UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

FAKULTI KEJURUTERAAN MEKANIKAL

_________________________________________________________________________
Program
:
Bachelor of Engineering (Hons) Mechanical (EM220)
Course
:
Applied Welding Engineering
Course Code :
MEM661
Lecturer
:
Assoc Prof Sunhaji Kiyai Abas
_________________________________________________________________________
Laboratory Report

EFFECT OF CHANGE IN POLARITY ON WELD PENETRATION

IN SMAW & GTAW
No
Name
.
1. MOHAMED ANIQUE BIN MOHAMED AZIYEN

Student ID Number

Signature

2013879068

2.

WAN NURUL AFIFAH BINTI WAN TARMIZI

2013652462

3.

MOHD SUBARU BIN SUNARU

2013240806

4.

NURAKMAR BINTI ALIAS

2013632642

5.

MUHAMAD FIRDAUS BIN NOR AZIMAT

2013849484

Practical Session

: _____________ Staff certification : ________________

(Date)
(Signature)

Report Submission

: _____________ Staff certification : ________________

(Date)
(Signature)

CONTENTS
Page
No:

Marks
Allocat
ed

Marks
Obtain
ed

Assigned
Course
Outcomes
CO1/CO3

To Achieve
(CO1:
PO1,PO2,
PO3 &

PO10) / CO3:
PO6)
FRONT COVER
GRADING FORM
CONTENTS
4

15

26

10

30

15

36

25

40

15

44

45

45

1. Title
2. Objective(s)
3. Introduction (background and
theory)
4. Apparatus (with noble
description)
5. Experimental Procedure

6. Results & Data Analysis

7. Discussion of Results
8. Conclusion
9. Recommendation

10. References

TOTAL

100

CONTENTS OF THE LABORATORY REPORT & GRADING CRITERIA

Report Contents
1. Title
2. Objective(s)
3. Introduction
(background & theory)
4. Apparatus
5. Experimental
Procedure
6. Results & Data
Analysis
7. Discussion of Results

8. Conclusion
9. Recommendation
10. References

Content Description

Marks Allocated

Refer to respective lab sheets / instructions for title of

experiment.
State the purpose that describes the intention of the
experiment, investigation or accomplishment.
Provide an understanding of the experiment which
includes necessary diagrams, theory and equations.
List equipment, machine, accessories, components,
etc. Shall include brief description of any noble
instrumentation / set-up.
Describe procedures or methods used. Equipment
handling.
Summarize results and present data in tables or
figures. Illustrate trends or comparisons. Show
sample calculation. Answer any questions required.
Discuss what results mean and what conclusions may
be drawn from them. Support results with
understanding of theory. May also include alternative
methods, accuracy, sources of errors, etc.
Summarize the outcome of the experiment based on
the results and analysis. Relate this to the objectives.
Recognize a need for improvement/modification in the
system. Incorporate innovative ideas in the
experimental work or set-up.
List references to methods and related studies in
appropriate style.

Please note:
Include this grading form in your report.

4
6
15
10
15
25

15
5
3
2
Total: 100

Marks Obtained

Assigned Course
Outcomes COs

To Achieve
POs

1.0

TITLE: EFFECT OF CHANGE IN POLARITY ON WELD PENETRATION IN

SMAW & GTAW

2.0

OBJECTIVES
1. To study the macrostructure of a weld bead.
2. To study the depth of penetration for SMAW and GTAW.

3.0

INTRODUCTION
a. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW), also known as manual metal arc
welding (MMA or MMAW), flux shielded arc welding or informally as stick welding,
is a manual arc welding process that uses a consumable electrode covered with
a flux to lay the weld. An electric current, in the form of either alternating
current or direct current from a welding power supply, is used to form an electric
arc between the electrode and the metals to be joined. The workpiece and the
electrode melts forming the weld pool that cools to form a joint.
As the weld is laid, the flux coating of the electrode disintegrates, giving off
vapors that serve as a shielding gas and providing a layer of slag, both of which
protect the weld area from atmospheric contamination. Because of the versatility of
the process and the simplicity of its equipment and operation, shielded metal arc
welding is one of the world's first and most popular welding processes. It dominates
other welding processes in the maintenance and repair industry, and though flux-cored
arc welding is growing in popularity, SMAW continues to be used extensively in the
construction of heavy steel structures and in industrial fabrication. The process is used
primarily

to

weld iron and steels (including stainless

but aluminium, nickel and copper alloys can also be welded with this method.

steel)

SMAW Weld Area

To strike the electric arc, the electrode is brought into contact with the
workpiece by a very light touch with the electrode to the base metal then is pulled
back slightly. This initiates the arc and thus the melting of the workpiece and the
consumable electrode, and causes droplets of the electrode to be passed from the
electrode to the weld pool. As the electrode melts, the flux covering disintegrates,
giving off shielding gases that protect the weld area from oxygen and
other atmospheric gases. In addition, the flux provides molten slag which covers the
filler metal as it travels from the electrode to the weld pool. Once part of the weld
pool, the slag floats to the surface and protects the weld from contamination as it
solidifies. Once hardened, it must be chipped away to reveal the finished weld. As
welding progresses and the electrode melts, the welder must periodically stop welding
to remove the remaining electrode stub and insert a new electrode into the electrode
holder. This activity, combined with chipping away the slag, reduces the amount of
time that the welder can spend laying the weld, making SMAW one of the least
efficient welding processes.
The actual welding technique utilized depends on the electrode, the
composition of the workpiece, and the position of the joint being welded. The choice
of electrode and welding position also determine the welding speed. Flat welds
require the least operator skill, and can be done with electrodes that melt quickly but
solidify slowly. This permits higher welding speeds. Sloped, vertical or upside-down
welding requires more operator skill, and often necessitates the use of an electrode
that solidifies quickly to prevent the molten metal from flowing out of the weld pool.

