Notes on Topology

Fabio Tonoli
Department of Decision Sciences - U. Bocconi - Milano

The proofs of the Facts, Answers to Questions and Solutions of the

Exercises are left as exercise.

First version: October 2012

Current version: September 2015
Printed the 15th September 2015

Contents
II

A short introduction in Topology

1 Basic elements of General Topology

1.1 Topological spaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5
7
7

1.2 Interiors, closures and borders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1.3 Dense subsets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4 Nets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1.5 Continuous functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.6 Compactness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.7 Semicontinuous functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.8 Comparing topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.9 Weak topologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.10 The product topology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.11 Pointwise and uniform convergence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Bibliography

42

CONTENTS

Part II
A short introduction in Topology

Chapter 1
Basic elements of General Topology
In this chapter we introduce some basic elements on General Topology which are important and recurrent in the study of Real Analysis. These elements refers to the part
of topology related to the study of convergence and approximation in a general setting,
and are fundamental for the study of spaces of real functions and in theory of measure
and integration. We follow very closely Chapter 2 of [AliprantisBorder], also in the topic
subdivision, illustrating each topic with a wide number of examples and expliciting quite
all the proofs. The aim is to obtain a very clear undestandanding of the picture, intended
as a rational and complete understanding of all proofs, wishing that in this way the reader
will develop good skills for an abstract self-reasoning in the subject.
We warn that Topology is a much broader subject, involving all the properties of a
topological space which are invariant by homemomorphisms. For example, the notion of
connectedness and the decomposition of a space into connected components, or the Algebraic Topology, which deals with the construction and the study of the fundamental
algebraic groups n (X; x0 ). A very important long-lasting open question (one of the 1
million dollar Clay problems) on this topic was solved only some years ago by Perelman:
a 3-manifold with the fundamental groups of a 3-sphere is homeomorphic to a 3-sphere.

1.1

Topological spaces

Denition 1.1.1 A topology

sets) of X satisfying:

on a set X is a collection of subsets (called open sub-

(o.i) ;; X 2 ;
(o.ii) is closed under nite intersections;
(o.iii) is closed under arbitrary unions.
A nonempty set X equipped with a topology is called a topological space, and is denoted
(X; ). The complement of open sets are called closed subsets.
Example 1.1.2 The trivial topology or indiscrete topology on a set X consists of
= fX; ;g. These are also the only closed sets.
7

CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GENERAL TOPOLOGY

Example 1.1.3 The discrete topology on a set X consists of all subsets of X:

P(X) = 2X 1 . Thus every set is both open and closed.

Exercise 1.1.4 The real line R = ( 1; +1) has a natural topology, called euclidean
topology. It consists of all subsets U such that for each x 2 U there exists some > 0
s.t. (x
; x + ) U . Prove that this is a topology.
Exercise 1.1.5 The extended real line R = [ 1; +1] = R [ f 1; +1g has a natural
topology. It consists of all subsets U such that for each x 2 U :
a. If x 2 R, then there exists some > 0 s.t. (x
; x + ) U;
b. If x = +1, then there exists some y 2 R with (y; +1] U ;
c. If x = 1, then there exists some y 2 R such that [ 1; y) U .
Prove that this is a topology.
Exercise 1.1.6 Consider an innite set X and dene as closed the set X and the sets
formed by a nite number of elements (nite sets): the open sets are ; and the sets whose
complement is a nite subset of X. This forms a topology, called conite topology.
Prove that the conite topology is a topology.
Facts 1.1.7 Closed sets satisfy the following properties, which are the dual of the properties of the open sets:
(c.i) ;; X are closed;
(c.ii) A nite union of closed sets is closed;
(c.iii) An arbitrary intersection of closed sets is closed.
Denition 1.1.8 A neighborhood of a point x is any set V containing an open set U
such that x 2 U V .
Remark 1.1.9 If V is a neighborhood of x, the open set U in the denition is an open
neighborhood of x.
From the denition, the following remark follows immediately.
Remark 1.1.10 A open () A is a neighborhood of each of its points.
Denition 1.1.11 The collection of all neighborhoods of a point x is called neighborhood system of x and is denoted by Nx .
1

The notation 2X stands for the set of functions f : X ! f0; 1g. The 1:1 correspondence between the
two sets maps a subset S X to the characteristic function S associated to S, dened by S (x) = 1 if
x 2 S and S (x) = 0 if x 2
= S.

1.1. TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

Facts 1.1.12 A neighborhood system satises the following properties:

1. X 2 Nx (so Nx is never empty)
2. U; V 2 Nx =) U \ V 2 Nx
3. V 2 Nx ; V
U =) U 2 Nx
Remark 1.1.13 Notice that if V is an open neighbourhood of x and V
U , it is not
necessarily true that U is an open neighbourhood of x. It is the importance of property
(3) the reason for which neighborhoods are dened to be not necessarily open.
Denition 1.1.14 A neighborhood of a set F is any set V containing an open set
U such that F
U
V . The collection of all neighbourhoods of a set F is called
neighborhood system of F and is denoted by NF .
Denition 1.1.15 (Separable axioms) A topological space (X; ) is:
T0 (points are topologically distinguishable) if given any two points x; y 2 X with
x 6= y there exists a neighbourhood of one not containing the other:
8x; y 2 X : x 6= y

9Ux 2 Nx : y 2
= Ux or 9Uy 2 Ny : x 2
= Uy ;

T1 (points are separated) if given any two points x; y 2 X with x 6= y each of them
has a neighbourhood not containing the other point:
8x; y 2 X : x 6= y

9Ux 2 Nx ; 9Uy 2 Ny : x 2
= Uy ; y 2
= Ux ;

T2 (X is Hausdor or separated) if given any two points x; y 2 X with x 6= y there

exists a pair of neighbourhood, Ux ; Uy , one for each given point, which are disjoint:
8x; y 2 X : x 6= y

9Ux 2 Nx ; 9Uy 2 Ny : Ux \ Uy = ;;

T3 (X is regular) if given a point x 2 X and a closed set F with x 2

= F there exists a
neighbourhood Ux of x and a neighbourhood UF of F which are disjoint:
8x 2 X; 8F : F C 2

and x 2
=F

9Ux 2 Nx ; 9UF 2 NF : Ux \ UF = ;;

T4 (X is normal) if given two closed sets F1 ; F2 with F1 \ F2 = ; (i.e., disjoint) there

exists a pair of open sets, each containing one given closed set, which are disjoint:
8F1 ; F2 : F1C ; F2C 2

and F1 \ F2 = ;

9UF1 2 NF1 ; 9UF2 2 NF2 : UF1 \ UF2 = ;:

Facts 1.1.16 Given a topological space (X; ) the following holds:

1.
2.
3.
4.

T1 () each point forms a closed set, i.e., fxg closed 8x 2 X;

T2 =) T1 =) T0 ;
T1 + T3 =) T2 ;
T1 + T4 =) T3 ; T2 .

10

CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GENERAL TOPOLOGY

Example 1.1.17 If jXj > 1 the trivial topology is not T0 (hence not T1 ; T2 ) because the
unique nonempty open set is X but it is T3 ; T4 because the unique nonempty closed set is
X.
Example 1.1.18 The discrete topology is T0 ; T1 ; T2 ; T3 ; T4 , since every set is open.
Exercise 1.1.19 Prove that the conite topology is T1 but not T2 ; T3 ; T4 .
Exercise 1.1.20 Let N = f1; 2; :::g: Prove that the collection of sets consisting of the
empty set and all sets containing 1 is a topology on N. The closed sets are N and all sets
not containing 1. This space is T0 but not T1 ; T2 ; T3 ; T4 .
Exercise 1.1.21 Again let N = f1; 2; : : : g and set Un = fn; n + 1; : : : g. Prove that the
empty set and all the Un comprise a topology on N. The closed sets are just the initial
segments f1; 2; : : : ; ng and N itself. Notice that every pair of nonempty open sets do
intersect, so again it is not T1 ; T2 ; T3 ; T4 but it is T0 .
Denition 1.1.22 A metric on a set X is a function d : X
every x; y; z 2 X:
(m.i)
(m.ii)
(m.iii)
(m.iv)

X ! R such that for

(positivity) d(x; y) 0;
(separation of points) d(x; y) = 0 () x = y;
(simmetricity) d(x; y) = d(y; x);
(triangle inequality) d(x; z) d(x; y) + d(y; z):

The pair (X; d) is then called metric space. If (m.ii) is replaced by the weaker condition
(m.ii) d(x; x) = 0
then d is called semi-metric.
Denition 1.1.23 8 x 2 X, 8r > 0 dene the open ball of radius r (or r-ball) the set
Br (x) = fz 2 X : d(x; z) < g.
Facts 1.1.24 Let (X; d) be a semi-metric space. Then d induces a topology on X in the
following way: a set U is open if every point of U has a open -ball contained in U :
8x 2 U

9 > 0 : B (x)

U:

Denition 1.1.25 A topological space (X; ) is metrizable if there exists a metric d on

X that generates the topology .
Example 1.1.26 The discrete metric (or rubber band metric) is dened by :
d(x; y) =

0 if x = y
:
1 if x 6= y

It generates the discrete topology: every singleton fxg is an open set, being B1=2 (x) = fxg
and thus every subset of X is open.

