UNIT 21

NON-FINITE FORMS: THE INFINITIVE AND THE ING

FORM. MAIN STRUCTURAL FEATURES: FORM, MAIN
USES AND FUNCTIONS.
OUTLINE
1.

INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
1.2. Notes on bibliography.

2.

A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE INFINITIVE AND THE -ING FORM.

2.1. Linguistic levels involved.
2.2. Phrase, sentence and clause structure.
2.2.1. The phrase structure.
2.2.2. Sentence vs. clause structure.
2.3. The clause structure: finite vs. non-finite forms.
2.4. Grammar categories involved: open vs. closed classes.

3.

MAIN STRUCTURAL FEATURES: FORM, MAIN USES AND FUNCTIONS.

3.1. THE INFINITIVE.
3.1.1. The infinitive: main forms.
3.1.1.1. The infinitive with to.
3.1.1.2. The infinitive without to.
3.1.2. The infinitive: main uses.
3.1.2.1. The infinitive with to
3.1.2.2. The infinitive without to.
3.1.3. The infinitive: main functions.
3.1.3.1. The infinitive with to.
3.1.3.2. The infinitive without to.
3.2. THE ING FORM.
3.2.1. Gerund vs. Present participle.
3.2.2. The ing: form.
3.2.3. The ing: main uses.
3.2.3.1. As an adjective.
3.2.3.2. As a verb.
3.2.3.3. As a noun.
3.2.4. The ing: main functions.
3.2.4.1. As subject.
3.2.4.2. As predicate.
3.2.4.3.
3.2.4.4.
3.2.4.5.
3.2.4.6.
3.2.4.7.

As verb complement.
After prepositions.
As relative clauses.
As adverbial clauses.
As idiomatic expressions.

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4.
5.

3.3. THE INFINITIVE VS. THE ING FORM.

EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.
CONCLUSION.

6.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

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1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
Unit 21 is primarily aimed to examine in English two of the three non-finite forms: the infinitive and
the ing form in terms of their main structural features regarding form, function and uses in order to
provide a relevant and detailed account of this issue despite the fact it is not stated in the original
title.
Then, the study will be divided into seven chapters. Thus, Chapter 2 provides a theoretical
framework for the infinitive and the ing form by answering questions such as, first, (1) which
linguistic levels are involved so as to know where these notions are to be found within linguistic
studies; second, (2) what is a phrase, sentence and clause structure in terms of linguistic units or
constituents of small or larger syntactic structures; (3) third, within the clause structure, which are
finite vs. non-finite forms ; and finally (4) which grammar categories are involved in their
description at a categorial level in clause structure: finite vs. non-finite forms. Once this key
terminology is defined, the reader is prepared for the descriptive account in subsequent chapters.
Once we have set up the linguistic framework, in Chapter 3 we shall offer a general introduction to
these two non-finite forms with respect to their main structural features. The two forms will be
analysed in terms of form, main uses and functions, namely following morphological, phonological,
syntactic, semantic and pragmatic guidelines. Thus first of all, we shall examine the infinitive main
forms (the full infinitive and the bare infinitive) through their uses and functions. Similarly, we do
the same with the ing form, but by introducing the issue with the distinction between gerund and
present participle in order to examine their main uses and functions. Once both of them are stated,
we move on to analyse the main differences between the infinitive and the ing form.
Chapter 4 provides an educational framework for the teaching of the infinitive and the ing form
within our current school curriculum, and Chapter 5 draws on a summary of all the points involved
in this study. Finally, in Chapter 6 bibliography will be listed in alphabetical order.

1.2. Notes on bibliography.

In order to offer an insightful analysis and survey on the form, function and use of the infinitive and
the ing non-finite forms in English, we shall deal with the most relevant works in the field, both
old and current, and in particular, influential grammar books which have assisted for years students
of English as a foreign language in their study of grammar. For instance, a theoretical framework
for this type of verbs is namely drawn from the field of sentence analysis, that is, from the work of
Thomson & Martinet in A Practical English Grammar (1986) and Flor Aarts and Jan Aarts
(University of Nijmegen, Holland) in English Syntactic Structures (1988), whose material has been
tested in the classroom and developed over a number of years; also, another essential work is that of
Rodney Huddleston, English Grammar, An Outline (1988).
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Other classic references which offer an account of the most important and central grammatical
constructions and categories in English regarding non-finite forms, are Quirk & Greenbaum, A
University Grammar of English (1973); Snchez Benedito, Gramtica Inglesa (1975); Greenbaum
& Quirk, A Students Grammar of the English Language (1990).
More current approaches to notional grammar are David Bolton and Noel Goodey, Grammar
Practice in Context (1997); John Eastwood, Oxford Practice in Grammar (1999); Sidney
Greenbaum, The Oxford Reference Grammar (2000); Gerald Nelson, English: An Essential
Grammar (2001); Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, The Cambridge Grammar of the
English Language (2002); and. Angela Downing and Philip Locke, A University Course in English
Grammar (2002).

2.

A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE INFINITIVE AND THE ING FORM.

Before examining in detail the infinitive and the ing form in English in terms of form, main
functions and uses, it is relevant to establish first a theoretical framework for these two non-finite
forms in order to fully understand the following chapters since they must be described in
grammatical terms.
In fact, this theoretical chapter aims at answering questions such as, first, (1) which linguistic levels
are involved so as to know where these notions are to be found within linguistic studies; second, (2)
what functions they have in phrase, sentence and clause structure in terms of linguistic units or
constituents of small or larger syntactic structures; (3) and third, which grammar categories are
involved in their description at a categorial level in claus e structure: finite vs. non-finite forms.
Once this key terminology is defined, the reader is prepared for the descriptive account in
subsequent chapters.

2.1. Linguistic levels involved.

In order to offer a linguistic description of the infinitive and ing forms, we must confine them to
particular levels of analysis so as to focus our attention on this particular aspect of language. Yet,
although there is no consensus of opinion on the number of levels to be distinguished, the usual
description of a language comprises four major components: phonology, grammar, lexicon, and
semantics, out of which we get five major levels: phonological, morphological and syntactic,
lexical, and semantic (Huddleston, 1988).
These five levels will offer us a linguistic approach to the infinitive and the ing form in terms of
form and function. However, we must not forget the linguistic fields of pragmatics and
sociolinguistics in order to make us understand the main uses of this type of structures in everyday
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speech. For instance, the former by studying the use of signs and the relationship between signs and
their users and the second, by studying the interaction of language and social organization in real
communicative situations. As we shall see later, both of them are so closely related to the field of
semantics when we have to set up some rules about the placing of infinitive or ing after certain
verbs.
Thus, first, the phonology describes the sound level, that is, how to pronounce the to of the
infinitive and the ing forms (i.e. the weak form of to in You have to go or strong in To go on
holidays is fantastic/the suffix ing in skiing) and so on. Secondly, the morphological level (i.e.
infinitive formation) and the syntactic level (i.e. where to place these two forms in a sentence).
Third, the lexicon, or lexical level, deals with lists of vocabulary items which, for our purposes, are
lists of verbs (i.e. infinitives and present participles). Moreover, lexis deals with the notion of verb
phrase semantics regarding the choice between different types of verbal aspects (i.e. finite vs.
nonfinite forms, progressive vs. nonprogressive aspect, etc), and other means such as other formal
realizations of these notions (i.e. a noun phrase, a verbless clause, a finite clause, etc).
Finally, another dimension between the study of linguistic form and the study of meaning is
semantics, or the semantic level, to which all four of the major components are related in this study.
We must not forget that a linguistic description which ignores meaning is obviously incomplete,
and in particular, when dealing with these two non-finite forms. In fact, it is the field of semantics
which establishes the differences between the use of infinitive and the use of the -ing present
participle after certain verbs where syntactic and morphological levels do not tell the difference (i.e.
Do you remember seeing this man before?= action which occurred beforehand vs. Remember to
switch off the lights before you leave = action which comes afterwards ).