However, this generally means that the electrode melts less quickly, thus increasing
the time required to lay the weld.
The most common quality problems associated with SMAW include weld
spatter, porosity, poor fusion, shallow penetration, and cracking. Weld spatter, while
not affecting the integrity of the weld, damages its appearance and increases cleaning
costs. It can be caused by excessively high current, a long arc, or arc blow, a condition
associated with direct current characterized by the electric arc being deflected away
from the weld pool by magnetic forces. Arc blow can also cause porosity in the weld,
as can joint contamination, high welding speed, and a long welding arc, especially
when low-hydrogen electrodes are used.
Porosity, often not visible without the use of advanced non-destructive
testing methods, is a serious concern because it can potentially weaken the weld.
Another defect affecting the strength of the weld is poor fusion, though it is often
easily visible. It is caused by low current, contaminated joint surfaces, or the use of an
improper electrode. Shallow penetration, another detriment to weld strength, can be
addressed by decreasing welding speed, increasing the current or using a smaller
electrode. Any of these weld-strength-related defects can make the weld prone to
cracking, but other factors are involved as well. High carbon, alloy or sulphur content
in the base material can lead to cracking, especially if low-hydrogen electrodes and
preheating are not employed. Furthermore, the workpieces should not be excessively
restrained, as this introduces residual stresses into the weld and can cause cracking as
the weld cools and contracts.
Shielded metal arc welding particularly dominant in the maintenance and
repair industry, and is heavily used in the construction of steel structures and in
industrial fabrication. In recent years its use has declined as flux-cored arc welding
has expanded in the construction industry and gas metal arc welding has become more
popular in industrial environments. However, because of the low equipment cost and
wide applicability, the process will likely remain popular, especially among amateurs
and small businesses where specialized welding processes are uneconomical and
unnecessary.

i.

Equipment

SMAW system setup

Shielded metal arc welding equipment typically consists of a constant current
welding power supply and an electrode, with an electrode holder, a 'ground' clamp,
and welding cables connecting the two. The power supply used in SMAW has
constant current output, ensuring that the current (and thus the heat) remains relatively
constant, even if the arc distance and voltage change. This is important because most
applications of SMAW are manual, requiring that an operator hold the torch.
Maintaining a suitably steady arc distance is difficult if a constant voltage power
source is used instead, since it can cause dramatic heat variations and make welding
more difficult. However, because the current is not maintained absolutely constant,
skilled welders performing complicated welds can vary the arc length to cause minor
fluctuations in the current.
The preferred polarity of the SMAW system depends primarily upon the
electrode being used and the desired properties of the weld. Direct current with a
negatively charged electrode (DCEN) causes heat to build up on the electrode,
increasing the electrode melting rate and decreasing the depth of the weld. Reversing
the polarity so that the electrode is positively charged (DCEP) and the workpiece is
negatively charged increases the weld penetration. With alternating current the
polarity changes over 100 times per second, creating an even heat distribution and
providing a balance between electrode melting rate and penetration.
Typically, the equipment used for SMAW consists of a step-down
transformer and for direct current models a rectifier, which converts alternating
current into direct current. Because the power normally supplied to the welding
machine is high-voltage alternating current, the welding transformer is used to reduce
the voltage and increase the current. As a result, instead of 220 V at 50 A, for
example, the power supplied by the transformer is around 1745 V at currents up to
600 A. A number of different types of transformers can be used to produce this effect,
7

including multiple coil and inverter machines, with each using a different method to
manipulate the welding current. The multiple coil type adjusts the current by either
varying the number of turns in the coil or by varying the distance between the primary
and secondary. Inverters, which are smaller and thus more portable, use electronic
components to change the current characteristics.
Electrical generators and alternators are frequently used as portable welding
power supplies, but because of lower efficiency and greater costs, they are less
frequently used in industry. Maintenance also tends to be more difficult, because of
the complexities of using a combustion engine as a power source. However, in one
sense they are simpler: the use of a separate rectifier is unnecessary because they can
provide either AC or DC. However, the engine driven units are most practical in field
work where the welding often must be done out of doors and in locations where
transformer type welders are not usable because there is no power source available to
be transformed.
ii.

Electrode
The choice of electrode for SMAW depends on a number of factors, including

the weld material, welding position and the desired weld properties. The electrode is
coated in a metal mixture called flux, which gives off gases as it decomposes to
prevent weld contamination, introduces deoxidizers to purify the weld, causes weldprotecting slag to form, improves the arc stability, and provides alloying elements to
improve the weld quality. Electrodes can be divided into three groupsthose
designed to melt quickly are called "fast-fill" electrodes, those designed to solidify
quickly are called "fast-freeze" electrodes, and intermediate electrodes go by the name
"fill-freeze" or "fast-follow" electrodes. Fast-fill electrodes are designed to melt
quickly so that the welding speed can be maximized, while fast-freeze electrodes
supply filler metal that solidifies quickly, making welding in a variety of positions
possible by preventing the weld pool from shifting significantly before solidifying.
The composition of the electrode core is generally similar and sometimes
identical to that of the base material. But even though a number of feasible options
exist, a slight difference in alloy composition can strongly impact the properties of the
resulting weld. This is especially true of alloy steels such as HSLA steels. Likewise,
electrodes of compositions similar to those of the base materials are often used for
welding nonferrous materials like aluminium and copper. However, sometimes it is
8

desirable to use electrodes with core materials significantly different from the base
material. For example, stainless steel electrodes are sometimes used to weld two
pieces of carbon steel, and are often utilized to weld stainless steel workpieces with
carbon steel workpieces.
Common electrodes include the E6010, a fast-freeze, all-position electrode
with a minimum tensile strength of 410 MPa which is operated using DCEP. E6011 is
similar except its flux coating allows it to be used with alternating current in addition
to DCEP. E7024 is a fast-fill electrode, used primarily to make flat or horizontal welds
using AC, DCEN, or DCEP. Examples of fill-freeze electrodes are the E6012, E6013,
and E7014, all of which provide a compromise between fast welding speeds and allposition welding.

b. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

Gas

tungsten

gas (TIG) welding,

arc
is

welding (GTAW),
an arc

also

welding process

known
that

as tungsten

inert

uses

non-

consumable tungsten electrode to produce the weld. The weld area is protected from
atmospheric contamination by an inert shielding gas (argon or helium), and a filler
metal is normally used. GTAW is most commonly used to weld thin sections
of stainless steel and non-ferrous metals such as aluminium, magnesium, and copper
alloys. The process grants the operator greater control over the weld than competing
processes such as shielded metal arc welding and gas metal arc welding, allowing for
stronger, higher quality welds. However, GTAW is comparatively more complex and
difficult to master, and furthermore, it is significantly slower than most other welding
techniques. A related process, plasma arc welding, uses a slightly different welding
torch to create a more focused welding arc and as a result is often automated