1.1. TOPOLOGICAL SPACES

11

Example 1.1.27 The zero semi-metric, dened by d(x; y) = 0, generates the trivial topology.
Exercise 1.1.28 A semi-metric d generates a T0 topology () d is a metric. In that
case, the generated topology is T2 .
Denition 1.1.29 A normed space is a real vector space V endowed of a norm function, a function k k : V ! R satisfying 8x; y 2 V; 8c 2 R:
(n.i) (positivity and nondegenerate) kxk 0 with kxk = 0 () x = 0;
(n.ii) (homogeneity) kcxk = jcj kxk ;
(n.iii) (triangle inequality) kx + yk kxk + kyk :
Facts 1.1.30 A normed space is also a metric space by dening d(x; y) = kx yk.
Moreover, in a normed space the set B (x) is the translated of B (0) by x, for every
point x:
B (x) = fx + y : y 2 B (0)g:
Example 1.1.31 The real line R is a normed space, the norm being the absolute value
function: the metric d(x; y) = jx yj denes a topology on R, the euclidean topology.
Every open interval (a; b) is an open set.
Proposition 1.1.32 Consider R with the euclidean topology. Every open set is a countable union of disjoint open intervals (where the end points +1 and 1 are allowed).
pPn
2
Example 1.1.33 In Rn the function kxk
=
i=1 xi denes a norm, called euclidean
2
qP
n
norm. The induced metric d2 (x; y) =
yi )2 is called euclidean distance,
i=1 (xi
and the topology induced is called euclidean topology.
Exercise 1.1.34 Prove that the euclidean norm is a norm.
P
Exercise 1.1.35 Prove that in Rn the functions kxk1 = ni=1 jxi j and kxk1 = supi=1;:::;n jxi j
denes two norms, called respectively the pedestrian norm and the sup norm. The induced metric d1 and d1 are called pedestrian distance and the sup distance.
Exercise 1.1.36 Prove that the pedestrian distance and the sup distance denes the same
topology as the euclidean one.

Exercise 1.1.37 Consider R2 with the semi-norm k(x1 ; x2 )k = jx1 j (just the st coordinate counts for this semi-norm). Prove that d(x; y) = jy1 x1 j is a semi-distance and that
all the points having the same rst coordinate have zero distance.

12

CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GENERAL TOPOLOGY

Figure 1.1: Open balls of radius

in the three metrics d1 ; d2 ; d1 .

Facts 1.1.38 The intersection of a nonempty family A of topologies on a set is again a

topology.
Facts 1.1.39 If A is an arbitrary nonempty family of subsets of X, then there exists a
smallest (with respect to set inclusion) topology that includes A. This topology A is called
the topology generated by A and consists precisely of ;; X and all sets of the form
[ V , where each V is a nite intersection of sets of A.
We described the topology in metric spaces by describing the open balls centered at
the various points (if the metric derive from a norm then they are also the translated of
open balls centered at the origin, but we dont care of this, it is the concept of a topological
group). This generalizes to the concept of base and subbase of a topology.
Denition 1.1.40 A base for a topology

is a subfamily B of

8U 2 ; 8x 2 U; 9V 2 B s:t: x 2 V

such that

U:

Example 1.1.41 Consider R with the euclidean topology . A base of

all open intervals
B = f(a; b) : 8a; b 2 R; a bg:

is the family of

Facts 1.1.42 1. B is a base of if 8U 2 is a union of members of B.

2. If B is a family of sets that is closed under nite intersections and [V 2B V = X, then
the family of all unions of members of B is a topology for which B is a base.
Denition 1.1.43 A subfamily S of a topology is a subbase for
all nite intersections of members of S is a base for .

if the collection of

Facts 1.1.44 A family S is a subbase for the topology it generates together with ;; X.
Denition 1.1.45 A topological space (X; ) is called second countable if it has a
countable base.
Facts 1.1.46 1. (X; ) is second countable if and only if has a countable subbase.
2. The euclidean topological space (Rn ; k k2 ) is second countable.

1.2. INTERIORS, CLOSURES AND BORDERS

13

Denition 1.1.47 A neighborhood base at x is a collection Bx of neighborhoods of x

with the property:
U 2 Nx =) 9V 2 Bx with V
U:
Denition 1.1.48 A topological space (X; ) is called rst countable if every point has
a countable neighborhood base.
Facts 1.1.49 1. Every semi-metric space is rst countable: the balls of radius
x form a countable neighborhood base at x.
2. Every second countable space is also rst countable, the converse is false.

1
n

around

Denition 1.1.50 If Y is a subset of a topological space (X; ), then the collection

Y

= fV \ Y : V 2 g

is a topology on Y , called the relative topology (induced by

on Y ).

Proof We prove that Y is a topology on Y . The sets ; = ; \ Y; Y = X \ Y are clearly

in Y . Given W 2 Y then there exist V 2 such that W = V \ Y . But then
[W = [ (V \ Y ) = ([V ) \ Y and \W = \ (V \ Y ) = (\V ) \ Y .
When Y
X is equipped with its relative topology, we call Y a topological subspace
of X. An element of Y is called relatively open in Y , its complement in Y is called
relatively closed in Y . For example, every subset Y of X is both relatively open and
closed in itself.
Exercise 1.1.51 The relatively closed subsets of Y are the restrictions to Y of the closed
subsets of X.
Facts 1.1.52 For a semimetric topology, the relative topology is derived from the same
semimetric restricted to Y .
Exercise 1.1.53 A countable intersection of open sets needs not be open. Similarly, a
countable union of closed sets needs not be closed. Give an example for each case.

1.2

Interiors, closures and borders

Let (X; ) be a topological space, and let A be any subset of X. The topology denes
two sets intimately related to A: the interior and the closure of of A.
Denition 1.2.1 The interior of A, denoted A , is the largest open set included in A.
The closure of A, denoted A, is the smallest closed set including A.

14

CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GENERAL TOPOLOGY

Exercise 1.2.2 1. Prove that A and A exist.

2. Show that there are A with no largest closed sets included in A and that there are A
with no smallest open set including A.
Facts 1.2.3 The following holds:
1. A is the union of all open subsets of A and A is the intersection of all closed sets
including A.
2. A B implies A
B and A B;
3. A is open () A = A , B is closed () B = B;
4. For any set A, A = A and A = A;
C
5. For any set A, (A )C = AC and AC = A ;
6. V 2 Nx () x 2 V and, similarly, V 2 NF () F V .
Exercise 1.2.4 1. If A is open, A A , but they are not necessarily equal. Provide an
example where they dier.
2. For any set A, let A+ = A . Then A++ = A+ .
3. For any set A, let A = A . Then A = A .
Denition 1.2.5 A point x 2 A is called an interior point of A if there is an open set
U such that x 2 U A.
Remark 1.2.6 A point x 2 A is interior i A 2 Nx .
Denition 1.2.7 A point x (not necessarily in A) is called a closure point of A if every
neighborhood of x intersects A.
Facts 1.2.8 The following holds:
1. A open () A coincides with the set of interior points of A
2. A closed () A coincides with the set of closure points of A
3. For any sets A; B, (A \ B) = A \ B and A [ B = A [ B.
Exercise 1.2.9 Find A; B s.t. (A [ B) 6= A [ B and C; D s.t. C \ D 6= C \ D.
Denition 1.2.10 A point x (not necessarily in A) is an accumulation point (or limit
point, or cluster point) of A if for each neighborhood V of x we have (V fxg) \ A 6= ;.
The set of the accumulation points of A is denoted by A0 and is called the derived set of
A. A set A is called perfect if A = A0 .
Remark 1.2.11 In general, it is not true that internal points are accumulation points,
that is, A
A0 . For example, take the discrete topology, where every point in a set is
internal and there are no accumulation points.

1.3. DENSE SUBSETS

15

Denition 1.2.12 A point x (not necessarily in A) is a boundary point of A if each

neighborhood V of x satises both V \ A 6= ; and V \ AC 6= ;. The set of the boundary
points of A is denoted by @A and is called the boundary of A.
Facts 1.2.13 The following holds:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

@A A, A0 A;
A = A t @A, thus @A = A A .
A = A [ A0 ;
@A = @(AC ) = A \ AC ;
A closed () @A A () A0 A.
A open () @A AC .

Example 1.2.14 Consider the set A = [0; 1) [ f2g R. Then 2 is a closure point of A,
but not an accumulation point. The point 1 is both a closure point and a limit point of A.
Moreover, A = (0; 1), A0 = [0; 1], @A = f0; 1; 2g, A = [0; 1] [ f2g.
Exercise 1.2.15 Given A = f n1 : n 2 Ng in R with the euclidean topology, compute A0 .
Denition 1.2.16 A point x 2 A is called an isolated point of A if there exists a
neighbourhood V such that V \ A = fxg (this means that fxg is open relatively to A).
The set of isolated points of A is denoted by I(A).
Facts 1.2.17 Concerning isolated points, the following holds:
1.
2.
3.
4.

1.3

I(A) = A A0 ;
@A \ A0 = @A \ (I (A))C ;
A closed =) A = A0 t I(A);
A = A t (@A \ A0 ) t (@A \ I (A)).

Dense subsets

Denition 1.3.1 A subset D of a topological space (X; ) is dense if D = X.

