa height pattern.

Preferred region of snowfall in an extratropical cyclone

A February 24, 2007 radar image of a large extratropical cyclonic storm system at its peak over the central United States.

6.1 General
the Earth. This general motion of atmospheric ow is
Extratropical cyclones can bring mild weather with a little
known as zonal.[43] Where this general trend is the main
rain and surface winds of 1530 km/h (9.318.6 mph),
steering inuence of an extratropical cyclone, it is known
or they can be cold and dangerous with torrential rain
as a "zonal ow regime".
and winds exceeding 119 km/h (74 mph),[47] (someWhen the general ow pattern buckles from a zonal pat- times referred to as windstorms in Europe). The band
tern to the meridional pattern,[44] a slower movement in of precipitation that is associated with the warm front is
a north or southward direction is more likely. Meridional often extensive. In mature extratropical cyclones, an area
ow patterns feature strong, amplied troughs and ridges, known as the comma head on the northwest periphery of
generally with more northerly and southerly ow.
the surface low can be a region of heavy precipitation, freChanges in direction of this nature are most commonly quent thunderstorms, and thundersnows. Cyclones tend
observed as a result of a cyclones interaction with to move along a predictable path at a moderate rate of
other low pressure systems, troughs, ridges, or with progress. During fall, winter, and spring, the atmosphere
anticyclones. A strong and stationary anticyclone can ef- over continents can be cold enough through the depth of
fectively block the path of an extratropical cyclone. Such the troposphere to cause snowfall.
blocking patterns are quite normal, and will generally result in a weakening of the cyclone, the weakening of the
anticyclone, a diversion of the cyclone towards the anticyclones periphery, or a combination of all three to
some extent depending on the precise conditions. It is
also common for an extratropical cyclone to strengthen
as the blocking anticyclone or ridge weakens in these
circumstances.[45]
Where an extratropical cyclone encounters another extratropical cyclone (or almost any other kind of cyclonic
vortex in the atmosphere), the two may combine to become a binary cyclone, where the vortices of the two cyclones rotate around each other (known as the "Fujiwhara
eect"). This most often results in a merging of the two
low pressure systems into a single extratropical cyclone,

6.2 Severe weather

Squall lines, or solid bands of strong thunderstorms, can
form ahead of cold fronts and lee troughs due to the presence of signicant atmospheric moisture and strong upper level divergence, leading to hail and high winds.[48]
When signicant directional wind shear exists in the atmosphere ahead of a cold front in the presence of a strong
upper level jet stream, tornado formation is possible.[49]
Although tornadoes can form anywhere on Earth, the
greatest number occur in the Great Plains in the United
States, because downsloped winds o the north-south oriented Rocky Mountains, which can form a dryline, aid
their development at any strength.

REFERENCES

Explosive development of extratropical cyclones can be

sudden. The storm known in the UK as the "Great Storm
of 1987" deepened to 953 millibars (28.14 inHg) with a
highest recorded wind of 220 km/h (140 mph), resulting
in the loss of 19 lives, 15 million trees, widespread damage to homes and an estimated economic cost of 1.2 billion (US$2.3 billion).[50]
Although most tropical cyclones that become extratropical quickly dissipate or are absorbed by another weather
system, they can still retain winds of hurricane or gale
force. In 1954, Hurricane Hazel became extratropical over North Carolina as a strong Category 3 storm.
The Columbus Day Storm of 1962, which evolved from
the remains of Typhoon Freda, caused heavy damage in
Oregon and Washington, with widespread damage equivalent to at least a Category 3. In 2005, Hurricane Wilma
began to lose tropical characteristics while still sporting
Category 3-force winds (and became fully extratropical
as a Category 1 storm).[51]
Cyclone Oratia showing typical comma shape of extratropical
cyclone over Europe in October 2000.

6.3

Climate and general circulation

In the classic analysis by Edward Lorenz (the Lorenz Energy Cycle),[52] extratropical cyclones (so-called atmospheric transients) acts as a mechanism in converting potential energy that is created by pole to equator temperature gradients to eddy kinetic energy. In the process, the
pole-equator temperature gradient is reduced (i.e. energy
is transported poleward to warm up the higher latitudes).

the entrance to Whitesh Bay.[55] A rapidly strengthening

storm struck Vancouver Island on October 11, 1984, and
inspired the development of moored buoys o the western coast of Canada.[56] The Braer Storm of January 1993
was the strongest extratropical cyclone known to occur
across the northern Atlantic ocean, with a central pressure of 914 millibars (27.0 inHg).[57] In 2012, Hurricane
Sandy transitioned to a post-tropical cyclone on the night
of October 29; a few minutes later it made landfall on the
New Jersey coast as an extratropical storm with winds
similar to a Category 1 hurricane and a wind eld of over
1,150 miles (1,850 km).

The existence of such transients are also closely related

to the formation of the Icelandic and Aleutian Low
the two most prominent general circulation features in
the mid- to sub-polar northern latitudes.[53] The two lows
are formed by both the transport of kinetic energy and
the latent heating (the energy released when water phase In the Southern Hemisphere, a violent extratropical storm
[58]
changed from vapor to liquid during precipitation) from hit Uruguay on August 2324, 2005, killing 10 people.
The systems winds exceeded 100 mph (160 km/h) while
the extratropical cyclones.
Montevideo, the countrys capital with 1.5 million inhabitants, was aected by tropical storm-force winds for over
12 hours and by hurricane-force winds for nearly four
7 Historic storms
hours.[59] Peak gusts were registered at Carrasco International Airport as 107 mph (172 km/h) and at the Harbour
A violent storm during the Crimean War on November of Montevideo as 116 mph (187 km/h). The lowest re14, 1854, wrecked 30 vessels, and sparked initial inves- ported pressure was 991.7 hPa (29.28 inHg). Extratroptigations into meteorology and forecasting in Europe. In ical cyclones are common in this part of the globe during
the United States, the Columbus Day Storm of 1962, one fall, winter and spring months. The winds usually peak to
of many Pacic Northwest windstorms, led to Oregon's 80110 km/h (5068 mph), and winds of 116 mph (187
[59]
lowest measured pressure of 965.5 hPa (28.51 inHg), km/h) are very uncommon.
violent winds, and US$170 million in damage (1964
dollars).[54] The Wahine storm was an extratropical cyclone that struck Wellington, New Zealand on April 10, 8 See also
1968, so named after causing the inter-island ferry TEV
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Extratropical cyclone Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extratropical_cyclone?oldid=694621414 Contributors: Michael Hardy,

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fair_weather.jpeg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors: legacy.openphoto.net Original artist: Michael Jastremski
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domain Contributors: http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/NaturalHazards/natural_hazards_v2.php3?img_id=13865 Original artist: NASA
image created by Jesse Allen, Earth Observatory, using data provided courtesy of the MODIS Rapid Response team.
File:Extratropical_cyclone_off_North_Eastern_japan_Dec_26_2012.jpg
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