2.2. Phrase, sentence and clause structure.

The distinction between phrase, sentence and clause structure at a functional level is relevant for our
study since both the infinitive and the ing forms will be related to them as constituents, that is, as
elements or grammatical categories into which a sentence can be segmented and which actually
play a role in large syntactic structures (phrases, sentences and clauses).
Then, they will function first, in terms of single units of syntactic description within the structure of
the phrase (noun phrase, adjective phrase, verb phrase, etc) and second, in terms of larger units as
part of the structure of the sentence (subject and predicate) or embedded in the sentence structure,
that is, clauses (subordinate). Following Aarts (1988), these larger structures are, apart form the
morpheme and the word, two major units of grammatical description. But let us examine their
main differences.

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2.2.1.

The phrase structure.

The phrase structure is defined as a constituent which can be identified on the basis of the word
class membership of at least one of its constituent words which is called the head of the phrase
(i.e. a noun phrase is a phrase which has a noun as its most important constituent and similarly with
an adjective or adverbial phrase). Note that the other elements show a relation of dependency or
subordination to the head (in noun phrases we find: determiners which are divided into pre-centralpost determiners and modifiers: pre or post modifiers).
However, the factors which determine which of the words of a phrase constitutes its principal part
are not the same for all five phrase types. Thus, in three types, the noun, adjective and adverb
phrase, the dominant element is that which can replace the whole phrase wit hout affecting the
structure of the sentence (i.e. We like medieval stories = we like stories). However, a fourth type of
phrase, the verb phrase, differs from the former in that the essential element, mainly taken from
semantic considerations, cannot replace the whole phrase without causing serious harm to syntactic
structure (i.e. John has phoned Cristine vs. John phoned Cristine).
On the other hand, the fifth type of phrase, the prepositional phrase, differs from the rest in that the
element that gives its name to the phrase cannot be called its head since it cannot replace the whole
phrase. In addition, only one of its constituents is a preposition and therefore, its relation is not one
of subordination but one of government.
Yet, regarding the partic ipation of infinitive and ing forms in phrase structures, we namely find
them in (1) noun phrases as premodifiers although they are fully adjectival in character (i.e. a
sweeping statement; a passing car; moving shadows; barking dogs) as well as postmodifiers (i.e.
We have something to do ); and (2) in adjective phrases when the adjective is followed by an
infinitive clause (i.e. a man easy to persuade; a theory too difficult to explain). Note that they
appear sometimes obligatorily in certain structures, such as too difficult to..., eager enough to...,
and so on. Moreover, in (3) adverb phrases (i.e. He behaved so strangely as to frighten everybody);
and (4) prepositional phrases (i.e. He is very good at playing cards).
Moreover, three types of non-finite clauses can occur in postmodification: infinitive clauses in noun
phrases (i.e. He is the woman to talk to; Our hope to reach the semi-finals was unfounded ),
adjective phrases (i.e. I am glad to be here) , -ing participle clauses (i.e. The gold was discovered by
two men digging a shaft; He received a letter asking him to return to Germany) and ed participle
clauses (i.e. Soldiers found guilty of looting will be prosecuted; the techniques used by the research
team are sound). As the examples show, some infinitive clauses are reduced relative or appositive
clauses (i.e. We have no indication where to look; This is the hotel at which to stay tonight). Ing
participle and ed participle clauses are reduced relative clauses as well.

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2.2.2.

Sentence vs. clause structure.

In order to clarify the difference between sentence and clause syntactic differences, we must review
the hierarchy of units of linguistic description when dealing with this duality. For instance, we
observe that morphemes function as constituents of words, words function as constitutents of
phrases and phrases as constituents of sentences. But then, what is the difference between sentence
and clause structure? Arent they the same?
The sentence is actually identifiable on the basis of the relations holding among its immediate
constituents (subject, predicate, direct/indirect object, complement, adverbial, and so on). Yet, the
sentence is placed at the other extreme of the rank scale and regarded as the largest unit of
grammatical description since it does not function in the structure of a unit higher than itself
(Aarts, 1988:79). Moreover, to treat the sentence as the highest unit implies that we do not take
into account larger stretches of language such as paragraphs and texts because this is the domain of
text grammar or discourse analysis.
Once we have assumed that the sentence is the largest unit of grammatical description and that it
does not function in the structure of a unit higher than itself, we are ready to understand the duality
sentence vs. clause by means of two further possibilities. First, when a sentence functions in the
structure of another sentence of the same rank (i.e. I believe that he is quite loyal; what she says is
false); and secondly, when a sentence functions in the structure of a phrase, that is in the structure of
a unit lower than itself (i.e. as postmodifier: the man that came yesterday was a politician; she is
afraid of what may happen here).
Hence, when sentences are embedded in the structure of other sentences or in the structure of
phrases we call them clauses, which usually corresponds to the notions of subordination (or
embedding) and coordination. Note that clauses can have other clauses embedded in them, as in
That she is rich is obvious or The problem is that they have no money left.
Up to this point, we must establish the difference between simple and complex sentences since the
former are sentences in which none of the functions are realized by a clause, that is, a simple
sentence is always an independent sentence which does not contain an embedded (or subordinate)
sentence as realization of one of its functions (i.e. John is a bachelor vs. that John is a bachelor).
On the other hand, sentences involving subordination are called complex and those involving
coordination are called compound (i.e. The conclusion we came to was brilliant vs. Your conclusion
is brilliant but mine is excellent).
Within this context, clauses can be classified in two ways. From a structural point of view we can
distinguish three types: first, finite clauses; second, non-finite clauses; and finally, verbless clauses.
Once we have set up the notions of phrase, sentence and clause within a linguistic framework, we
can continue with our analysis on sentence and clause structures by specifying (1) the functions that
their constituents have in sentence structure by reviewing the difference between finite vs. non-