.
GTAW weld area
Manual gas tungsten arc welding is a relatively difficult welding method, due
to the coordination required by the welder. Similar to torch welding, GTAW normally
9

requires two hands, since most applications require that the welder manually feed a
filler metal into the weld area with one hand while manipulating the welding torch in
the other. Maintaining a short arc length, while preventing contact between the
electrode and the workpiece, is also important. To strike the welding arc, a high
frequency generator provides an electric spark. This spark is a conductive path for the
welding current through the shielding gas and allows the arc to be initiated while the
electrode and the workpiece are separated, typically about 1.53 mm apart.
Once the arc is struck, the welder moves the torch in a small circle to create a
welding pool, the size of which depends on the size of the electrode and the amount of
current. While maintaining a constant separation between the electrode and the
workpiece, the operator then moves the torch back slightly and tilts it backward about
1015 degrees from vertical. Filler metal is added manually to the front end of the
weld pool as it is needed. Filler rods composed of metals with a low melting
temperature, such as aluminium, require that the operator maintain some distance
from the arc while staying inside the gas shield. If held too close to the arc, the filler
rod can melt before it makes contact with the weld puddle.
While the aerospace industry is one of the primary users of gas tungsten arc
welding, the process is used in a number of other areas. Many industries use GTAW
for welding thin workpieces, especially nonferrous metals. It is used extensively in the
manufacture of space vehicles, and is also frequently employed to weld smalldiameter, thin-wall tubing such as those used in the bicycle industry. In addition,
GTAW is often used to make root or first-pass welds for piping of various sizes. In
maintenance and repair work, the process is commonly used to repair tools and dies,
especially components made of aluminium and magnesium. Because the resulting
welds have the same chemical integrity as the original base metal or match the base
metals more closely, GTAW welds are highly resistant to corrosion and cracking over
long time periods.
Gas tungsten arc welding, because it affords greater control over the weld area
than other welding processes, can produce high-quality welds when performed by
skilled operators. Maximum weld quality is assured by maintaining cleanlinessall
equipment and materials used must be free from oil, moisture, dirt and other
impurities, as these cause weld porosity and consequently a decrease in weld strength
and quality. To remove oil and grease, alcohol or similar commercial solvents may be
used, while a stainless steel wire brush or chemical process can remove oxides from
the surfaces of metals like aluminium. Rust on steels can be removed by first grit
10

blasting the surface and then using a wire brush to remove any embedded grit. These
steps are especially important when negative polarity direct current is used, because
such a power supply provides no cleaning during the welding process, unlike positive
polarity direct current or alternating current. To maintain a clean weld pool during
welding, the shielding gas flow should be sufficient and consistent so that the gas
covers the weld and blocks impurities in the atmosphere. GTAW in windy or drafty
environments increases the amount of shielding gas necessary to protect the weld,
increasing the cost and making the process unpopular outdoors.
The level of heat input also affects weld quality. Low heat input, caused by
low welding current or high welding speed, can limit penetration and cause the weld
bead to lift away from the surface being welded. If there is too much heat input,
however, the weld bead grows in width while the likelihood of excessive penetration
and spatter increase. Additionally, if the welding torch is too far from the workpiece
the shielding gas becomes ineffective, causing porosity within the weld. This results
in a weld with pinholes, which is weaker than a typical weld.
If the amount of current used exceeds the capability of the electrode, tungsten
inclusions in the weld may result. Known as tungsten spitting, this can be identified
with radiography and can be prevented by changing the type of electrode or increasing
the electrode diameter. In addition, if the electrode is not well protected by the gas
shield or the operator accidentally allows it to contact the molten metal, it can become
dirty or contaminated. This often causes the welding arc to become unstable, requiring
that the electrode be ground with a diamond abrasive to remove the impurity.
i.

Equipment

GTAW torch disassemble

The equipment required for the gas tungsten arc welding operation includes a
welding torch utilizing a non-consumable tungsten electrode, a constant-current
welding power supply, and a shielding gas source. GTAW welding torches are
designed for either automatic or manual operation and are equipped with cooling
11

systems using air or water. The angle between the centre-line of the handle and the
centre-line of the tungsten electrode, known as the head angle, can be varied on some
manual torches according to the preference of the operator. Air cooling systems are
most often used for low-current operations (up to about 200 A), while water cooling is
required for high-current welding (up to about 600 A). The torches are connected with
cables to the power supply and with hoses to the shielding gas source and where used,
the water supply.
The internal metal parts of a torch are made of hard alloys of copper
or brass in order to transmit current and heat effectively. The tungsten electrode must
be held firmly in the centre of the torch with an appropriately sized collet, and ports
around the electrode provide a constant flow of shielding gas. Collets are sized
according to the diameter of the tungsten electrode they hold. The body of the torch is
made of heat-resistant, insulating plastics covering the metal components, providing
insulation from heat and electricity to protect the welder. The size of the gas nozzle
depends upon the diameter of the electrode, the joint configuration, and the
availability of access to the joint by the welder. The inside diameter of the nozzle is
preferably at least three times the diameter of the electrode, but there are no hard
rules. The welder judges the effectiveness of the shielding and increases the nozzle
size to increase the area protected by the external gas shield as needed. The nozzle
must be heat resistant and thus is normally made of alumina or a ceramic material,
but fused quartz, a high purity glass, offers greater visibility. Devices can be inserted
into the nozzle for special applications, such as gas lenses or valves to improve the
control shielding gas flow to reduce turbulence and introduction of contaminated
atmosphere into the shielded area.
Gas tungsten arc welding uses a constant current power source, meaning that
the current (and thus the heat) remains relatively constant, even if the arc distance and
voltage change. This is important because most applications of GTAW are manual or
semiautomatic, requiring that an operator hold the torch. Maintaining a suitably steady
arc distance is difficult if a constant voltage power source is used instead, since it can
cause dramatic heat variations and make welding more difficult
The preferred polarity of the GTAW system depends largely on the type of
metal being welded. Direct current with a negatively charged electrode (DCEN) is
often employed when welding steels, nickel, titanium, and other metals. It can also be
used in automatic GTAW of aluminium or magnesium when helium is used as a
shielding gas. The negatively charged electrode generates heat by emitting electrons,
12

which travel across the arc, causing thermal ionization of the shielding gas and
increasing the temperature of the base material. The ionized shielding gas flows
toward the electrode, not the base material, and this can allow oxides to build on the
surface of the weld.
Direct current with a positively charged electrode (DCEP) is less common, and
is used primarily for shallow welds since less heat is generated in the base material.
Instead of flowing from the electrode to the base material, as in DCEN, electrons go
the other direction, causing the electrode to reach very high temperatures. To help it
maintain its shape and prevent softening, a larger electrode is often used. As the
electrons flow toward the electrode, ionized shielding gas flows back toward the base
material, cleaning the weld by removing oxides and other impurities and thereby
improving its quality and appearance.
Alternating current, commonly used when welding aluminium and magnesium
manually or semi-automatically, combines the two direct currents by making the
electrode and base material alternate between positive and negative charge. This
causes the electron flow to switch directions constantly, preventing the tungsten
electrode from overheating while maintaining the heat in the base material. Surface
oxides are still removed during the electrode-positive portion of the cycle and the base
metal is heated more deeply during the electrode-negative portion of the cycle. Some
power supplies enable operators to use an unbalanced alternating current wave by
modifying the exact percentage of time that the current spends in each state of
polarity, giving them more control over the amount of heat and cleaning action
supplied by the power source. In addition, operators must be wary of rectification, in
which the arc fails to reignite as it passes from straight polarity (negative electrode) to
reverse polarity (positive electrode). To remedy the problem, a square wave power
supply can be used, as can high-frequency voltage to encourage ignition.

ii.