Thus D is dense i every nonempty open subset of X contains a point in D. In
particular, if D is dense in X and x 2 X, then every neighborhood of x contains a point
in D. This means that any point in X can be approximated arbitrarily well by points in
D.
Denition 1.3.2 A topological space is separable if it includes a countable dense subset.
Lemma 1.3.3 Every second countable space is separable.

16

CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GENERAL TOPOLOGY

Proof Let B = fB1 ; B2 ; : : : g be a countable base for the topology, and pick xi 2 Bi for
each i. We claim that D = fx1 ; x2 ; : : : g is dense.
Indeed every nonempty open subset of X is a union of members of B by Fact (1.1.42),
thus it contains at least one of the points of D.
The converse is true for metric spaces, but not in general: a metric space is separable
i it is second countable (see [AliprantisBorder], Lemma 3.4).
Example 1.3.4 Let X be an uncountable set and x x0 2 X. Take the topology consisting
of the empty set and all sets containing x0 . The set fx0 g is dense in X, so X is separable.
Furthermore, each set of the form fx0 ; xg 8x 2 X is open, so there is no countable base.
Example 1.3.5 (Di cult!) Consider
P the space l1 of all absolutely summable real sequences, the sequences x = fxn g s.t.
jxn j < 1. Its dual l1 is the space of all bounded
sequences, endowed with the sup norm: an element
' = f'n g 2 l1 denes a linear
P
function ' : l1 ! R by setting '(x) := hx; 'i = xn 'n 2 R.
The weak topology (l1 ; l1 ) on l1 is dened as follows: a subbase for the weak topology
is the collection of all sets of the form ' 1 (U ), where ' 2 l1 and U is an open subset of
R. Fixed ' 2 l1 and an open U
R, the corresponding
set in the subbase is the set of
P
all sequences x = fxn g 2 l1 such that hx; 'i = xn 'n 2 U .2

Now, dene D as the countable set of all eventually zero sequences with rational
components. Taken ' 2 l1 and an openPU
R, it is possible to dene a sequence
x = fxn g 2 D such that hx; 'i = '(x) =
xn 'n 2 U (for simplicity, think of U as an
open interval). Therefore any open set in l1 (in the weak topology) contains an element
of D. This proves that D is a dense subset of l1 , so (l1 ; (l1 ; l1 )) is a separable space.
However the space (l1 ; (l1 ; l1 )) is not rst countable, otherwise it would be nite
dimensional: a vector space is nite dimensional i the weak topology is rst countable
(see [AliprantisBorder], Theorem 6.26).

1.4

Nets

A sequence in X is a function from N to X, denoted by xn = x(n) 2 X. Because of

that, we usually think of a sequence as a subset of X indexed by N. A net is a direct
generalization of the notion of a sequence, by taking a more general index set which has
a directed order relation.
Denition 1.4.1 A preorder
(o.i) (reexivity) 8x 2 I x x;
(o.ii) (transitivity) 8x; y; z 2 I x
2

on a set I is a binary relation satisfying:

y; y

z =) x

z.

In this setting a net of sequences f(xn ) g converges to yn i for every ' 2 l1 it holds ' ((xn ) ) !
'(yn ) in the usual euclidean topology, see the section 1.9 on weak topologies.

1.4. NETS
A (partial) order

17
on a set I is a preorder satisfying

(o.iii) (antisimmetricity) 8x; y 2 I x

A directed order

y; y

x =) x = y:

(or direction) on a set I is a preorder on I satisfying

(o.iv) (upper bound existence) 8x; y 2 I 9z 2 I s.t. z

x; z

y:

A directed set is any set I equipped with a directed order

Facts 1.4.2 In a directed set every nite set has an upper bound.
The master example of a directed set is (N; ), and most (but not all) useful directed
orders are partial orders.
Exercise 1.4.3 Prove that the following are directed sets:
1. (0; +1] with the usual order (assuming +1 x 8x 2 R).
2. (0; 1) with the usual order .
3. A neighborhood system Nx of a point x in a topological space, under the order V
W () V
W.
4. All nite subsets of a set X under the order V
W () V
W.
If there is no confusion, the direction is often replaced by
1.4.3 (3) is the main motivation for introducing nets.
Facts 1.4.4 1. A; B directed sets =) A

. Notice that Example

B directed set under

(c; d) () a c; b d:
Y
2. fDi : i 2 Ig family of directed sets =) D =
Di directed set under
(a; b)

i2I

(ai)i2I

(bi)i2I () ai

bi 8i 2 I

The direction of the cartesian product is called product direction.

Denition 1.4.5 A net in a set X is a function x : D ! X, where D is a directed set,
called the index set of the net. The members 2 D are called indexes. The function
x( ) is denoted simply by fx g 2D .
The master examples of nets are sequences.
Denition 1.4.6 A net fx g in a topological space (X; ) converges to a limit x 2 X
if it is eventually3 in every neighborhood of x, i.e., if
8V 2 Nx 9

2 D s. t. x 2 V 8

This is denoted by writing x ! x or x

3

! x or lim

2D

0:

x = x.

Eventually literally means from a certain point on: here it means for all indexes
than a certain index 0 .

equal or greater

18

CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GENERAL TOPOLOGY

Remark 1.4.7 In a metric space x ! x () d(x ; x) ! 0.

The limit of a sequence may be not unique. More precisely, limits are unique exactly
in Hausdor spaces.
Theorem 1.4.8 (Unicity of limit) (X; ) Hausdor () every net converges to at
most one limit.
Proof Suppose that a net fx g converges to both x; y 2 X, with x 6= y. Then 8U 2
Nx ; 8V 2 Ny the net x stays eventually in both U and V , so x 2 U \ V which is then
nonempty. This proves that (X; ) is not Hausdor.
For the converse, suppose that X is not Hausdor. Then 9x; y 2 X with x 6= y and
s.t. 8U 2 Nx ; 8V 2 Ny U \ V 6= ;. Taking an element xU;V 2 U \ V for every pair
(U; V ) 2 Nx Ny we obtain a net which converges to both x and y.
By the above theorem a space in which a sequence converges to more limits is not
Hausdor. We provide two examples.
Example 1.4.9 Let X be a set with at least two points endowed with the indiscrete topology. Then every net converges to every point.
Example 1.4.10 (Line with a doubled origin4 ) Let X = (R f0g) [ f01 ; 02 g, where 01 ; 02
are two distinct symbols. Consider the family
G
B = f(a; b) R f0gg f( ; 0) [ f0k g [ (0; ) 8 > 0; k = 1; 2g

and endow X with the topology generated by B: B is a base of (by Facts 1.1.42, since
B is closed under nite intersection and the union of its members is X), so the open sets
are unions of sets in B. X is not Hausdor because every neighbourhood of 01 intersects
every neighbourhood of 02 .
Then, for example, the sequence xn = 2 n converges to both 01 and 02 .

Recall Facts 1.2.3, in particular D = D [ D0 . We want now to characterize the

points in D. While in metric spaces sequences su ce to describe closure points of sets
(and several other properties as well), nets must be used to describe similar properties in
general topological spaces.
Exercise 1.4.11 Consider the topology on R in which a set U is open if U = V
C,
where V is open in the usual topology and C is countable (open-minus-coutable topology).
Then (0; 1) = [0; 1], but no sequence in (0, 1) converges to either 0 or 1. Moreover in this
space a sequence converges i it is eventually constant.
4

The line with the doubled origin serves as an example of a space that is locally homeomorphic to R
(every point has an open neighbourhood that is homeomorphic to R) but not Hausdor, illustrating that
the Hausdor requirement in the denition of a manifold is not redundant.

1.4. NETS

19

Theorem 1.4.12 The closure D of a set D is the set of limits of nets in D.

Proof Let x 2 D. If V 2 Nx , then V \ D 6= ;, thus 9xV 2 V \ D. This denes a net
fxV gV 2Nx and xV ! x. (Why?)
Conversely, if a net fx g in D satises x ! x then, by denition of D, x 2 D.
(Why?)
The notion of subnet generalizes the notion of a subsequence.
Denition 1.4.13 If fx g and fy g are nets from directed sets A and B respectively,
then fy g is a subnet of fx g if there exists a function h : B ! A such that y = xh( )
8 2 B satisfying the property:
(sn) 8 2 A 9

2 B such that h( )

8 2 B with

0.

Some authors, instead of property (sn), require that h is order preserving and conal:
(sn.i) (h monotone, or order preserving) 0
=) h( 0 )
(sn.ii) (h is conal) 8 2 A 9 2 B such that h( )
:

h( );

The properties (sn.i) and (sn.ii) imply (sn), but (sn) really includes everything needed
for subnets.
Of course, every subsequence fxnk g of a sequence fxn g is a subnet by considering h as
the map h(k) = nk , which is monotone and conal. But subnets are much more general:
the main feature of subnets is the relaxation on the index set B of the subnet, which is
not a subset of A (as in subsequences) but it only needs to be mapped in A via a map
h satisfying (sn). Because of that, the index set B may have larger cardinality than the
original one A. For example, under the condition of respecting property (sn), a subnet
can use a same point fx g multiple times and can permute elements. The next example
shows how subsequences are pathological w.r.t. a directed set.
Example 1.4.14 (W. Ghler, Grundstrukturen der Analysis I, 1977). A sequence fy g 2N
is a subnet of a sequence fx g 2N () the map h : N ! N is the composition of a permutation with a dilatation, where a dilatation l : N ! N is an order preserving map5 and
a permutation : N ! N is a 1:1 map.6
Exercise 1.4.15 Dene the sequence fxn g by xn = n2 +1. Verify that the net fym;n g(m;n)2N
dened by ym;n = (m + n)2 + 1 is a subnet of the sequence fxn g, by the index function
h : N N ! N; h(m; n) = m + n (use the product order in N N).
Exercise 1.4.16 Consider the nets:
5

Also said isotone map, or monotone map.