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finite forms (since it is the latter we shall deal with throughout our study), and secondly, (2) the
categories to which their constituents belong (examined in the subsequent section).
2.3. The clause structure: finite vs. non-finite forms.
In order to examine the clause structure at sentence level, that is, finite vs. nonfinite clauses, we
must examine their main differences in terms of morphology and main syntactic functions.
On the one hand, their main structural features follow morphological and syntactic guidelines. For
instance, first of all, (1) in morphological terms, finite clauses contain a finite verb phrase whic h is
formed by an only word capable of showing tense, mood, aspect and voice (i.e. He always tells me
frightening stories about ghosts=tense: simple present; mood: third person singular indicative;
aspect: simple; voice:active). If this verb is not first in a sequence of more verbs, this would be
nonfinite (i.e. He is always laughing).
Therefore, non-finite clauses contain a non-finite verb phrase realized by an infinitive, with or
without to (speak or to speak), an ing participle (speaking) or an ed participle (spoken/called ).
Yet, any clause in which one of these verb forms is the first or only word (disregarding the
infinitive marker to) is a non-finite form. Alike finite verb clauses, nonfinite forms do not
normally occur as the verb phrase of an independent clause. For instance, To dance like that
deserves an award, I found him dancing like crazy or Having been insulted before, he was more
sensitive than ever.
(2) In general, regarding their main syntactic functions, which is the core of our study, their main
differences are, first, that finite verb forms can occur as the verb phrase of independent clauses
because they always contain a subject and predicate, except in the case of commands and ellipsis
whereas non-finite forms cannot, since they may be constructed without a subject, and usually are.
Note that the base form, which has no inflection, is sometimes finite (i.e. You go to school
everyday) when it takes first position in predication, and sometimes nonfinite (i.e. You have gone to
school twice today) when it takes second position.
Thus, the four classes of non-finite verb phrase serve to distinguish four classes of non-finite
clauses, for instance, (1) the bare infinitive (i.e. He may arrive tonight); (2) the to-infinitive (i.e. We
want him to arrive soon); (3) the ing participle (i.e. living ) as a nonfinite verb in (a) the
progressive aspect following be (i.e. He is living in California) and (b) in ing participle clauses
(i.e. Calling early, I found her in her office); and (4) the ed participle (i.e. lived/driven) as a
nonfinite verb in (a) the present perfect aspect following have (i.e. He has lived in Madrid for ten
years), (b) the passive voice following be (i.e. Her sister is called Angie ) and (c) ed participle
clauses (i.e. Called early, he took a hot bath ).

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2.4. Grammar categories involved: open vs. closed classes.

So far, in order to confine the non-finite forms to particular grammatical categories, we must review
first the difference between open and closed classes. Traditionally, the open classes are verbs,
nouns, adjectives and adverbs, and are said to be unrestricted since they allow the addition of new
members to their membership, whereas the closed classes are the rest: prepositions, conjunctions,
articles (definite and indefinite), numerals, pronouns, quantifiers and interjections, which belong to
a restricted class since they do not allow the creation of new members.
Then, as we can see, when taking non-finite forms to sentence level, we are namely dealing with
open word classes, since we are dealing with lists of verbs in the bare infinitive and ing participle
in noun phrase structures (i.e. The driving was no good at all) and adjectival structures (i.e. That
terrifying accident happened yesterday ) and in adverb phrases as modifiers. Moreover, we also find
closed classes such as prepositions when dealing with prepositional phrases although non-finite
forms are not the head of the phrase but part of it.

3. MAIN STRUCTURAL FEATURES: FORM, MAIN USES AND FUNCTIONS.

With respect to the main structural features of the two non-finite forms under study, that is, the
infinitive and the ing form, both of them will be analysed in terms of form, main uses and
functions, namely following morphological, phonological, syntactic, semantic and pragmatic
guidelines. Thus we shall examine their form regarding morphology (verbal structures) and
phonology (pronunciation) whereas function will be approached in terms of syntax (verb phrase
structure) and semantics (noun and verbal meanings/differences and therefore, use) in order to get
an overall view of these two forms. Note that the notions of meaning and use (or semantics and
pragmatics) will go hand in hand since it is the everyday usage that gives us the clue to distinguish
them.

3.1. THE INFINITIVE.

3.1.1. The infinitive: main forms .
As stated above, the infinitive may take two main forms: the infinitive with to (more commonly
known as the full infinitive) as in He has decided to go now and the infinitive without to (or bare
infinitive) as in He may leave tonight. Moreover, different types of infinitives will be examined in
next sections when its main uses and functions are addressed.

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3.1.1.1. The infinitive with to.

First of all, the infinitive with to or full infinitive is formed by the preposition (or sometimes
called proclitic particle) to + the base form of the verb (i.e. He decided to leave tonight). Other
frequent structures are so as/in order + to. These structures are used to state the verb in assertive
contexts (to be/so as to be/in order to be) whereas in non-assertive contexts the structure is not +
full infinitive (not to be/so as not to be/in order not to be), hence Hamlets popular statement To be
or not to be. The full infinitive is usually pronounced with the weak form /t + schwa/ within the
speech chain but if pronounced separately and slowly, as in short answers (i.e. Do you ski? No, but I
used to) we find the strong form /tu:/.
The infinitive form, as well as other grammatical elements like nouns may be classified into simple
infinitive and complex infinitive (Snchez Benedito, 1975). It is within the various types of full
infinitive forms with to that we find the presence of finite forms features like aspect (present or
progressive) and voice (active or passive). Thus, the simple infinitive includes present infinitive
(to write), present continuous infinitive (to be writing), present infinitive passive (to be written)
and present continuous passive (to be being written). On the other hand, the complex infinitive
includes all the perfect forms, for instance, the perfect infinitive (to have written), the perfect
continuous infinitive (to have been writing), the perfect infinitive passive (to have been written)
and the perfect continuous passive (to have been being written).
In addition, the full infinitive may appear with or without a subject, where the latter is the most
common one since no elements are introduced between to and the bare infinitive (i.e. The best
thing is to tell him right now). However, despite that fact that it is not normally advisable to put any
elements between to and the verb, we often find the full infinitive with a subject in between within
the structure: for + subject (usually object pronouns) + full infinitive (i.e. The best thing would be
for her to tell him right now). Moreover, we find other constructions such as split infinitives where
emphatic elements (usually degree adverbs) are placed after the to in colloquial English (i.e. It
would take ages to really solve this mystery; shes asking you to simply tell the truth ).