Electrode

ISO

ISO

AWS

AWS

Class

Color

Class

Color

WP

Green

EWP

Green

None

WC20

Gray

EWCe-2

Orange

~2% CeO2

WL10

Black

EWLa-1

Black

~1% La2O3

13

Alloy

WL15

Gold

EWLa-1.5

Gold

~1.5% La2O3

WL20

Sky-blue

EWLa-2

Blue

~2% La2O3

WT10

Yellow

EWTh-1

Yellow

~1% ThO2

WT20

Red

EWTh-2

Red

~2% ThO2

WT30

Violet

~3% ThO2

WT40

Orange

~4% ThO2

WY20

Blue

~2% Y2O3

WZ3

Brown

WZ8

White

EWZr-1

Brown

~0.3% ZrO2
~0.8% ZrO2

The electrode used in GTAW is made of tungsten or a tungsten alloy, because

tungsten has the highest melting temperature among pure metals, at 3,422 C
(6,192 F). As a result, the electrode is not consumed during welding, though some
erosion can occur. Electrodes can have either a clean finish or a ground finishclean
finish electrodes have been chemically cleaned, while ground finish electrodes have
been ground to a uniform size and have a polished surface, making them optimal for
heat conduction. The diameter of the electrode can vary between 0.5 and 6.4
millimetres (0.02 and 0.25 in), and their length can range from 75 to 610 millimetres
(3.0 to 24.0 in).
A number of tungsten alloys have been standardized by the International
Organization for Standardization and the American Welding Society in ISO 6848 and
AWS A5.12, respectively, for use in GTAW electrodes, and are summarized in the
adjacent table.

Pure tungsten electrodes (classified as WP or EWP) are general purpose and low
cost electrodes. They have poor heat resistance and electron emission. They find

limited use in AC welding of e.g. magnesium and aluminium.

Cerium oxide (or ceria) as an alloying element improves arc stability and ease of
starting while decreasing burn-off. Cerium addition is not as effective as thorium

but works well, and cerium is not radioactive.

An alloy of lanthanum oxide (or lanthana) has a similar effect as cerium, and is
also not radioactive.

14

Thorium oxide (or thoria) alloy electrodes offer excellent arc performance and
starting, making them popular general purpose electrodes. However, it is
somewhat radioactive, making inhalation of thorium vapors and dust a health

risk, and disposal an environmental risk.

Electrodes containing zirconium oxide (or zirconia) increase the current capacity

while improving arc stability and starting and increasing electrode life.
Filler metals are also used in nearly all applications of GTAW, the major
exception being the welding of thin materials. Filler metals are available with
different diameters and are made of a variety of materials. In most cases, the filler
metal in the form of a rod is added to the weld pool manually, but some
applications call for an automatically fed filler metal, which often is stored on
spools or coils.

iii.

Shielding gas

GTAW system setup

As with other welding processes such as gas metal arc welding, shielding
gases are necessary in GTAW to protect the welding area from atmospheric gases such
as nitrogen and oxygen, which can cause fusion defects, porosity, and weld
metal embrittlement if they come in contact with the electrode, the arc, or the welding
metal. The gas also transfers heat from the tungsten electrode to the metal, and it helps
start and maintain a stable arc.
The selection of a shielding gas depends on several factors, including the type
of material being welded, joint design, and desired final weld appearance. Argon is the
most commonly used shielding gas for GTAW, since it helps prevent defects due to a
varying arc length. When used with alternating current, argon shielding results in high
weld quality and good appearance. Another common shielding gas, helium, is most
15

often used to increase the weld penetration in a joint, to increase the welding speed, and
to weld metals with high heat conductivity, such as copper and aluminium. A significant
disadvantage is the difficulty of striking an arc with helium gas, and the decreased weld
quality associated with a varying arc length.
Gas tungsten arc welding is most commonly used to weld stainless steel and
nonferrous materials, such as aluminium and magnesium, but it can be applied to nearly
all metals, with a notable exception being zinc and its alloys. Its applications involving
carbon steels are limited not because of process restrictions, but because of the
existence of more economical steel welding techniques, such as gas metal arc welding
and shielded metal arc welding. Furthermore, GTAW can be performed in a variety of
other-than-flat positions, depending on the skill of the welder and the materials being
welded.
iv.

Variables that Affect Weld Penetration

Depth of fusion (aka "penetration") is the distance that fusion extends into the

base metal or previous pass from the surface melted during welding. Figure 1 shows a
cross section of a fillet weld, where the penetration profile can be seen.
The welding variable that has the greatest effect on the degree of weld
penetration is current (measured in amperage or amps). Quite simply, as welding
current increases (i.e., more amperage), weld penetration increases and as welding
current decreases (i.e., less amperage), weld penetration decreases. Figure 2 illustrates
this point with three welds made at different current levels and where all other variables
were held constant.

16

Figure 1

Figure 2

With arc welding processes which use constant current (CC) output, current is
the main, presettable welding variable. However, with processes that use constant
voltage (CV) output, voltage and wire feed speed (WFS) are the main, presettable
welding variables, with current levels a result of WFS. As WFS increases, the
corresponding current level for that particular electrode type and diameter also
increases. Conversely, as WFS decreases, current also decreases.
There are several other welding variables which also affect the degree of weld
penetration.
Polarity: the type of welding polarity used affects penetration level. With most arc
welding processes, DC+ (direct current electrode positive) polarity produces more weld
penetration, because more arc energy is focused into the base plate. Conversely, DC(direct current electrode negative) polarity produces less weld penetration, because
more arc energy is focused into the electrode and not into the base plate. This is the
case with the Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW), Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW),
Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) and SAW processes. The exception is the Gas
Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW) process, in which the effect of polarity on penetration
is opposite. With GTAW, DC- polarity results in more weld penetration (with DC+
polarity

generally

not

used).