Permutations are given by reordering the indexes. Dilatations are given by inserting after an index
some repetitions of it (a nite number) and by repeating this procedure (eventually innitely many times).
6

20

CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GENERAL TOPOLOGY

fy g
fx g

y = 1= where (0; 1) is directed by 1

where (1; +1) is directed by
2(1;+1) ; x =

2(0;1) ;

2
1

() 1
2 ()

2;
1

2:

Then, fy g is a subnet of fx g and fx g is a subnet of fy g, by the invertible index

function h : (0; 1) ! (1; +1); h(x) = 1=x.
Subnets are associated with limit points of nets.
Denition 1.4.17 An element x in a topological space is a limit point (or cluster
point, or accumulation point) of a net fx g 2A if 8V 2 Nx , 8 2 A 9e
such that
x e 2 V . The (possibly empty) set of all limit points of fx g 2A is denoted Lima2A fx g
or fx g 2A .
Theorem 1.4.18 x 2 Limfx g () 9 fy g subnet of fx g s.t. y ! x.
Proof Let x be a limit point of a net fx g 2A . Then 8 ( ; V ) 2 A Nx (directed by the
product direction) choose h ;V 2 A s.t. h ;V
and xh ;V 2 V . Dene y ;V = xh ;V
8 ( ; V ) 2 A Nx : the net fy ;V g is a subnet of fx g by the index function h ( ; V ) = h ;V .
(Why?) Further, y ;V ! x. (Why?)

For the converse, assume that a subnet fy g 2B of fx g 2A converges to x and let

h : B ! A be the index function of the subnet. Fix the choice of 0 2 A and of V 2 Nx :
we aim to show that 9 e 2 A s.t. x e = xh( e) = y e 2 V . Since y ! x, then 9 0 2 B s.t.
y 2V 8
0 . Since fy g is a subnet of fx g, then 9 1 2 B s.t. h( )
0 8
1.
e
e
e
e
Let s.t.
0 and
1 and set e = h( ): then x e = xh( e) = y e 2 V .
Theorem 1.4.19 A net converges to a point x i every subnet converges to x.

Proof Let fx g be a net converging to x: clearly every subnet fy g satises y ! x.

For the converse, assume that every subnet of fx g converges to x, and suppose that
x 9 x. Then 9V 2 Nx s.t. 8 2 A 9h
s.t. xh 2
= V . Dene fy g by y = xh :
fy g is a subnet of fx g not converging to x.
We now describe what happens in R with the euclidean topology: this is exactly as
with sequences.
Facts 1.4.20 (limsup and liminf) 1. Every bounded net fx g R has:
a largest limit point, called limit superior and written lim supfx g;
a smallest limit point, called limit inferior and written lim inffx g.

2. The net finf e fx e gg 2A is increasing, the net fsup e fx e gg 2A is decreasing.

Moreover, every member of the rst net is always less than or equal to every member of
the second net.
3. It holds
lim inf fx g = lim

inf fx e g

lim supfx e g
e

= lim supfx g

1.5. CONTINUOUS FUNCTIONS

21

4. x ! x () x = lim inf fx g = lim supfx g.

5. Every net fx g R has:
a largest limit point, called limit superior and written lim supfx g;
a smallest limit point, called limit inferior and written lim inffx g.
These may be 1. The results in points (2)(4) hold again, and may be proven exaclty
in the same way.

1.5

Continuous functions

Denition 1.5.1 A function f : X ! Y between topological spaces is continuous at a

point x 2 X if f 1 (V ) is a neighborhood of x for each neighborhood V of f (x).
A function f : X ! Y between topological spaces is continuous if f
for each open set U Y .

(U ) is open in X

Remark 1.5.2 In a metric space, continuity at a point x reduces to the familiar "
denition:
8" > 0 9 = (") > 0 : f (B (x)) B" (f (x)):
or, in X

R, the more common one:

8" > 0 9 = (") > 0 : 8x0 2 X with jx0

xj <

it holds jf (x0 )

f (x)j < :

Proof If f is continuous at x, then B" (f (x)) is a neighborhood of f (x), so f 1 (B" (f (x))

is a neighborhood of x and 9 > 0 s.t. B (x) f 1 (B" (f (x)), which is equivalent to say
f (B (x)) B" (f (x)).
Conversely, if 8" > 0 9 > 0 s.t. f (B (x)) B" (f (x)) and V is a neighborhood of f (x),
then 9" > 0 s.t. B" (f (x)) V . For such there exists > 0 with f (B (x)) B" (f (x)),
so B (x) f 1 (B" (f (x)) f 1 (V ) and then f 1 (V ) is a neighborhood of x.
Facts 1.5.3 For a function f : X ! Y between topological spaces the following are
equivalent:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

f is continuous;
f is continuous at every point;
C Y; C closed =) f 1 (C) is a closed;
8B Y f 1 (B ) (f 1 (B)) ;
8A X f (A) f (A);
f 1 (V ) open for each V in some subbase for the topology on Y.

Continuity is often more easily expressed in terms of convergence of nets.

Theorem 1.5.4 A function f : X ! Y between topological spaces is continuous at x 2 X
i for all nets fx g X such that x ! x then f (x ) ! f (x).

22

CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GENERAL TOPOLOGY

Proof ()) Assume that x ! x: we aim to show that f (x ) ! f (x). For any neighborhood of f (x) , say V 2 Nf (x) , by continuity of f at x there exists U 2 Nx such that
f (U ) V . Since x ! x, 9 0 such that 8
0 it holds x 2 U and thus f (x ) 2 V .
Summing up, 8V 2 Nf (x) 9 0 2 A such that f (x ) 2 V 8
0.
(() Assume that f is not continuous at x. Then 9V 2 Nf (x) such that 8U 2 Nx it
holds f (U ) * V . But this means 8U 2 Nx 9xU 2 U s.t. f (xU ) 2
= V . Consider the net
fxU gU 2Nx : clearly xU ! x. Moreover f (xU ) 9 f (x), since V 2 Nf (x) and f (xU ) 2
= V
8U 2 Nx .
Theorem 1.5.5 If f; g : X ! R are continuous realvalued functions on a topological
space, then the functions f + g, f g, minff; gg, maxff; gg, jf j are also continuous. If
moreover g(x) 6= 0 8x 2 X, then f =g also is continuous.
Theorem 1.5.6 The composition of continuous functions is continuous.
Denition 1.5.7 A function f : X ! Y is called a homeomorphism if it is a 1:1
continuous function whith continuous inverse f 1 . Two topological spaces X and Y are
homeomorphic if there is a homeomorphism between them: in this case we write X ' Y .
From the topological point of view two homeomorphic spaces are identical, and cannot
be distinguished: indeed, any topological property, that is, any property dened in terms
of the topology, possessed by one space is also possessed by the other.
Exercise 1.5.8 Find a homeomorphism ( 1; 1) ' R. Can you extend it to [ 1; 1] ' R?
Theorem 1.5.9 (Di cult) Euclidean spaces of dierent dimensions are not homeomorphic.
Denition 1.5.10 A mapping f : X ! Y between two topological spaces is an embedding if f : X ! f (X) is a homeomorphism. In this case we can identify X with its image
f (X) Y .

1.6

Compactness

Denition 1.6.1 Let K be a subset of a topological space X. A cover of K is a collection

fD g 2A of subsets D
X s.t. K [ 2A D .
Denition 1.6.2 A subset K of a topological space X is compact if every open cover of
K admits a nite subcover, that is, every family fU g 2A of open sets s.t. K [ 2A U
admits a nite subfamily U 1 ; U 2 ; : : : ; U n s.t. K [ni=1 U i .
Denition 1.6.3 A topological space is called a compact space if it is a compact set.

1.6. COMPACTNESS

23

Example 1.6.4 In the trivial topology every set is compact.

Example 1.6.5 In the discrete topology, a set is compact i it is a nite set.
Lemma 1.6.6 If K is a compact subset of a Hausdor space, and x 2
= K, then 9U; V
open and disjoint with K
U and x 2 V . In particular, compact subsets of Hausdor
spaces are closed.
Proof Since X is Hausdor, for each choice of a point y 2 K there exist open neighborhoods Uy 2 Ny of y and Vy 2 Nx of x which are disjoint. Since K [y2K Uy , there is a
nite subfamily Uy1 ; : : : ; Uyn covering K. Take U = [ni=1 Uyi and V = \ni=1 Vyi : since for
every i = 1; : : : ; n it holds V
Vyi , it follows that V does not intersect any Uyi and thus
it does not intersect U .
To show that K is closed, apply the lemma for each x 2
= K: then exists an open
neighborhood Vx 2 Nx of x not intersecting K. Now realize that K C = [x2K
= Vx , so K is
closed.
Example 1.6.7 Compact subsets of non-Hausdor spaces need not be closed. For example, let X = fx; yg with the indiscrete topology: any singleton is compact, but X is the
only nonempty closed set.
Theorem 1.6.8 (X; d) metric space, K is compact =) K closed and bounded.
Proof Being X Hausdor, by the previous Lemma K is closed. Since X = [n2N Bn (0)
and K is compact, K is contained in a nite union of Bn (0). Let M be the maximum
index in this union: then K BM (0) and it is bounded.
The converse is true in Rn with the usual topology but it is not true in general.
Theorem 1.6.9 (HeineBorel) In (Rn ; d2 ) K closed and bounded =) K is compact.
Because of the equivalence that follows in Rn between compact sets and closed and
bounded sets, HeineBorel Theorem is often mistaken for the denition of compactness:
In a general metric space this theorem is false: for instance, consider an innite set with
the discrete metric, where every set is bounded and closed.
Facts 1.6.10 1. Finite sets are compact.
2. Finite unions of compact sets are compact.
3. Closed subsets of compact sets are compact.
4. If K
Y
X, then K is a compact subset of X i K is a compact subset of Y (in
the relative topology).