3.1.1.2. The infinitive without to.

Alike the infinitive with to, the infinitive without to or also known as bare infinitive (Jespersen,
1933,1970;Thomson & Martinet, 1986) and plain infinitive (Zandvoort, 1973) is namely
represented by the base form of the verb. Because of its simple structure, it is often connected
syntactically with certain elements in order to form a complete unit, for instance, with auxiliary
verbs, both primary (be, have, do) and modals (can, could, may, etc), idiomatic expressions (had
better, would rather) and certain constructions (make/let + pronoun + bare infinitive).
In addition, it is relevant to mention that the bare infinitive and these structures also form a unit in
phonological terms, that is, regarding accent, stress and intonation within the speech chain (i.e.

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Youd better go; she must buy it), particularly when emphasis falls on the bare infinitive for the sake
of clarity or detail (i.e. I said you must read it, not write it).
3.1.2. The infinitive: main uses.
As mentioned in the second chapter, the infinitive main be used in different contexts depending on
its syntactic sentence structure, but it is namely us ed in certain contexts where meaning has much to
say where form and function cannot tell the difference, for instance, these two sentences: I like
getting unexpected invitations and I like to get unexpected invitations. There is a subtle
difference of meaning that probably a foreign student of English at the beginners level may not
grasp at once, for instance, the former means I enjoy unexpected invitations whereas the latter
means I want/wish unexpected invitations. Therefore, let us examine the different uses that the full
infinitive and the bare infinitive take in everyday speech.

3.1.2.1. The infinitive with to.

The infinitive with to is frequently found in everyday speech with nominal features rather than
verbal implying different meanings in different contexts. We must bear in mind though, due to its
nominal features, it will be used in the contexts of noun, adjective, and in less degree, adverb
phrases. So, the infinitive with to is namely used (Thomson & Martinet, 1986):
(1) as a noun:
at the beginning of a sentence functioning as a subject (i.e. To stop smoking is almost
impossible) or in exclamatory sentences (i.e. Wow! To be on holidays again!);

as the object or part of the object of a verb in predicative position (i.e. He wants to
drink a cola);
as the complement of a verb in predicative position, usually afterbe, become, seem
(i.e. His main goal is to pass the exam);
after interrogative pronouns functioning as a subordinate noun phrase (i.e.
how/where/when, etc + to know) as in I know where to find her;
(2) as a modifier:
after certain nouns or indefinite pronouns (i.e. a book to read, shoes to mend; something
to eat);
after certain adjectives (i.e. easy to understand, glad to see you, willing to finish). In
case the verb is formed with a particle, this is placed at the end of the phrase (i.e. It was
nice to look at);
(3) to express:
purpose or result as predicator complement in adverbial clauses (i.e. He drove so
fast to show off; to speak franklly, I dont like him);
to express commands or instructions (i.e. No one is to leave this building);

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to express purpose (i.e. Ive come to stay). In this case, it may be substituted by
other frequent constructions such as so as/in order + (not) to. Note that when the
infinitive does not express purpose, it is necessary the use of other elements such as
only (i.e. I came at six, only to find you gone);
(4) to join two clauses (i.e. He hurried to my house only to find that it was empty);
(5) to replace relative clauses (i.e. He is always the first to come);
(6) after certain verbs:
as stated before, afterbe, become, seem (i.e. He seems to be tired
after some semi-auxiliaries (i.e. be able to, be about to, be due to, be bound to,
be going to, be likely to, be supposed to and have to);
some catenative verbs (i.e. start/finish + working/to work);
some modal idioms (i.e. have got to, and be to);

and finally, after a set of verbs which express volition, cognition, perception, and so on.
They must be followed by the full infinitive and not the gerund (i.e. afford, aim, allow,
arrange, decide, expect, hope, manage, swear, tend, promise, volunteer, and so on).
(7) within certain constructions such as:
too/enough + adjective/adverb + full infinitive (i.e. It is too dark to see/He is mature
enough to understand the situation);
verb + accusative noun/pronoun + full infinitive (i.e. I want him to come back),
which are subordinated to another part of the sentence, usually a preceding verb;
(8) and finally, as part of idiomatic expressions (i.e. To tell you the truth; He is said to be a
criminal; to be honest, I do not agree with you);

3.1.2.2. The infinitive without to.

Although the full infinitive is the most common form, the bare infinitive is also found in certain
constructions in everyday speech entailing different meanings but this time with more verbal
features than noun ones. Therefore, the bare infinitive is namely used (Thomson & Martinet, 1986):
(1) in certain type of sentences:
subject attributive sentences where the subject is a whole sentence (i.e. What youve done is
(to) spoil everything);
some interrogative sentences which express surprise or doubt (i.e. Help them? Never in my
life; Barbar marry you? Dont be silly!);
in interrogative sentences which begin with why or why not (i.e. Why wait for them?;
Why not go now?);
in answers to questions (i.e. What shall we do if you dont come on time? Begin without
me). Note that in any other case we shall use the to-infinitive as expressing purpose (i.e.
Why did you come so early? To watch the match).

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(2) after certain verbs:

after auxiliary modal verbs (i.e. can, could, may, might, will, shall, should, ought to1 , must)
and semi-auxiliaries (i.e. have to);
with verbs of perception such as hear, see, watch, feel and so on (i.e. I saw him enter)
when the action is done and completed (in opposition to I saw him walking where the
action was taking place). However, note that in the passive voice these verbs are used with
to-infinitive constructions (i.e. He was seen to enter);
the modal idioms (had better/would rather); and modal auxiliary marginal verbs (i.e.
can/need/dare/could/might/may/etc). However, note that in the passive, they take the toinfinitive (i.e. He was dared to fight);
with some other verbs and expressions that take the bare infinitive, for instance, verb +
noun/pronoun + bare infinitive (i.e. make/let);

and with the verb help (i.e. I helped him cut the grass) although sometimes it takes the toinfinitive (i.e. He helped me to do my homework);

3.1.3. The infinitive: main functions.

As mentioned in the second chapter, the infinitive main functions are closely related to the functions
of clauses since non-finite forms may only be embedded in the syntactic structure of the sentence by
means of clauses. We must bear in mind that the functions of subject and predicate are two
obligatory parts of the sentence, where both the to-infinitive and the bare infinitive may work (i.e.
To smoke [subject] can kill [predicate]). Then, both the infinitive with to or without to will
depend heavily on the type of clause they represent syntactically and also, to the main uses they
express from a semantic point of view.
Clauses, then, are classified in terms of the functions they can play in the structure of the sentence
where we can namely distinguish the following types: subject clauses, direct object clauses, indirect
object clauses , benefactive object clauses, subject attribute clauses, object attribute clauses,
predicator complement clauses and adverbial clauses (Aarts, 1988).
With respect to the functions that infinitive forms may carry out, Aarts (1988) states that with the
exception of the indirect object and the benefactive object (a type of indirect object), sentence
functions can be realized by both finite and non-finite clauses in which the infinitive forms are
included. So let us examine the main functions that both the full infinitive and the bare infinitive
can take: (1) the infinitive as subject, (2) the infinitive as direct object, (3) the infinitive as a verb
complement, (4) the infinitive after verb + object, (5) the infinitive with subject, (6) the split
infinitive, (7) the infinitive as a connective link and (8) the infinitive as an adverbial clause.