Welding Process: the various arc welding processes have associated weld penetration
characteristics. For example, the SAW, FCAW and GMAW (in a globular, spray or
pulse spray arc metal transfer mode) processes are known in general for higher levels of
weld penetration. Whereas the GTAW, GMAW-C (metal core) and GMAW (in a short
circuit metal transfer mode) processes are known in general for lower levels of
penetration. Of course this correlation is also related to current. For example, the SAW
process tends to be used at very high current levels while the short circuit GMAW
process tends to be used at lower current levels. The SMAW process can have deeper or
shallower penetration characteristics, depending on the specific type of electrode used.
Type of Electrode: even within the same welding process, electrodes of different
classifications can have different penetration characteristics. For example, with the
SMAW process, an E6010 electrode typically has deeper penetration, while an E7024
electrode typically has shallower penetration. Another example can be seen with the
17

FCAW process. An E70T-1 electrode typically has deeper penetration, while an E71T-1
electrode typically has shallower penetration.
Travel Angle: the degree of the travel angle, whether a push or drag travel angle,
affects how much of the arc force is directed down into the base plate. A travel angle of
0 to 10 (i.e., the electrode perpendicular or mostly perpendicular to the plate) will
result in more weld penetration. As the travel angle becomes more severe, the level of
weld penetration will decrease.
Shielding Gas Type: shielding gas types also have an effect on weld penetration.
Shielding gases with a higher rate of thermal conductivity, such as 100% carbon
dioxide (CO2) or 100% helium (He), will produce welds with a broader, deeper
penetration profile. While shielding gases with a lower rate of thermal conductivity,
such as 100% argon (Ar), or an Ar / CO2 or Ar / oxygen (O2) blend, have a shallower
penetration profile that is more tapered in the middle (Figure 3).

Figure 3
Electrode Diameter: when welding with two different diameters of the same electrode
and at the same current level, generally more penetration is achieved with the smaller
diameter electrode than with the larger diameter electrode. If you look at an end slice of
each size wire, the smaller diameter has less cross sectional area than the larger
diameter. As the same amount of current flows through each electrode, the
concentration or density of current is greater in the smaller diameter electrode than in
the larger diameter electrode. As a result of this higher current density, the smaller
diameter electrode will have greater weld penetration than the larger diameter electrode.
Note however that every electrode diameter has a maximum current density before the
welding arc becomes very unstable and erratic. So as current reaches a certain level, it
will become necessary to increase the electrode diameter.

18

Figure 4
Travel Speed: how fast the electrode travels down the joint affects how much time the
arc energy has to transfer into the base plate at any particular point along the joint. As
travel speed increases, the amount of time that the arc is over a particular point along
the joint is less and the resulting level of penetration decreases. As travel speed
decreases, the amount of time that the arc is over a particular point along the joint is
greater and the resulting level of penetration increases (Figure 5).

Figure 5
CTWD Variations: with the GMAW, FCAW and SAW processes on constant voltage
(CV) power sources and running at a set wire feed speed and voltage, as the contact tip
to work distance (CTWD) is increased, more resistance to the flow of electricity
through the electrode occurs, because the electrode is longer. At a constant voltage
level, this increase in resistance causes current to decrease, which results in a decrease
in penetration level. Conversely, as CTWD is decreased, resistance also is decreased.
Therefore current increases and thus penetration increases.

19

One main welding variable that has virtually no effect on weld penetration is arc
voltage. While changes in arc voltage can result in minimal changes in weld
penetration, the effect is very minor compared to welding current and the other
variables just listed in this article. Arc voltage affects the arc length. At the same wire
feed speed, as voltage increases, the arc length gets longer and as voltage decreases, the
arc length gets shorter. The length of the arc in turn determines the width and size of the
arc cone. As arc length decreases, the arc cone becomes narrower and the arc is more
focused.
The result is a weld bead that is more narrow and ropy and the level of weld
penetration may decrease very slightly. Conversely, as arc length increases, the arc
cone becomes wider and the arc is broader. The result is a weld bead that is wider and
flatter and the level of weld penetration may increase very slightly. Therefore, the
change in penetration caused by changing voltage by just a few volts would virtually be
non-existent.

Figure 6

Figure 7

The weld bead profile becomes wider or narrower with changes in voltage
because the arc cone becomes wider or narrower with changes in voltage. The
resulting weld penetration level with different arc voltage levels is virtually
unchanged.
c) Metallography Specimen Preparation and Examination
i.

Coarse Grinding

20

In view of the perfection required in an ideally prepared metallographic sample, it is

essential that each preparation stage be carefully performed. The specimen must:
1. Be free from scratches, stains and others imperfections which tend to mark the
surface.
2. Retain non-metallic inclusions.
3. Reveal no evidence of chipping due to brittle intermetallic compounds and
phases.
4. Be free from all traces of disturbed metal.
The purpose of the coarse grinding stage is to generate the initial flat surface
necessary for the subsequent grinding and polishing steps. As a result of sectioning
and grinding, the material may get cold worked to a considerable depth with a
resultant transition zone of deformed material between the surface and the undistorted
metal. Course grinding can be accomplished either wet or dry using 80 to 180 grit
electrically powered disks or belts, but care must be taken to avoid significant heating
of the sample.
The final objective is to obtain a flat surface free from all previous tool marks
and cold working due to specimen cutting. An important factor throughout the Coarse
Grinding and Fine Grinding Stages is that the scratches be uniform in size and parallel
to each other in any one grinding stage. Proper grinding involves rotation of the
sample between stages while the grinding angle must be held constant during the
grinding at any one stage. The sample must be washed thoroughly before proceeding
from one grinding stage to the next. Failure to follow this basic rule will result in
transferring abrasive particles between stages and will cause time consuming,
frustrating problems in removing unwanted scratches.
ii.

Medium and Fine Grinding

Medium and Fine Grinding of metallurgical samples are closely allied with

the Coarse Grinding which precedes them. Each stage of metallographic sample
preparation must be carefully performed. Failure to be careful in any stage will result
in an unsatisfactory sample. The idea is to carefully move from one stage to the next
where the abrasives become finer at each successive stage. Movement from one
21

stage to the next should only proceed when all of the scratches from the preceding
stage are completely removed. In general, successive steps are 240, 320, 400 and
600 grit SiC and the grinding rate should steadily decrease from one stage to the
next. Proper grinding involves the rotation of the sample between stages while the
grinding angle must be held constant during the grinding at any on stage.

22

iii.

Mechanical Polishing
iv.