24

CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GENERAL TOPOLOGY

We now come to the characteriziation of compact sets via nets.

Theorem 1.6.11 For a topological space X, the following are equivalent:

1. X is compact.
2. Every net in X has a convergent subnet.
Proof )) Let fx g be a net not having limit points: 8x 2 X by denition of a limit
point, it holds 9Ux 2 Nx and 9 x 2 A s.t. x 2
= Ux 8
x . But then fUx gx2X is an
open cover of X s.t. any nite subfamily Ux1 ; Ux2 ; : : : ; Uxn does not contain the points x
for
exists by property o.iv). In other words, fUx gx2X is
x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn (such a
an open cover of X not admitting a nite subcover, thus X is not compact.
() Assume X not compact: there exists an open cover fU g 2A of X which does not
have a nite subcover. This means that for any nite subset S
A then [ 2S U 6= X
and thus 9xS 2
= [ 2S U . But then, the set (A) = fS
A; S niteg is a directed set
w.r.t. the natural inclusion and the terms fxS gS2 (A) form a net which does not have a
limit point, which is absurd.
We prove this last statement. By construction of xS , xS 2
= [ 2S U 8S 2 (A). If
xS ! x, taken o 2 A s.t. x 2 U o it holds 9S 2 (A), S f o g s.t. xS 2 U 0 . For such
an S we have xS 2 U 0 , U 0 [ 2S U since f o g S, and xS 2
= [ 2S U .
Property (2) stated with sequences is not equivalent to compactness in a generic topological space, and is referred to as sequentially compactness. This is one of the main
motivations that brought to the concept of nets, as a working generalization of sequences.
Denition 1.6.12 A subset A of a topological space is sequentially compact if every
sequence in A has a subsequence converging to an element of A.
Exercise 1.6.13 1. In a topological space, if a sequence fxn g converges to a point x, then
the set S = fx; x1 ; x2 ; :::g is compact.
2. (Nets need not exhibit this property) Let A = (0; 1) \ Q, directed by the usual ordering
on R. Consider the space X = [0; 1] and the net fx = g 2D . Show that:
a. x ! 1 in X;
b. the support set S of fx g is not compact;
c. every y 2 (0; 1) is an accumulation point of S but not a limit point of fx g 2D .

However, in some cases, one can use sequences instead of nets. These cases are not so
rare: all we need is to require that the space X is rst countable (see Denition 1.1.48),
so, for example, we can do that on all metric spaces, since they are rst countable.
Facts 1.6.14 Let X be a rst countable topological space.
1. If A

X, then x 2 A i there is a sequence in A converging to x.

2. A function f : X ! Y is continuous i xn ! x implies f (xn ) ! f (x).

1.6. COMPACTNESS

25

Another (not so useful) characterization of compactness is via the nite intersection

property.
Denition 1.6.15 A family of sets has the nite intersection property (FIP) if every
nite subfamily has a nonempty intersection.
Theorem 1.6.16 For a topological space X the following are equivalent:
1. X is compact
2. Every family of closed subsets of X with the FIP has a nonempty intersection.
Proof )) Let fC g 2A be a family of closed subsets having the FIP. If \ 2 AC = ;,
then [ 2A C c = X and fC C g 2A is an open cover of X. Being X compact, 9 1 ; 2 ; : : : ; n
s.t. X = [ni=1 C c i , but then (\ni=1 C i )C = [ni=1 C c i = X, i.e., \ni=1 C i = ;. () Let
fU g 2A be an open cover of X. Since [ 2A U = X, \ 2A U C = ; and thus the FIP must
fail. But this means 9 1 ; 2 ; : : : ; n s.t. \ni=1 C i = ;, i.e., [ni=1 U = X.

We now study the correlation apsects between continuous maps and compact sets.
Theorem 1.6.17 Every continuous function between topological spaces carries compact
sets to compact sets.
Proof Let f : X ! Y be the continuous function and K the compact subset of X.
Consider an open cover of f (K), say fU g. Clearly ff 1 (U )g is an open cover of
K and thus 9 1 ; 2 ; : : : ; n s.t. K
[ni=1 f 1 (U i ). Applying f again, we have f (K)
n
1
n
1
f ([i=1 f (U i )) = [i=1 f (f (U i )) = [ni=1 U i .
As a corollary of this result and Theorem 1.6.8, we obtain the Weierstrass theorem.
Theorem 1.6.18 (Weierstrass) A continuous real-valued function dened on a compact
space achieves its maximum and minimum values.
Proof If f : K ! R is a continuous function, then f (K) is a compact set, and thus it
is closed and bounded. Since it is a bounded set, 9N = inf f (K), M = sup f (K), since
it is closed the sup and the inf are points in f (K), hence 9x1 ; x2 s.t. N = f (x1 ) and
M = f (x2 ), i.e., N = minx2K f (x) and M = maxx2K f (x).
Facts 1.6.19 A 1:1 continuous function from a compact space onto a Hausdor space is
a homeomorphism.

26

CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GENERAL TOPOLOGY

1.7

Semicontinuous functions

Suppose X is a topological space, R = [ 1; +1] with the usual topology, and f : X ! R

is a function from X into the extended real numbers R. We want to study
Denition 1.7.1 A function f : X ! R on a topological space X is:
(lsc) lower semicontinuous (LSC) if the strictlyupper level sets are open:
L>a := f

(a; +1) = fx 2 X : f (x) > ag open 8a 2 R;

(usc) upper semicontinuous (USC) if the strictlylower level sets are open
L<a := f

( 1; a) = fx 2 X : f (x) < ag closed 8a 2 R:

Facts 1.7.2 The following holds for a function f : X ! R:

1. f LSC () L

2. f USC () L

c
c

= fx 2 X : f (x)

= fx 2 X : f (x)

3. f continuous () f USC and LSC

cg closed 8c 2 R:

cg closed 8c 2 R.

As with continuity, we may dene a notion of semi-continuity at a point xo 2 X.

Denition 1.7.3 Given a function f : X ! R on a topological space X and a point
xo 2 X, the function f is:
(lsc.p) lower semicontinuous at x0 if 8" > 0 9U 2 Nx0 s.t. f (x)
(usc.p) upper semicontinuous at x0 if 8" > 0 9U 2 Nx0 s.t. f (x)

f (x0 ) " 8x 2 U ;
f (x0 ) + " 8x 2 U:

Facts 1.7.4 Given a function f : X ! R on a topological space X, then:

1. f LSC () f LSC at each point xo 2 X.

2. f USC () f USC at each point xo 2 X.

Proof Assume f : X ! R lower semicontinuous and choose xo 2 X and " > 0. The
set U = f 1 (f (x0 ) "; +1) is open and contains x0 . Thus U 2 Nx0 and clearly f (x)
f (x0 ) " 8x 2 U .

Conversely, assume that f : X ! R is lower semicontinuous at each xo 2 X and

choose a 2 R. Consider the set A = f 1 (a; +1) and a point x0 2 U . Since f is lower
semicontinuous at xo there exists an open neighborhood Ux0 of x0 s.t. f (x) f (x0 ) "
8x 2 Ux0 . But then A = [x0 2A Ux0 is an open set.

Theorem 1.7.5 Given a function f : X ! R on a topological space X and a point

x0 2 X, then:
1. f is lower semicontinuous at x0 i x ! x =) lim inf f (x )

2. f is upper semicontinuous at x0 i x ! x =) lim supf (x )

3. When X is rst countable, nets can be replaced by sequences

f (x0 );

f (x0 ):

1.8. COMPARING TOPOLOGIES

27

Proof For the denition of lim inf or lim sup see Facts 1.4.20. We establish the lower
semicontinuous case, being the upper semicontinuous case analogous.
Assume f lower semicontinuous at x0 and x ! x. Choose " > 0 and let U 2 Nx0 as
in the denition. Since x ! x, 9 0 s.t. x 2 U 8 > 0 . But then f (x ) f (x0 ) "
8 > 0 , that is inf f (x ) f (x0 ) ". Recall that lim inf f (x ) = sup inf f (x ): then
0

we have proved that lim inf f (x )

f (x0 )

" 8" > 0, that is lim inf f (x )

f (x0 ).