It must be borne in mind that the forms have to and ought to are full forms where the to particle is part
of the verb and it is not considered as a part of the full infinitive.

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3.1.3.1. The infinitive as subject.

The infinitive or the infinitive phrase may take the function of subject of a clause when
(1) it is placed at the beginning of a sentence with the verbs appear, be, seem (i.e. To
have breakfast in bed is nice);
(2) or when it is at the end of the sentence as an attributive subject (i.e. To know her is
to love her). We must bear in mind that the infinitive forms have nominal character
so they may function as nouns (To behave like this would be madness). Note that
the ing participle may be also used as the subject of a sentence when the action is
being considered in a general sense (i.e. Saving money seems impossible).
(3) We use the it construction because it is more usual to place the pronoun it first.
Then the infinitive is moved to the end of the sentence (i.e. It was easy to do it).
Usually infinitive constructions of this type consist of it + be + adjective +
infinitive (i.e. It would be a crime not to buy it).
(4) It is preceded by verbs of cognition, such as believe, consider, discover, expect,
find, think and wonder (if) (i.e. He thought it would be a crime not to tell him).
Moreover, note its use with interrogatives (i.e. Would it be safe to camp here?).
(5) Within this construction the verbs cost and take are also used (i.e. It takes half
an hour to get to the castle).
(6) Finally, the perfect infinitive can also be used as the subject of a sentence (i.e. To
have told me a lie is unforgettable) and similarly we may use it first (i.e. It is
better to have loved and lost than never to have loved at all).
3.1.3.2. The infinitive as direct object.
The infinitive or the infinitive phrase may take the function of direct object of a clause when
(1) it is placed after certain verbs, such as agree, aim, appear, arrange, ask, attempt, bother, care
(negative), choose, claim, condescend, consent, decide, decline, demand, determine, fail, forget,
happen, hesitate, hope, learn, long, manage, neglect, offer, plan, prepare, proceed, refuse,
remember, resolve, swear, threaten, try, and vow among others (Thomson & Martinet, 1986); for
instance, He determined/decided/learnt + to leave the city).
(2) Other verbs or expressions can also be used with a that-clause (i.e. I promise to tell you = I
promise that I will tell you) and some of them require an introductory it (i.e. It
occurred/happened/appeared/seemed/turn out to me that he was concealing something).
(3) However, sometimes a verb + full infinitive does not have the same meaning as the same verb
used with a that-clause, for instance, the verbs learn, forget and remember (i.e. He learnt to swim
vs. He learnt (was told) that it would be difficult to swim). This construction is also possible in the
continuous infinitive with the verbs agree, arrange, decide, determine, hope, manage, plan and the

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auxiliary verbs (i.e. He decided to be following them). The perfect infinitive is also possible (i.e.
He would have liked to see it).
(4) It is within this function as direct object that we find the structure verb +
how/what/when/where/which/why + full infinitive. In it the most frequently used verbs are ask,
decide, discover, find out, forget, know, learn, remember, see, show, think, understand, want to
know and wonder among others (i.e. I dont know what to do; I showed her how to do it). Also,
whether + full infinitive is also used (i.e. I wonder whether to write or phone).

3.1.3.3. The infinitive as a verb complement.

The infinitive may also function as a verb complement and, in particular, after certain verbs or
expressions. For instance:
(1) the bare infinitive after the auxiliary verbs be, can, dare, do, have, may, must, need, ought,
shall, will, used (i.e. He need leave the city now);
(2) the full infinitive after verbs expressing likes and dislikes (i.e. care, hate, like, love and prefer)
although they can be also function with the gerund form;
(3) after verbs of knowing and thinking, such as assume, believe, consider, feel, know, suppose,
understand, think, estimate and presume) as in I consider him to be the best candidate;
(4) after certain phrases that can also be followed by an infinitive, such as be about, be able +
afford, do ones best, do what one can, make an effort, make up ones mind, set out, and turn out
among others (i.e. We cant afford to live in the centre; she is just about to leave).

3.1.3.4. The infinitive after verb + object.

The infinitive may function as a direct object or as an infinitive with accusative, thas is, within the
structure verb + object + infinitive (with or without to), whose translation corresponds to que +
subjunctive in Spanish (i.e. I would like him to sing in public). We shall sum up the main cases
referring to the infinitive with to and also to the bare infinitive.
(1) We find the full infinitive (and also the bare infinitive) after:
(a) verbs of knowing and thinking (mentioned above): advise, allow, command, consider,
enable, encourage, implere, invite, judge, know, let, make, oblige, order, persuade, remind,
show, tell how, train, urge, warn and watch among others (i.e. He allowed his son to go out
late); and in particular whe n the passive voice is used (i.e. He is
thought/invited/commanded to go). Note that the infinitive with accusative is particularly
found when the verb complement is the verb to be(i.e. He is thought to be older);
(b) after verbs expressing volition, such as want, request, force, cause (i.e. I wanted him to
tell me the truth);
(c) after verbs of command or request in indirect speech (i.e. order, tell, request, ask) as in I
told/ordered/asked him to stay;
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(d) ) after verbs of perception, we may find the full or the bare infinitive (and sometimes the
gerund). For instance, with the verbs feel, hear, see and watch we usually find the bare
infinitive in active forms (i.e. I heard him lock the door) and the full infinitive in the passive
form (i.e. He was seen to enter the office). Note that these verbs are frequently used with
present participles (i.e. He was seen entering the office) when they describe a progressive
action;
(2) after certain structures, such as:
(a) with the verbs let and make + object. In the active they take the bare infinitive (i.e.
He made him cry) whereas in the passive they take the full infinitive (i.e. He was made to
cry);
(b) would rather/sooner, rather/sooner than (i.e. Id rather wait until tomorrow);
(c) had better (i.e. You had better finish at once),
(d) help (i.e. He help you (to) carry those heavy bags).

3.1.3.5. The infinitive with subject.

As stated before, the full infinitive may appear with or without a subject, where the latter is the most
common one since no elements are introduced between to and the bare infinitive (i.e. The best
thing is to tell him right now). However, we often find the full infinitive with a subject in between
within the structure: for + subject (usually object pronouns) + full infinitive (i.e. The best thing
would be for her to tell him right now).

3.1.3.6. The split infinitive.

Moreover, we find other constructions such as split infinitives where emphatic elements (usually
degree adverbs) are placed after the to in colloquial English (i.e. It would take ages to really solve
this mystery; shes asking you to simply tell the truth ). This type of infinitive stands for
conventional sentences such as to cover the floor completely vs. to completely cover the floor.