Polishing involves the use of abrasives, suspended in a water solution,

on a cloth-covered electrically powered wheel. Diamond abrasives provide the best,

and most expensive, compounds utilized in polishing; standard sized aluminium
oxide powders are applied for general use purposes. Following the final 600 grit
fine-grinding stage, the sample must be washed and carefully dried before
proceeding to the first polishing stage. At the polishing stages, even hard dust
particles in the air which settles on the polishing cloth can cause unwanted
scratching of the specimen. Beginning with 9.5-micron suspended aluminium oxide
particles on a Nylon-cloth, the final fine-grinding surface layer resulting from the
previous grinding procedure should be completely removed with a rotation rate of
150-200 rpm. The specimen is initially held at one position on the wheel, without
rotation, until most of the previous grinding marks are removed. It can be rotated
slowly, counter to the wheel rotation, until only scratches are visible. During the
initial polishing stage, moderate pressure can be applied to the specimen and the
entire stage should generally take 1 or 2 minutes. After carefully washing the
specimen, proceed to the 5-micron stage where a separate polishing wheel with 5micron particles. The final polishing stage with 1-micron suspended aluminium
oxide particles should be carried out on a separate polishing wheel. After 1 or 2
minutes a properly polished specimen should have a mirror-like surface free of
scratches.
v.

During final polishing, minimal pressure should be applied and time

should be kept to a minimum since the napped material will conform to the
specimen shape under pressure. For precision work, extremely fine grades of
diamond abrasives may often be used for the final polishing sequence. Cerium
Oxide is especially excellent for the final polishing of aluminium and other soft
metals and alloys. The best abrasive types and sizes for various metals and alloys are
listed in the literature; references should be consulted for recommended practice.
vi.

Etching
vii.

Microscopic examination of a properly polished, unetched specimen

will reveal only a few structural features such as inclusions and cracks or other
physical imperfections. Etching is used to highlight, and sometimes identify,
23

microstructural features or phases present. Even in a carefully prepared sample, a

surface layer of disturbed metal, resulting from the final polishing stage, is always
present and must be removed. Etchants are usually dilute acid or dilute alkalis in a
water, alcohol or some other solvent. Etching occurs when the acid or base is placed
on the specimen surface because of the difference in rate of attack of the various
phases present and their orientation. The etching process is usually accomplished by
merely applying the appropriate solution to the specimen surface for several seconds
to several minutes. Nital, a Nitric Acid - Alcohol mixture, is the etchant commonly
utilized with common irons and steels. Nital is dripped onto the specimen using an
eye-dropper or cotton swab. Ten seconds to one minute is usually sufficient for
proper etching depending on sample and nital concentration. The sample is
immediately washed under running water, rinsed with alcohol and dried in an air
blast. Do not touch, wipe or swab the specimen following etching; dry off the rinsing
alcohol on the specimen with the air blast and then move on to the microscopic
examination stage.
viii.

Microscopic

ix. Examination Initial microscopic viewing should be done utilizing a

stereomicroscope, which reveals a three-dimensional scanning of the specimen
surface. The specimen is placed on the stage of the microscope so that its surface is
perpendicular to the optical axis. Detailed viewing is done with a Metallurgical
Microscope. A metallurgical microscope has a system of lenses so that different
magnifications (25X to 1000X) can be achieved. The important characteristics of the
microscope are:
magnification,
resolution
flatness of field.
x.

The resultant magnification is the product of the magnifying power of

the objective and that of the ocular. Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEMs) are
capable of magnifications up to 20,000X and Transmission Electron Microscopes
(TEMs) are utilized to view at magnifications up to 100,000X for highly detailed
microstructural study.

24

xi.

4.0

MATERIALS AND TOOLS

a. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

xii.

xvi.

xiii.

xvii.

xiv.

xviii.
xix.

xv.

Figure 8: Arc Machine

xx.
xxi.
xxii.

Figure 9: Electrode
xxv.
xxvi.

xxiii.
xxiv.

Figure 10: Head Shield

xxvii.

Figure 11: Safety

Gloves
xxxi.

xxviii.

25

xxix.
xxx.

xxxii.
Figure 12: Wire Brush

xxxiii.

Figure 13: Welding

Apron

26

b. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

xxxiv.

xl.

xxxv.

xli.

xxxvi.

xlii.
xliii.

xxxvii.
xxxviii.
xxxix.

xliv.

Figure 14: TIG Welding

Figure 15: Thoriated

Tungsten Electrode

Machine
xlv.

xlix.

xlvi.

l.
li.

xlvii.
xlviii.

Figure 16: Pure

Tungsten Electrode
lii.

lv.

liii.
liv.

Figure 17: Head Shield

Figure 18: Safety

Gloves

lvi.
27

lvii.

Figure 19: Welding

Apron

lviii.
lix.

28

c. Analysis Process at Material Science Laboratory

lx.

lxiii.

lxi.

lxii.

lxiv.

lxv.

Figure 20: Optical

Microscope
lxvi.

Figure 21: Monitor

lxix.
lxx.
lxxi.

lxvii.
lxviii.

Figure 22: Slippers

lxxii.

Figure 23: Polishing

Powder

29

lxxv.

lxxiii.

lxxvi.

lxxiv.

lxxvii.

Figure 24: Sand paper

lxxviii.

machine
lxxxii.

lxxix.

lxxx.
lxxxi.

Figure 25: Grinding

Figure 26: Ultrasonic

Cleaner

30

lxxxiii.

5.0

LABORATORY WORK PROCEDURE

a. Location: Welding Laboratory

i.
Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
1. A piece of mild steel plate was prepared.
2. An electrode made for all position welding was used.
lxxxiv.

DIAMETER X lxxxvi.

LENGTH
lxxxv.
(mm)
lxxxix.

lxxxviii.
WELDING

CURRENT
lxxxvii.
(A)

5.0 X 400

xc.

170 230

POLARI
TY OF

ELECTRODE
xci.
AC OR
DC+

xcii.

xciii.
3. The current value was adjusted to 170 260 Ampere for
electrode diameter of 5.0 mm.

xciv.
4. The electrode was placed on the electrode holder and
hold it 45 from workpiece.
5. 4 parameters were welded by the welder on the same
workpiece plate:
i.
DC Reverse Polarity (DCRP), trailing method
ii.
DC Reverse Polarity (DCRP), leading method
iii.
DC Straight Polarity (DCSP), trailing method
iv.
AC, trailing method
6. The weld beads were chipped, brushed and cleaned
thoroughly.

31

ii.

Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

1. A piece of mild steel plate was prepared.
2. Two types of electrode were prepared:
Thoriated tungsten

7.
Pure tungsten
8.

3. The current value were adjusted to 130 Ampere.

9.

4. 3 parameters were welded on the same workpiece plate

with angle of 45:
i.
DC Thoriated Tungsten
ii.
AC Thoriated Tungsten
iii.
AC Pure Tungsten

32

b. Location: Material Science Laboratory

i. Applied for both SMAW and GTAW specimens
1. Specimens were grinded by using sand paper according
to the following grit size sequence:
i.
P240 (Rough Grinding)
ii.
P320 (Rough Grinding)
iii.
P400 (Rough Grinding)
iv.
P600 (Fine Grinding)
v.
P1200 (Fine Grinding)
10.

11.

Figure 27: Grinding process

33

2. The specimens were polished until it obtained mirror-like

surface. They were polished by using Alumina Polishing
Powder according to the following sequence:
i.
9.5 m (Rough Polishing)
ii.
5 m (Rough Polishing)
iii.
3 m (Fine Polishing)
iv.
1 m (Fine Polishing)
3.

4. Figure 28: Polishing process

5.

34

6. Figure 29: Polished specimen (mirror-like surface)

7. The specimens were cleaned by using ethanol in an
ultrasonic cleaner for 20 minutes.
8.

9. Figure 30: Cleaning process

35

10. The specimens were etched for a few seconds with Nital
solution.

11.
12. Figure 31: Etching process
13.

14. Figure 32: Etching material table

15. The specimen were observed under a microscope and
data were collected.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
36

23.
24.
25.

Figure 33: The specimen

observation under the

26.

Figure 34: Data

collection using
IMAPS version 4.0
software

37

27. 6.0

RESULTS AND ANALYSIS

a. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

29. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)
31. DCRP
33. DCSP
32. DCRP
(trailin
(trailin
34. AC
(leading)
g)
g)
36. 3.12
38. 3.61
39. 4.24
37. 3.78 mm
mm
mm
mm
41. 0.38
43. 0.55
44. 0.43
42. 0.47 mm
mm
mm
mm

28. PARAMETE
RS
35. Weld Length
40. HAZ
45. Weld
Reinforcemen
t
50. Weld
Penetration
55. Overall
Height
60. Overall
Length

46. 0.65
mm

48. 0.66
mm

49. 0.7
mm

53. 0.72
mm
58. 2.82
57. 2.64 mm
mm
63. 4.81
62. 4.72 mm
mm
1: Result of SMAW

54. 1.22
mm
59. 3.06
mm
64. 5.14
mm

47. 0.60 mm

51. 0.50
mm
56. 2.28
mm
61. 3.96
mm
65.
Table

52. 0.46 mm

66. DCRP (Trailing)

68. Measured DCRP (Trailing)

67.

69.

38

70. DCRP (Leading)

72. Measured DCRP (Leading)

71.

73.

74. DCSP (Trailing)

76. Measured DCSP (Trailing)

75.

77.

78. AC

80. Measure AC

39

79.

81.

40

b. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

82. PARAMETE
RS
88. Weld Length
92. HAZ
96. Weld
Reinforceme
nt
100.
Weld
Penetration
104.
Overa
ll Height
108.
Overa
ll Length
113.

83. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)

85. DC
86. AC
87. AC (Pure
(Thoriated
(Thoriated
Tungsten)
Tungsten)
Tungsten)
89. 4.04 mm
90. 3.28 mm
91. 3.86 mm
93. 2.13 mm

94. 1.51 mm

95. 1.54 mm

97. 1.68 mm

98. 0.21 mm

99. 0.22 mm

101.

1.67
mm
105.
3.94
mm
109.
7.79
mm
112.
Table 2:

DC (Thoriated Tungsten)

102.

1.18
mm
106.
3.75
mm
110.
6.26
mm
Result of GTAW
115.

114.

103.
107.
111.

1.70
mm
4.02
mm
6.87
mm

Measured DC (Thoriated

Tungsten)
116.

117.

AC (Thoriated Tungsten)

119.

118.

Measured AC (Thoriated

Tungsten)

41

120.

121.

AC (Pure Tungsten)

123.

122.

Measured AC (Pure

Tungsten)
124.

125.
42

126.

7.0

DISCUSSIONS

a. Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW)

127. From the result above, we can see that there are four
condition or parameter of current that being test for SMAW welding
that are DCRP (trailing), DCRP (leading), DCSP (trailing) and lastly is
AC current. First of all we focus on the test comparison between
DCRP (trailing) and DCRP (leading). For this condition, we can see
that DCRP (trailing) give better result of penetration compare to
DCRP (leading). This is because a leading electrode angle pushes
the molten and slag ahead of the weld while a trailing electrode
angle pushes the molten metal away from the leading edge of the
molten weld pool, thus it help increase more the deep of the welding
penetration.
128.
Secondly is the comparison between the DCRP (trailing)
and DCSP (trailing). From the result above, we can see that the
DCSP (trailing) is winning over DCRP (trailing). For theoretically the
DCRP (trailing) is better compare the DCSP (trailing) because the
DC+ polarity produces a good bead profile with higher level of
penetration DC- polarity results is less penetration and higher
electrode melt-of rate thus make DC+ polarity more commonly used
in industry. The result contras with the theoretical happen because
by the incorrectly measurement that we take during the observation
and redraw of the macrostructure of the welding sample for both.
The surface of the sample even after undergo the polish and etch
process, still not fully show the macrostructure of the sample that
make need to redone the process that will affect the result of our
experiment.
129.
Lastly the final comparison that we do is between the
sample of DC current and AC current. From the result above, the AC
current win over the DC current that is AC current nearly twice as
the DC current. In reality, DC current is more commonly used in
industry because DC produces smoother welding output than AC
current. The output is at consistent current level all the time if we
referred to welding output vs time graph in theoretical. When the
43

welding output always consistent it will give a good penetration

level. The theoretical is different compare to our experiment
because when the experiment being doing, we using human finesse
to do the welding job. So the welding speed may or will be different
for each experiment that being done even by use the same person
hand. Different speed of weld will give different weld penetration.
130.
b. Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
131.

For this time experiment that has been conducted, we have an Gas Tungsten

Arc Welding (GTAW) which involve three (3) process which is:
1. DC (Thoriated Tungsten)
2. AC (Thoriated Tungsten)
3. AC (Pure Tungsten)
132.