For the converse, suppose that f is not lower semicontinuous at x0 . Then 9" > 0 s.t.
8U 2 Nx0 9xU 2 U with f (xU ) < f (x0 ) ". As a consequence, the net fxU gU 2Nx0 satises
xU ! x (by construction) and lim inf f (xU ) < f (x0 ). Indeed 8U0 9U 2 Nx0 , U U0 and
U

for such U we have f (xU ) < f (x0 )

": this implies inf f (xU ) < f (x0 )

U U0

and thus
lim inf f (xU ) = lim inf f (xU )
U0 U U0

f (x0 )

" 8U0 2 Nx0 ,

" < f (x0 ):

We do not prove the third statement (see also Fact 1.6.14).

The following result generalizes WeierstrassTheorem (Theorem 1.6.18) on the extreme
values of continuous functions.
Theorem 1.7.6 (Weierstrass) A real-valued lower semicontinuous function on a compact space attains a minimum value, and the nonempty set of minimizers is compact.
Similarly, an upper semicontinuous function on a compact set attains a maximum
value, and the nonempty set of maximizers is compact.
Proof Let X be a compact space and let f : X ! R be lower semicontinuous. Put
A = f (X), and for each c 2 A, consider the lower level set L c = fx 2 X : f (x) cg:
since f is LSC, 8c 2 A the set L c is closed and nonempty. Furthermore, the family
fL c : c 2 Ag has the nite intersection property: \ni=1 L ci = L minfc1 ;c2 ;:::;cn g , which is
notempty. But then, since X is compact, \c2A L c is compact and nonempty. Note that
any element x0 2 \c2A L c is a point of minimum: f (x0 ) c 8c 2 A = f (X).

1.8

Comparing topologies

Denition 1.8.1 The family of all topologies on X is partially ordered by set inclusion.
If 0
, that is, if every 0 -open set is also -open, then we say that 0 is weaker or
coarser than and that is stronger or ner than 0 .
Facts 1.8.2 For two topologies
1.

is weaker than , that is,

2. Every

and
0

on a set X the following are equivalent:

-closed set is also -closed.

3. The identity mapping id : x 7! x, from (X; ) to (X; 0 ), is continuous.

28

CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GENERAL TOPOLOGY

4. Every -convergent net is also

-convergent to the same point.

5. The -closure of any subset is included in its

0

6. The

-closure.

-interior of any subset is included in its -interior.

Facts 1.8.3 If

is weaker than , then each of the following holds:

1. Every -compact set is also

2. Every -dense set is also
3. Every

-compact.

-dense.

-continuous function on X is also -continuous.

When we have a choice of what topology to put on a set, there is the following rough
tradeo. The ner the topology, the more open sets there are, so that more functions from
that set are continuous. On the other hand, there are also more insidious open covers of
a set, so there tend to be fewer compact sets and there are less continuous functions to
that set.

1.9

Weak topologies

There are two classes of topologies that are are of wide interest: the class of topologies
generated by a metric and the one of weak topologies.
Denition 1.9.1 Let X be a nonempty set, let f(Yi ; i )gi2I be a family of topological
spaces and fi : X ! Yi be a family of function. The weak topology on X generated by
the family of functions ffi gi2I is the weakest topology on X that makes all the functions
fi continuous:
\
0
:
=
0:

fi continuous 8i2I

Facts 1.9.2 1. A subbase for the weak topology is:

S0w = ffi 1 (V ) : 8i 2 I; 8V 2 i g:
Hence, a subset U
X is open in the weak topology i U = [ W , where each W is a
nite intersection of sets of the form ' 1 (V ) with ' 2 ffi gi2I and V 2 i .
2. If Si is a subbase for

i,

then a subbase for the weak topology is:

S w = ffi 1 (V ) : 8i 2 I; 8V 2 Si g:

3. If Si is a subbase for
w

B =f

n
\

ik =1

i,

then a base for the weak topology is:

fik 1 (Vik ) : 8n 2 N; 8ik 2 I; 8Vik 2 Sik ; for all k = 1; : : : ; ng:

1.9. WEAK TOPOLOGIES

29

Lemma 1.9.3 (Weak convergence) In the weak topology, x

fi (x) 8i 2 I.

! x i fi (x )

i
!

Proof One side is obvious: if x ! x then, since each fi is weak continuous, fi (x ) !

fi (x) for all i 2 I.

i
Conversely, assume that fi (x ) !
fi (x) 8i 2 I and let V = \nik =1 fik 1 (Vik ) be a
i
neighborhood of x in B w . Since fi (x ) !
fi (x) 8i 2 I, then 8k = 1; : : : ; n 9 k s.t.
1
(V
).
But
then
pick
8
it
holds
x
2
f
ik
0 = maxf 1 ; : : : ; k g: 8
0 x 2 Vik
k
ik
8k = 1; : : : ; n and thus x 2 V . This means exactly x ! x.

An apparently particular case is the weak topology generated by a family of real

functions F on X. Despite the appearence, this case is very important and, a posteriori
(see Theorem 1.9.11), not so particular! From the rest of this section we assume to have
a family of real functions F on a set X and we will study the weak topology generated
by that family F on X.
Denition 1.9.4 Let F be a family of real functions on X. The weak topology generated
by F is denoted by (X; F).
Lemma 1.9.5 A subbase of the weak topology (X; F) is the family of the sets
U (f; x; ") = fy 2 X : jf (y)

f (x)j < "g;

8f 2 F; 8x 2 X; 8" > 0:

Proof Recall Facts 1.9.2 and notice that here the index set I is the given family F of
real functions. Then use as subbase Sf of the standard topology on the codomain R of a
function f 2 F the open balls with "-radius centered at the point f (x), for any choice of
" > 0, x 2 X:
Sf = fV (f; x; ") = B" (f (x)) : 8" > 0; 8x 2 Xg:
Finally, note that the preimage of the set V (f; x; ") via the function f is precisely the set
U (f; x; ").
Denition 1.9.6 A family F of real functions on X separates points if
8x; y 2 X : x 6= y

9f 2 F : f (x) 6= f (y):

Lemma 1.9.7 The weak topology (X; F) is Hausdor i F separates points.

Proof Assume that F separates points: taken x; y 2 X with x 6= y, then 9f 2 F s.t.
f (x) 6= f (y) and (being R Hausdor) there exist opens U 2 Nf (x) ; U 0 2 Nf (y) with
U \ U 0 = ;. But then f 1 (U ), f 1 (U 0 ) are two disjoint open sets containing x and y
respectively.
Conversely, suppose that F does not separate points, that is, 9x; y 2 X with x 6= y
such that 8f 2 F it holds f (x) = f (y). But then, 8f 2 F it holds y 2 U (f; x; "): since
these sets form a subbase for (X; F) (see Lemma 1.9.5), then every open set containing
x contains also y and thus (X; F) is not Hausdor.

30

CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GENERAL TOPOLOGY

Lemma 1.9.8 (Relative weak topology) Let F be a family of real functions on X

and Y
X. Then
(X; F)jY = (Y; FjY ):
Proof By Lemma 1.9.5, a subbase for the restricted weak topology (X; F)jY is
S = fU (f; x; ") \ Y : 8f 2 F; x 2 X; " > 0g:
Dene
UY (f; x; ")g = fy 2 Y : jf (y)

f (x)j < "g 8f 2 F; x 2 Y; " > 0:

By the same Lemma, a subbase for the weak topology (Y; F) is:
S 0 = fUY (f; x; ") : 8f 2 F; x 2 Y; " > 0g:
Clearly, for all x 2 Y it holds U (f; x; ") \ Y = UY (f; x; "). If instead x 2
= Y , choose
for each z 2 U (f; x; ") \ Y a su ciently small "z > 0 s.t. U (f; z; "z ) U (f; x; "): then
[
[
U (f; x; ") \ Y =
U (f; z; "z ) \ Y =
UY (f; z; "z ):
z2U (f;x;")\Y

z2U (f;x;")\Y

and therefore the sets in S can be constructed as unions of sets in S 0 . Since conversely
the sets in S 0 are particular sets of S, it follows that (X; F)jY = (Y; F).
Usually the choice of the family F is one of the following vector spaces:
1. RX = ff : X ! Rg, all real-valued functions on X;
2. C(X) = ff : X ! R, f continuousg, all continuous real-valued functions on X.
3. Cb (X) = ff : X ! R, f continuous and boundedg, all continuous and bounded
real-valued functions on X;
4. Cc (X) = ff : X ! R, f continuous, supp f compactg, all continuous real-valued
functions on X with compact support, where the support of a function is the
closure of the set of points where f is not zero-valued:
supp f = fx 2 X : f (x) 6= 0g:
Lemma 1.9.9 Let X be any topological space. Then (X; C(X)) = (X; Cb (X)).
Proof Clearly, since Cb (X)
C(X), the sets fU (f; x; ") : 8f 2 Cb (X); x 2 X; " > 0g
are contained in the sets fU (f; x; ") : 8f 2 C(X); x 2 X; " > 0g and thus (X; Cb (X))
(X; C(X)):
Conversely, consider a subbasic open set U (f; x; ") where f 2 C(X); x 2 X; " > 0.
Dene the function g : X ! R by
8
< f (x) " if f (z) f (x) "
f (z)
if f (x) " < f (z) f (x) + " :
g(z) =
:
f (x) + " if f (z) > f (x) + "

1.9. WEAK TOPOLOGIES

31

Then g 2 Cb (X)and U (g; x; ") = U (f; x; "). Thus (X; C(X))

(X; Cb (X)):

We now show how weak topologies generated by a family of real-valued functions are
not so particular.
Denition 1.9.10 (Separable axioms) A topological space (X; ) is completely regular if given a point x 2 X and a closed set F with x 2
= F there exists a continuous
function f : X ! R s.t. f (x) = 0 and f (y) = 1 8y 2 F , shortly:
8x 2 X; 8F : F C 2

and x 2
=F

9f continuous s.t. f (x) = 0 and f jF = 1:

It is immedate to show that completely regular spaces are also regular, by using the
function f to provide the required open sets (see Denition 1.1.15). We can use weak
topologies to characterize completely regular spaces.
Theorem 1.9.11 A topological space (X; ) is completely regular i
Proof Clearly, for any topological space (X; ) we have (X; C(X))

= (X; C(X)).7
.