3.1.3.7. The infinitive as a connective link.

The infinitive may also function as a connective link after the adverb only to express a
disappointing sequel (i.e. He hurried to the shop only to find it was closed). However, we may omit
the adverb only without the idea of misfortune (i.e. He returned home to find Sally had bought
what he needed) but this use is mainly confined to such verbs as find, hear, learn, see, be told
among others.

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3.1.3.8. The infinitive as an adverbial clause.

The infinitive as an adverbial clause refers to certain infinitive phrases that can be placed at the
beginning or sometimes at the end of a sentence. These idiomatic expressions work as introductory
sentences with are similar to introductory sentence adverbs, for instance, To be perfectly frank; to
be honest; to be fair; to cut a long story short; to tell you the truth; among others.

3.2. THE ING FORM.

In this section we shall examine the ing form, together with their main uses and functions. But
before we shall address an important distinction which will be present in our study of the ing form
regarding its structure, uses and functions, that is, the distinction between the definitions of gerund
and present participle .

3.2.1. Gerund vs. Present participle.

Following Snchez Benedito (1975), we must distinguish between the ing form as gerund and
present participle mainly because the verbal form -ing has two main different functions: (1) as a
verbal adjective or participle, hence the definition present partic iple, which implies adjectival and
verbal features. This form corresponds in Spanish to a gerund (She is working) or an adjective (a
smiling boy).
Secondly, (2) the ing form may be realized as a verbal noun, hence the definition gerund, which
implies noun and verbal features. Note that in Spanish the gerund refers to an infinitive (I like
playing tennis) or to a noun (The reading of the play will take place tonight). We shall not include
here the nouns which end in ing already, such as ceiling, stocking, and so on which have nothing
to do with the ing participle.
Therefore, depending on their adjective or noun features, we will be dealing with present
participles or gerunds. Yet, we shall translate them into Spanish: (1) as a gerund (i.e. they are
reading); (2) as adjectives which indicate actions (i.e. the crying girl=the girl that is crying); (3) as
an infinitive (i.e. before going to bed); (4) as a noun (i.e. Fishing is my favourite sport); (5) as a
whole sentence (i.e. I didnt like him saying that); and (6) to form compound nou ns (i.e. a washingmachine). Therefore, we are ready now to analyse separately the main forms, uses and functions of
the ing forms as present participle and gerund.

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3.2.2. The ing: form.

Alike the infinitive, there is only one way to construct the ing form, that is, the base form of the
verb + -ing. In order to add the suffix ing to the base form, we must pay attention to certain
spelling rules, such as the omission of final e when adding -ing (i.e. come vs. coming); the
addition of a double final consonant (i.e. sit vs. sitting); and the addition of ing to final y (i.e.
study vs. studying).
Regarding word formation, the ing form will show different features depending on its adjectival,
verbal or noun features. Thus, when considered as an adjective (present particicple), it has both
adjectival and verbal features, and it is shown in active and passive forms. Thus, in the active, we
find present (doing) and perfect forms (having done); in the passive, we find again present (being
done) and perfect forms, usually to refer to past tenses (having been done).
However, it will be when used as a noun that we shall find more changes in the way it is formed
since it will undergo the same word-formation rules as for nouns (plural, genit ive, addition of
articles, etc) as we shall see in the next section under the heading of the ing main uses.

3.2.3. The ing: main uses.

The main uses of the ing form depend heavily on its adjectival, verbal or noun features and
therefore, the ing form can be used in different contexts as adjectives, verbs and nouns do. Yet, the
ing form may be used:
3.2.3.1. As an adjective.
As an adjective (present particicple), which has both adjectival and verbal features, it is used in
attributive and predicative position. Thus, first, in attributive position (a burning candle) it functions
as an adjective, so we find no addition of plural markers or articles to define it. Note that the present
participle in adjectival function must be accented together with the noun it is defining (a burning
candle) as it is done in the formation of compound nouns; secondly, in predicative position (The
girl is playing with her friends) it functions as part of a verb in order to show the progressive aspect.
Note that this ing form is equivalent to the Spanish gerund (i.e. jugando).

3.2.3.2. As a verb.
When the ing form has verbal features (present participle), the ing form enjoys the status of a
verb and may take, first, a direct object (i.e. He likes drinking wine) and second, it may be modified
by an adverb (i.e. He likes eating slowly). Moreover, it may even take its own subject when the
subject of the ing form and the subject of the sentence are the same (i.e. The last bus having gone,
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we had to wait for a taxi). In addition, it may function as an adverbial subordinate sentence (i.e.
Being the only man at the party, he had a great success with women) or predicator complement after
prepositions (i.e. After visiting me, he went home).

3.2.3.3. As a noun.
And finally, since the ing form or gerund may function as a verb or a noun, we find on the one
hand, noun formation features such as plural formation, addition of articles, genitive construction
and so on. Thus, it may add a plural (i.e. His talkin gs are so boring); an article (i.e. Your travelling
was successful); a genitive (i.e. I cant stand my mothers complainings); the addition of
prepositions (i.e. The sinking of the Titanic); noun compound (i.e. washing-up liquid) or
coordination with other nouns (i.e. Diet or jogging is what she has to do); and finally, the functions
a noun can take: subject (i.e. Smoking is bad for your health); object (i.e. She loves horse-riding);
predicator complement (i.e. This is working hard), or prepositional complement (i.e. He usually
gives me a surprise by preparing dinner with candles).

3.2.4. The ing: main functions.

The main functions, as stated above, of the ing form depend heavily on its adjectival, verbal or
noun features as seen above, and therefore, the ing form can function in different contexts as
adjectives, verbs and nouns do. Yet, the ing form may function in the following cases: (1) as
subject of a sentence (i.e. Dancing is really funny); (2) as the predicate of a sentence (i.e. Seeing is
believing); (3) as complement or direct object of certain verbs (i.e. His hobby is fishing; He loves
dancing); (4) after prepositions when used as a verb complement (i.e. He was interested in
painting); (5) as relative clauses (i.e. The children playing in the garden did not hear her mum); ( 6)
as an adverbial subordinate clause (i.e. Seeing that he was upset, they apologized for being late); (7)
as idiomatic expressions.

3.2.4.1. As subject.
As stated before, the gerund may function as the subject of a sentence (when used as a noun) when
an action is being considered in a general sense (i.e. Reading German is easier than speaking it)
whereas the to-infinitive is used when referring to a specific time (i.e. I would like to read German
rather than speaking it). Note the difference between the two sentences where the former means
always or in general and the latter means now or at a specific time.
The gerund, then, can be the subject of a clause placed after certain verbs of knowing and thinking
(cognition) such as believe, consider, discover, expect, find, think, and so on (i.e. He thought that
parking in the city was so difficult). In addition, the gerund is used in short prohibitions, such as
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No smoking, No parking, No swimming, and so on, although these cannot be followed by an

object since prohibitions involve an object which is often expressed by the imperative form (i.e. Do
not smoke cigarettes here).