All the three process are evaluated through its parameters in term of

Weld Length, Heat Affected Zone (HAZ), Weld Reinforcement, Weld Penetration,
Overall Height and Overall Length. And through here a comparison between this
three process will be made and observation will be done in order to determine which
kind of welding or process give out the best result needed in the field of GTAW
welding process.
Weld Length
133.

Among the three processes, the observation gain from the result is, DC

(Thoriated Tungsten) give out more weld of length which is 4.04 mm compared to the
other two processes. With this outcome it can be considered that the DC (Thoriated
Tungsten) process give out the best result and overcome the others process. Thoriated
tungsten electrodes are the most commonly used electrodes today and is preferred for
their longevity and ease of use. While AC (Pure Tungsten) process gave less weld
length than DC (Thoriated Tungsten) process which 3.86 mm is but exceed the weld
length from AC (Thoriated Tungsten) process. Pure tungsten electrodes (AWS
classification EWP) contain 99.50 percent tungsten, have the highest consumption
rate of all electrodes, and these electrodes form a clean, balled tip when heated and

44

provide great arc stability for AC welding with a balanced wave. On the other hand,
AC (Thoriated Tungsten) process give out the least weld length among the three
process which is 3.28 mm. Overall, it can be say that the welding process must be
choose wisely on what material need to be weld because different process of weld
give out different kind of result which is a right choose type of welding must be used
to obtain a good final result on welding the specimen.
134.
135.
Heat Affected Zone (HAZ)
136.

The heat-affected zone (HAZ) is the area of base material, either

a metal or a thermoplastic, which is not melted and has had its microstructure and
properties altered by welding or heat intensive cutting operations. The heat from the
welding process and subsequent re-cooling causes this change from the weld interface
to the termination of the sensitizing temperature in the base metal. The extent and
magnitude of property change depends primarily on the base material, the weld filler
metal, and the amount and concentration of heat input by the welding process. From
the result obtain in the experiment that has been conducted, DC (Thoriated Tungsten)
process give the most value in HAZ which is 2.13 mm compared to the both other
process. Second is followed by the AC (Pure Tungsten) process which is less than the
DC (Thoriated Tungsten) process with 1.54 mm and exceed the AC (Thoriated
Tungsten) process. AC (Thoriated Tungsten) process gives out the least value for
HAZ in comparison with the other process which is 1.51 mm.
Weld Reinforcement
137.

Weld reinforcement is one of the parameter need to be followed by

welder if a desire result needed, but, a precaution also need to be ensure that there is
no excess weld reinforcement and least weld reinforcement on order to get a good
result and to avoid from waste in term of energy and cost. It is also to avoid
unnecessary accident toward the specimen used. To compare out the result in weld
reinforcement value between those three processes it seems like the result are
45

obviously like the other parameters. DC (Thoriated Tungsten) process are contain
high value of weld reinforcement compared to the other process which is 1.68 mm.
second, followed by the AC (Pure Tungsten) process which have less value than DC
(Thoriated Tungsten) which is 0.22 mm and a little bit more and nearly with the AC
(Thoriated Tungsten) which its value is 0.21 mm.
138.
139.
140.
141.
Weld Penetration
142.

Depth of fusion (aka "penetration") is the distance that fusion extends

into the base metal or previous pass from the surface melted during welding. The
weld will become strong by not how deep the penetration go but with how good the
filler or molten metal diffuse with the base metal to become a homogenous. Is this
experiment it turns out that the AC (Pure Tungsten) process contain more value on
depth of weld penetration which is 1.70 mm compared to the others process. While
DC (Thoriated Tungsten) have less value of weld penetration than the AC (Pure
Tungsten) which is 1.67 mm. Followed by the least value of the weld penetration
among other process through the AC (Thoriated Tungsten) process which its value is
1.18 mm.
Overall Height and Length
143.

For the overall value for all of three process in height and length, it can

be say that in term of overall height the AC (Pure Tungsten) process give out more
value of height compared to the other process which is 4.02 mm. While DC
(Thoriated Tungsten) process give out less than AC (Pure Tungsten) process but
exceed the AC (Thoriated Tungsten) process which is 3.94 mm. But the AC
(Thoriated Tungsten) process eventually give out the least value of overall height
value compared among the others process. Moreover, in term of overall length, DC
46

(Thoriated Tungsten) process produce a rather higher value compared to the other
process which is 7.79 mm. While AC (Pure Tungsten) process produce 6.87 mm of
overall length which is less than DC (Thoriated Tungsten) process but more than AC
(Thoriated Tungsten) process. The AC (Thoriated Tungsten) process give theleast
value of the overall length compared among the others process which its value is 6.26
mm.

144.

It can be said that, among all the process that has been done,

the DC (Thoriated Tungsten) process are strive among the other by

looking at the obtained result from the previous conducted
experiment.

47

145.

8.0

CONCLUSION

146.

In conclusion, our experiment is success to achieve the main objective

of our experiment. We able to apply and study the different and effect of each
microstructure of the weld that already being set with a different polarity of current
supply. Beside we also can study the effect of the polarity of the current supply to the
depth of penetration for SMAW and GTAW. We success to apply and connect the
theoretical of SMAW and GTAW with a practical in real life of welding industrial.

48

147.

9.0

RECOMMENDATION

148. In this engineering field or manufacturing field that required most of the
product using welding as the one of the alternative permanent joint, is crucial to
ensure that all the welding preparation and procedure are following its standard. The
welding process must be inspected by the professional to obtain undeniable good
weld product. As the recommendation in SMAW and GTAW welding process, other
things should be include improving the process to get much better result such as:
1. Understand its basic working fundamental of the SMAW and GTAW
process.
2. Follow an AWSs standard as the early expose toward the right way to weld
during the experiment.
3. Proper attire of personal protective equipment (PPE) for weld to avoid
unnecessary accident.
4.

Brief intensively on how to master the weld skill on SMAW and GTAW
welding process.

5. Advance machine for the proper study on effects of welding on the work
specimen.
6. The welding should be done on different plate for each type
of process for ease of observation and their accuracy.
149.

10.0

REFERENCES

1. Ray Herren (2014), Agricultural Mechanics: Fundamentals & Applications 7th

Edition, Cengage Learning.
2. Saleem Hashmi (2014), Comprehensive Materials Processing, Newnes
3. Larry Jeffus (2011), Welding: Principles and Applications 7th Edition, Cengage
Learning
4. Arthur C. Reardon (2011), Metallurgy for the Non-Metallurgist 2nd Edition,
ASM International.
5. Larry Jeffus, Lawrence Bower (2009), Welding Skills, Processes and Practices
for Entry-Level Welders Book 3, Cengage Learning.
150.
49