Assume that (X; ) is completely regular and choose U 2 . For any point x 2 U pick
fx 2 C(X) satisfyingSfx (x) = 0 and fx jU c = 1. Then x 2 U (fx ; x; 1) = fy 2 X : jfx (y)j <
1g U and so U = x2U U (fx ; x; 1) 2 (X; C(X)).
Suppose now that = (X; C(X)). Let F be closed and x 2
= F . Since x 2 F C 2
(X; C(X)), by Lemma 1.9.5 there exists an open neighborhood U F C of x of the form:
U=

N
\

U (fi ; x; "i ) =

i=1

i=1

where each fi 2 C(X).

For each i = 1; : : : ; N dene fei =
U=

N
\

i=1

N
\

1
f.
"i i

U (fei ; x; 1) =

fy 2 X : jfi (y)

Then fei 2 C(X) and

N
\

i=1

fy 2 X : jfei (y)

For each i = 1; : : : ; N take gi (y) = minfjfei (y)

gi (y) 2 C(X), g (y) 2 C(X) and
g (x) = 0,

fi (x)j < "i g,

fei (x)j < 1g.

fei (x)j; 1g and g (y) = maxfgi (y)g. Then

g (y) = 1 8y 2 U C ,

since if y 2 U C there exists an index i s.t. jfei (y) fei (x)j 1, so gi (y) = 1 and g (y) = 1.
Summing up, g is continuous, g(x) = 0 and gjF = 1, since F U C . Thus X is completely
regular.
7

Recall that (X; C(X)) = (X; Cb (X)) by Lemma 1.9.9.

32

CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GENERAL TOPOLOGY

Corollary 1.9.12 The completely regular spaces are precisely those whose topology is the
weak topology generated by a family of real functions.
Proof If (X; ) is completely regular, then by Theorem 1.9.11

= (X; C(X)).

Conversely, suppose = (X; F) for a given family F of real functions. We want

to show that (X; ) is completely regular by applying again Theorem 1.9.11. Since =
(X; F), it follows that F
C(X), so = (X; F)
(X; C(X)). On the other hand,
for any topological space (X; ) we have (X; C(X))
. Thus = (X; C(X)) and we
can conclude that (X; ) is completely regular.
The next easy corollary of Theorem 1.9.11 and Lemma 1.9.3 characterizes convergence
in completely regular spaces.
Corollary 1.9.13 If (X; ) is completely regular, x ! x i f (x ) ! f (x) 8f 2 C(X).8

1.10

The product topology

Denition 1.10.1 (Product space) Let f(Xi ; i )gi2I be a family of topological spaces.
The cartesian product is the set X dened as
Y
X=
Xi = f(xi )i2I : xi 2 Xi 8i 2 Ig:
i2I

For each j 2 I the projection pj : X ! Xj is dened by pj ((xi )i2I ) = xj . The product

topology is the weak topology on X generated by the family of projections = fpi : i 2 Ig
and is denoted by (X; ). The product space is the pair (X; (X; )). A function
f : X ! Y is called jointly continuous if it is continuous with respect to the product
topology.
Facts 1.10.2
Q 1. A subbase for the product topology consists of all subsets of the form
pj 1 (Vj ) = i2I Vi where Vj 2 j and Vi = Xi 8i 2 I, i 6= j.
Q
2. A base for the product topology consists of all subsets of the form i2I Vi where Vi 2 i
and Vi = Xi for all but nitely many i 2 I.
3. A net f(xi )i2I g in X converges to a point (xi ) and we write (xi ) ! (xi ) i xi
8i 2 I.
Q
4. The euclidean metric on Rn induces the product topology on Rn = ni=1 R.

i
!
xi

Proof 1. A subbase for (X; ) is S = fpj 1 (Vj ) : 8j 2 I; 8Vj 2 j g: just realize that
Q
(xi ) 2 pj 1 (Vj ) () xj 2 Vj (the other xi s are free in Xi ). Thus pj 1 (Vj ) = i2I Vi where
Vj 2 j and Vi = Xi 8i 2 I, i 6= j.
8

Again, by Lemma 1.9.9 C(X) can be replaced by Cb (X).

1.10. THE PRODUCT TOPOLOGY

33

2. A base for (X;

Q ) is formed by nite intersections of members of S: this intersection
is then of the form i2I Vi where Vi 2 i and Vi = Xi for all but nitely many i 2 I.

3. Suppose (xi ) ! (xi ) in (X; ). We consider its j-th projection 8j: pj is continuous thus pj (xi ) ! pj (xi ), that is, xj ! xj .
Conversely, suppose xi ! xi 8i 2 I. For any neighborhood U containing (xQ
i ) there exists
a basic open set V satisfying (xi ) 2 V
U : this open set is of the form i2I Vi where
Vi 2 i and Vi = Xi for all but nitely many i 2 I. Let i1 ; i2 ; : : : ; in be these indices: 8j =
0
0
i1 ; i2 ; : : : ; in 9 j0 such that xj 2 Vj 8
= maxf 10 ; 20 ; : : : ; n0 g:
j . But then dene
0
0
it holds xj 2 Vj 8
and so (xi ) 2 V
U 8
, which means (xi ) ! (xi ) in
(X; ).
4. Let be the euclidean topology on Rn . If V is a standard open set in R, then
pj 1 (V ) is the rectangle having the j-th side equal to V and all the other sides equal to
R: this is clearly an open set according to , and thus (X; )
.
Conversely, let U 2 beQ
an euclidean open set and x 2 U a point in it. Then there exists
an open rectangle Vx = ni=1 Vix where Vix = (ai ; bi ) 8i = 1; : : : ; n satisfying x 2 V
U.
But such a set Vx is a basic open set for (X; ) (it is the intersection of the n rectangles
which have the j-th side equal to Vjx and all the other sides equal to R for j = 1; : : : ; n).
Since U = [x2U Vx , it holds U 2 (X; ).

Having dened products, we can now study an important topological object related
to a function f : X ! Y between topological spaces: the graph (and the epigraph and
hypograph).
Denition 1.10.3 The graph of a function f : X ! Y is the set
Gr f = f(x; y) 2 X

Y : y = f (x)g:

For a function f : X ! R the epigraph is the set

epi f = f(x; c) 2 X

R:c

f (x)g

R:c

f (x)g

R:

and the hypograph is the set

hyp f = f(x; c) 2 X

Theorem 1.10.4 A continuous function into a Hausdor space has closed graph.
Proof Assume that f : X ! Y is continuous and Y is Hausdor. The claim is that Gr f
is a closed subset of X Y . Suppose (x ; y ) ! (x; y) and that y = f (x ) (this means
(x ; y ) 2 Gr f ). Since f is continuous, y = f (x ) ! f (x). Since also y ! y and Y is
Hausdor (so the limit is unique) then y = f (x), so (x; y) 2 Gr f .
As consequence, examples of continuous function with non-closed graph require a nonHausdor codomain (for instance, Y not a metric space).

34

CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GENERAL TOPOLOGY

Theorem 1.10.5 (Closed Graph Theorem) A function from a topological space into
a compact Hausdor space is continuous i its graph is closed.
Proof We already proved one direction. For the converse, assume that f : X ! Y , Y is
compact Hausdor and Gr f is closed. Assume by contradiction that there exists a net
fx g 2A such that x ! x and f (x ) 9 f (x).
Since f (x ) 9 f (x) it holds
9V 2 Nf (x) s.t. 8

s.t. f (x ) 2
= V:

Consider the transition function h : B = A ! A dened by h( 0 ) = where the 0 and

= V 8
are as above: then the corresponding subnet fx0 = xh( ) g 2B satises f (x0 ) 2
(verify that h satisfy the property (sn) of the denition of a subnet).
Since Y is compact, the net ff (x0 )g has a convergent subnet, say ff (x00 )g 2 s.t.
f (x00 ) ! y. Thus (x00 ; f (x00 )) ! (x; y) and, since Gr f is closed, it follows that (x; y) 2
Gr f , which means y = f (x). Therefore f (x00 ) ! f (x), absurd since f (x00 ) 2
=V 8 .
Example 1.10.6 Let f : R ! R be dened by f (x) = 1=x if x 6= 0 and f (0) = 0. Its
graph is closed (it is a union of three closed sets: the two branches of the hyperbola and
the origin) and f is not continuous.
Example 1.10.7 Consider as f the identity map in X = Y = [0; 1], but equip X with
the euclidean topology and Y with the discrete topology (richer). Then the graph is closed
but f is not continuous.
The closure of the epigraph/hypograph is instead equivalent to lower/upper semicontinuity.
Theorem 1.10.8 For a function f : X ! R the following holds:
1. f LSC () epi f closed.
2. f USC () hyp f closed.
Proof It is an immediate consequence of Theorem 1.7.5 and the denition of the product
topology.
We now come to one of the most important compactness results in mathematics.
Theorem 1.10.9 (Tychono Product Theorem) The product of a family of topological spaces is compact in the product topology i each factor is compact.