3.2.4.2. As predicate.
The gerund may also function as the predicate of a sentence, as in Seeing is believing. This
function is usually related to the verbs be, seem, become.

3.2.4.3. As a verb complement.

The gerund may also function as a verb complement or direct object, as in I hate fishing. This
function is usually related to certain transitive verbs, such as admit, anticipate, avoid, consider,
deny, detest, dislike, enjoy, excuse, fancy, keep, mean, mind, miss, postpone, recollect, resist, save,
suggest, and understand among others.
It is also related to certain verbs making reference to likes, dislikes, such as care, like, love, hate,
detest and wish (i.e. They like/detest dancing); preference (i.e. I prefer running to jogging);
volition when we are not thinking of a particular action but are considering the subjects tastes
generally (i.e. She would like riding if she could ride better); and continuity shown by verbs such
as start, go on, continue, keep on, finish, end (i.e. He kept on talking all night long).
There is a specific construction with this type of verbs, which can take the previous construction or
that of verb + a possessive adjective or pronoun + gerund. If a verb or verb + preposition is
followed directly by the gerund, the gerund refers then to the subject of the verb (i.e. Tom insisted
on working=Tom worked). But if we put a possessive adjective or pronoun before the gerund, the
gerund refers to the person denoted by the possessive adjective or pronoun (i.e. He insisted on
my/me working=I had to work) (Thomson & Martinet, 1986).

3.2.4.4. After prepositions.

When a preposition is followed by a verb, the ing form must be used, except for the preposition
to. To can cause confusion as it can be either a part of an infinitive or a preposition. Thus, after
the auxiliary verbs be, have, ought, used and after be going, it is part of the following verb and is
only added to remind us that the preceding verb takes the infinitive. Also, to is often placed after
certain verbs which are usually followed by gerund, for instance hate, hope, intend, love, mean,
plan, etc and some others, but then they have different meanings (i.e. I love dancing vs. I love to
dance).

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However, to may not always indicate a to-infinitive. For instance, it is used in certain expressions,
such as look forward to, take to, be accostumed to, get used to, be used to, in addition to, devoted
to + gerund (i.e. I am looking forward to seeing you). Following Thomson & Martinet (1986), a
good way of finding out whether a to is a preposition or a part of an infinitive is to see if it is
possible to put a noun/pronoun after it. For instance, I am used to listening to the radio/it every
morning = preposition).
In addition, there is a number of verb + preposition or adverb combinations, more commonly
known as phrasal verbs which take the gerund. The most common are be for/against, care for, give
up, go on, keep on, leave off, look forward to, put off, see about, take to, and so on (i.e. He kept on
saying the same thing; he took to ringing us at midnight).

3.2.4.5. As relative clauses.

Given the adjectival character of the ing form, it may also function as a relative sentence by
substituting the relative pronouns which, who, that. For instance, The man who is coming towards
us is my uncle may be realized by the sentence The man coming towards us is my uncle.

3.2.4.7. As adverbial clauses.

The ing form may also function as an adverbial clause in absolute construction. Note that this
construction is considered to be informal or little literary and therefore, in colloquial English it is
usual to introduce the subordinate clause by a conjunction, for instance, Being the best candidate,
he won the elections vs. As he was the best candidate, he won the elections.

3.2.4.8. As idiomatic expressions.

In colloquial English we usually find the ing form functioning in everyday usage in constructions
such as it is no good/use, theres no point in, whats the point of, feel like, cannot stand, cannot
help, its worth, to be fond of, what/how about...? + gerund among many others. In addition, we
find some idiomatic expressions, such as Generally speaking, I think it is a mistake, Considering
the circumstances, ..., Bearing in mind the reports, ..., etc.

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3.3. THE INFINITIVE VS. THE ING FORM.

As mentioned in the second chapter, the infinitive and the ing form may be used in different
contexts depending on their syntactic sentence structure, but they are namely used indistinctively in
certain contexts where form and function cannot tell the difference, and therefore we can only rely
on meaning. For instance, these two sentences: I like getting unexpected invitations and I like to
get unexpected invitations. There is a subtle difference of meaning that probably a foreign student
of English at the beginners level may not grasp at once, for instance, the former means I enjoy
unexpected invitations whereas the latter means I want/wish unexpected invitations.
We shall distinguish two types of verbs when both forms are used indistinctively, first, those which
do not have any changes in meaning; and second, those which undergo semantic changes.
Therefore, let us examine the different uses that the full infinitive and the bare infinitive take in
everyday speech.
First of all, there is a group of verbs which do not change in meaning when they are followed by a
full infinitive or a gerund. This group of verbs includes verbs of start, continuity and end (i.e. start,
begin, continue, keep on, go on, finish, end (i.e. I started to play/playing chess). However, one of
these verbs, stop will undergo relevant changes which will be examined next. In addition, verbs
indicating likes and dislikes may also take the full infinitive or gerund with slight differences of
meaning.
Secondly, we find a reduced group of ve rbs which undergo relevant changes in meaning. For
instance, remember and forget; regret and dread; like, love, hate and prefer; try; mean; need and
want; go on; and stop. Thus, (1) remember and forget take the gerund when they refer to an action
which occurred beforehand (i.e. Do you remember taking this bus?/Ill never forget arriving in
Rome) whereas they take an infinitive when they refer to an action which comes afterwards (i.e.
Remember to take the car keys/Im afraid you will forget to take the car keys).
(2) Verbs regret and dread take the gerund when they refer to the past or likely future (i.e. Do
you regret not having studied?/Im dreading going to the dentist). However, dread takes the
infinitive to think and regret takes the infinit ives to say, to tell and to inform to talk about
the future (i.e. I dread to think what might have happened if youd stopped insulting me/I regret to
tell you that you are not pregnant).
(3) Verbs like, love, hate and prefer may take either a gerund or an infinitive when they mean
enjoy or take pleasure in (i.e. I simply love cooking/Do you prefer typing or writing by hand?)
but in negative sentences they usually take the gerund (i.e. I dont like cooking). Yet, when they
mean want or wish, they take the infinitive (i.e. Would you like to have a tea?) and when
prefer is used in a comparison, the gerund is always used (i.e. He prefers skating to
snowboarding).

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(4) When the verb try takes the gerund (i.e. Try climbing that wall. Maybe you can see the old
house from up there), the meaning is experiment meaning that youll have no difficulty in
climbing the wall but the action may or may not be successful in enabling you to jump. However,
when the infinitive is used, the meaning is attempt, where you may be or not be successful in
climbing the wall (i.e. Try to climb that wall).
(5) When the verb mean is used with the gerund (i.e. The job means moving to another area), the
verb means involve but when it is used with the infinitive (i.e. We are meant to be together), it
means intend.
(6) Verbs need and want mean be in need of when used with the gerund (i.e. The hedge needs
trimming) whereas with the infinitive need means have a need (i.e. Well need to take a bus
tomorrow) while want means should/ought to or wish (i.e. You want to ask John. Hes the
expert).
(7) The verb go on means continue an action with the gerund (i.e. He went on describing his
house) whereas it means introduce a new action with the infinitive (i.e. After describing his
mansion, he went on to describe his castle).
(8) And finally, the verb stop means cease with a gerund (i.e. He stopped smoking) whereas it
means to interrupt one action in order to perform another with the infinitive (i.e He stopped to
smoke).

4. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.
The relevant difference between the two non-finite forms dealt with in this study are so important to
the learning of a foreign language since differences between the vocabulary related to non-finite
forms of the learner's native language (L1) and that of the foreign language (L2) may lead to several
problems, such as the incorrect use of each of them, especially because of the syntactic,
morphological, pragmatic and semantic processes implied in these categories.
This study has looked at the structure of the infinite and the ing form in terms of form, main uses
and functions, that is, regarding morphological and phonological forms, and syntactic, semantic and
pragmatic functions, all those related by the relevance of usage in everyday speech. This study is
mainly intended for teachers to help Spanish-speaking students establish a relative similarity
between the two languages that would find it useful for communicating in the European framework
we are living in nowadays.
According to Thomson & Martinet (1986), a European student may find especially troublesome the
use of the infinitive and the ing form , and particularly when there are subtle difference between
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their uses. Then, when communicating in English he has to know first the specific constructions in
which both forms are embedded (i.e. I am looking forward to + gerund) and, second, which nonfinite form to use when certain situations are given depending on the context (i.e. He stopped
crying/to cry: cease or interrupt?) and on top of that, learn long lists of verbs related to each type
of non-finite form (i.e. He likes/avoid/prefer playing chess).
This choice becomes problematic for our Spanish students when they deal with the two non-finite
forms and their semantic offer. For instance, the most common mistakes for Spanish students, both
at ESO and Bachillerato level, is to write incorrectly the infinitive of purpose (i.e. He came home
yesterday to have dinner); to learn that prepositions are followed by the ing form (i.e. He insisted
on having dinner) or sometimes by omitting certain elements (i.e. She is used to singing in
contests). Often, they make serious grammatical mistakes.
It has been suggested that a methodology grounded in part in the application of explicit linguistic
knowledge enhances the second language learning process. In the Spanish curriculum (B.O.E.
2002), the use of non-finite forms is envisaged from earlier stages of ESO in the use of verbs
regarding likes and dislikes (like, love, hate, prefer) to talk about their everyday life and, usually
in the context of hobbies, up to higher stages of Bachillerato, towards more complex verbal forms,
such as verbs followed by infinitive or gerund, or certain constructions (i.e. Its worth studying all
night/I am looking forward to seeing you) , past habits (i.e. He was/got used to + gerund) and above
all, idiomatic expressions in certain modal idioms (i.e. Generally speaking, .../Seeing is believing,
etc).
So, the importance of how to handle non-finite forms cannot be understated since you can
communicate but not successfully because of the relevant distinction of meaning between the use of
both, especially when we may use indistinctively infinite or ing forms. We must not for get that
Spanish students are likely to write the infinitive of purpose incorrectly (i.e. He came for to talk to
me) or not to write the ing form after prepositions (i.e. He is interested in dance), and so on.
Current communicative methods foster the teaching of this kind of specific linguistic information
to help students recognize the main differences with the L2 words. Learners cannot do it all on their
own. Language learners, even 2nd year Bachillerato students, do not automatically recognize
similiarities which seem obvious to teachers; learners need to have these associations brought to
their attention.
So far, we have attempted in this discussion to provide a broad account of the infinitive and the ing
form by means of form, main functions and uses within verb phrase morphology, phonology,
syntax, semantics and usage in order to set it up within the linguistic theory, going through the
localization of non-finite forms in syntactic structures, to a broad presentation of the main
grammatical categories involved in it. We hope students are able to understand the relevance of
handling correctly the expression of both forms to successfully communicate in everyday life.

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5. CONCLUSION.

All in all, although the question What is an infinitive or gerund? may appear simple and
straightforward, it implies a broad description of non-finite forms in terms of form, function and use
so as to get to the paradigms of morphology, phonology, syntax, semantics and use which,
combined, give way to the study we have presented here. The appropriate answer suitable for
students and teachers, may be so simple if we are dealing with ESO students, using simple
structures (hobbies: gerunds) or so complex if we are dealing with Bachillerato students, who must
be able to handle more complex verb structures (to be used to + gerund).
So far, in this study we have attempted to take a fairly broad view of non-finite forms since we are
also assuming that there is an intrinsic connexion between its learning and successful
communication. Yet, we have provided a descriptive account of Unit 21 dealing with The infinitive
and the ing form whose main aim was to introduce the student to the different paradigms that
shape the whole set of verbal forms in English regarding their form, main uses and functions.
In fact, the correct expression of these two non-finite forms is currently considered to be a central
element in communicative competence and in the acquisition of a second language since students
must be able to use and distinguish these forms in their everyday life to avoid embarrassing
situations. As stated before, the teaching of them comprises four major components in our
educational curriculum: phonology, grammar, lexicon, and semantics, out of which we get five
major levels: phonological, morphological and syntactic, lexical, and semantic.
Therefore, it is a fact that students must be able to handle the four levels in communicative
competence in order to be effectively and highly communicative in the classroom and in real life
situations, now we are part of the European Union. The expression of the se verbal paradigms in
form, use and function, proves highly frequent in our everyday speech, and consequently, we must
encourage our students to have a good managing of it.

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6. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
- Aarts, F., and J. Aarts. 1988. English Syntactic Structures. Functions & Categories in Sentence
Analysis. Prentice Hall Europe.
- B.O.E. RD N 112/2002, de 13 de septiembre por el que se establece el currculo de la Educacin
Secundaria Obligatoria/Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.
- Bolton, D. And N. Goodey. 1997. Grammar Practice in Context. Richmond Publishing.
- Council of Europe (1998) Modern Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment. A Common
European Framework of reference.
- Eastwood, J. 1999. Oxford Practice in Grammar. Oxford University Press.
- Greenbaum, S. and R. Quirk. 1990. A Students Grammar of the English Language. Longman
Group UK Limited.
- Greenbaum, S. 2000. The Oxford Reference Grammar. Edited by Edmund Weiner. Oxford
University Press.
- Huddleston, R. 1988. English Grammar, An Outline. Cambridge University Press.
- Huddleston, R. and G.K. Pullum. 2002. The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language.
Cambridge University Press.
- Nelson, G. 2001. English: An Essential Grammar. London. Routledge.
- Quirk, R & S. Greenbaum. 1973. A University Grammar of English. Longman.
- Snchez Benedito, F. 1975. Gramtica Inglesa. Editorial Alhambra.
- Thomson, A.J. and A.V. Martinet. 1986. A Practical English Grammar. Oxford University Press.

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