1.10. THE PRODUCT TOPOLOGY

35

We put a few comments before the proof of Tychonos Theorem. Tychono originally
proved that an arbitrary product of compact intervals is compact, the general form is due

to Cech.
Moreover, one direction of the theorem is a trivial application of Theorem 1.6.17: if
X is compact then Xi = pi (X) is also compact since pi is a continuous function.
The core of the theorem is the converse part. There are dierent historical proofs
of this direction, all involve some form of the axiom of choice. We provide two proofs:
the rst is the Bourbakiultralter proof, given by Cartan, but rewritten without using
ultralters and using families of closed sets having the Finite Intersection Property (FIP).
The second is an alternative simple proof due to Cherno (see [Cherno]), which uses
only nets. Both proofs use the Zorns Lemma to show the existance of a maximal set.
Lemma 1.10.10 (Zorns Lemma) Let P be a nonempty partially ordered set, such that
for every totally ordered subset L, there exists an upper bound9 for L. Then P has a
maximal element.
Cartans proof of
QTychonos Theorem. Let fXi : i 2 Ig be a family of topological
spaces and X = i2I Xi . We assume that each Xi is compact and prove that X is
compact by Theorem 1.6.16, that is, by proving that every family of closed subsets of X
having the nite intersection property (FIP) has a nonempty intersection.
Let A be a family of closed subsets of X having the FIP. Forget that the sets in A are
closed and apply Zorns Lemma: A is contained into some maximal set B of subsets of X
having the FIP. Now 8i 2 I it is easy to see that the family of closed sets fpi (B) : B 2 Bg
has the FIP and therefore, since Xi compact, by Theorem 1.6.16 9bi 2 pi (B) 8B 2 B.
We go back to X and dene b = (bi )i2I .
T
We claim that to show A2A A 6= ; it su ces to check that B contains all the neighborhoods of b. Indeed, if this is true, then all neighborhoods of b intersect each B 2 B.
In particular,
they intersect each A 2 A: hence 8A 2 A it holds b 2 A = A and thus
T
b 2 A2A A.
Q
To show the claim, note that each neighborhood of b contains a basic open V = i2I Vi
where Vi 2 i and Vi = Xi for all but nitely many i 2 I and that it is enough to verify V 2
B. Let i1 ; : : : ; in be the indices such that Vik 6= Xik and observe that V = \nk=1 pik1 (Vik ).
It is then enough to recall that bi 2 pik (B) 8B 2 B and so Vik \ pik (B) 6= ; 8B 2 B: this
implies pik1 (Vik ) \ B 6= ; 8B 2 B, 8k = 1; : : : ; n and therefore V \ B 6= ; 8B 2 B.
But thenTV 2 B. Indeed, B is a maximal family characterized by the FIP, so any nite
n
intersection
elements in BTis again in B: for any nite family fBn+1 ; : : : ; Bm g
Tn i=1 Bi of
Tm
B then ( i=1 Bi ) \
i=n+1 Bi =
i=1;:::;m Bi 6= ;. But then, since V \ B 6= ; 8B 2 B,
V intersect every nite intersection of elements in B, and so V 2 B.
Chernos proof
Q of Tychonos Theorem. Let fXi : i 2 Ig be a family of topological
spaces and X = i2I Xi . We assume that each Xi is compact and prove that X is compact
9

Let X be a partially ordered set and S

8x 2 S.

X. An upper bound for S is an element K 2 X s.t. x

36

CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GENERAL TOPOLOGY

by Theorem 1.6.11, that is, by proving that every net has a convergent subnet, that is,
that every net has a limit point.
First remark that the statement holds for the product of nitely many factors: choose
a rst subnet whose projection converges in X1 , a second subnet of the rst subnet whose
projection converges in X2 , and so on: in a nite number of steps you get a subnet whose
components
Q all converge, that is, a convergent subnet. We now go back to the general
case X = i2I Xi with I innite set.

Let fx : 2 Ag be
Q a net in X. By a partially dened member x of X we mean
an element x 2 XJ = i2J Xi for some J
I; note that to J is associated a projection
pJ : X ! XJ . We say that x 2 XJ is a partial limit point of fx g if x is a limit point of
the net fpJ (x )g. Thus a partial limit point x dened on all X is a limit point of fx g:
its existence is precisely our aim.
Let P be the set of all partial cluster points of the net fx g. Note that P is non-empty
(see the case of a product of nitely many factors). Note also that P is partially ordered
by inclusion: g1
g2 i g1 2 XJ1 , g2 2 XJ2 , J1
J2 and g1 ; g2 have the same common
components (those with indexes J1 ).
Moreover, any totally ordered subset L = fx : 2 g of P has an upper bound.
Indeed, since each pair of x s agree on the common components, we may dene J = [ 2
and as upper bound the element x 2 J whose -components are the same as x . To show
that x 2 P we need to show that it is a partial limit point. But every basic open of x is
of the form V = \nk=1 pik1 (Vik ) (see Fact 1.10.2) and therefore 9 2 s.t. fi1 ; : : : ; ik g
(we already proved the case of nitely many components). Since x is a limit point, there
exists a subnet fx g of fx g s.t. p (x ) ! x , thus p (x ) 2 p (V ) for big enough,
which means x 2 V for big enough. So x is a partial limit point.
Thus, by Zorns Lemma, P has a maximal element x 2 XJ : we assert that x is dened
on the whole X = XI , that is J = I. If this is not the case, then 9k 2 I J. Since
x 2 P, there exists a subnet fx g whose projection in XJ converges to x in XJ . Since
Xk is compact, there exists a subnet fx g of fx g whose projection in Xk converges. But
then fx g is a subnet of fx g whose projection to XJ[fpg converges to a point y 2 P and
thus x < y, absurd.
An important consequence in measure theory and probability is the following.
Corollary 1.10.11 A countable product of compact and metrizable spaces is compact and
metrizable.
An analogous resut for uncountable products does not hold in general: Tychono
Theorem ensures that an uncountable product of compact sets is still compact but an
uncountable product of of metrizable spaces is not necessarily metrizable.
Example 1.10.12 Are you able to provide an example?

1.11. POINTWISE AND UNIFORM CONVERGENCE

37

We conclude this section by citing a consequence of Tycono Theorem which is used

to prove results on compact-valued correspondences (thus here it is not of common use).
The result is somehow expected. However the proof, even if straightforward, is long and
not so instructive (see [AliprantisBorder]).
Lemma 1.10.13 Let fXi gi2I be a family of topological
spaces, and 8i 2 I let Ki be a
Q
compact
subset of Xi . If G is an open subset of i2I Xi then there exists a basic open set
Q
V
s.t.
i2I i
Y
Y
Ki
Vi G:
i2I

1.11

i2I

Pointwise and uniform convergence

Denition 1.11.1 Let X be any set (not necessarily a topological space). A net ff g of
real-valued functions on X converges pointwise to a real-valued function f if f (x) !
f (x) 8x 2 X, that is:
8" > 0 8x 2 X 9

0 ("; x)

s.t. jf (x)

f (x)j < " 8

0:

Denition 1.11.2 Let X be any set (not necessarily a topological space). A net ff g of
real-valued functions on X converges uniformly to a real-valued function f if
8" > 0 9

0 (")

s.t. jf (x)

f (x)j < " 8x 2 X 8

0:

Remark 1.11.3 Uniform convergence implies pointwise convergence.

That pointwise convergence implies uniform convergence is false, as shown in the next
example.
Example 1.11.4 A famous and important example is given by the sequence of power
functions in [0; 1], that is, fn : [0; 1] ! [0; 1] dened by fn (x) = xn . This sequence
converges pointwise but not uniformly to the function f dened by f (x) = 0 8x 6= 1 and
f (1) = 1 (see Figure 1.2).
Example 1.11.5 The sequence of functions dened by fn : [0; 1] ! [0; 1], fn (x) = xn =n
n
1
! 0, so 8" > 0
converges uniformly to the zero function. Indeed jfn (x) 0j = xn
n
1
"
1
0j
= "+1 < " (see Figure 1.2).
take 0 = [ " ] + 1: then 8n
1
0 it is jfn (x)
+1
"

Example 1.11.6 (Sequences cannot describe a topology not having a countable base, as
a product topology over uncountable sets) Consider the space of functions from [0; 1] to
[0; 1], regarded as [0; 1][0;1] with its product topology (pointwise converence). Let F denote
the family of indicator functions of nite subsets of [0; 1]:
A (x)

1 if x 2 A
0 if x 2
=A

8A nite, A

[0; 1].

38

CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GENERAL TOPOLOGY

0.8

0.8

0.6

0.6

0.4

0.4

0.2

0.2

0
0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

Figure 1.2: Graphs of f (x) = xn and f (x) = xn =n in [0; 1].

The identically 1 function is not the pointwise limit of any sequence in F: if An is a
= A and An (x) = 0 8n.
sequence in F, then A = [1
n=1 An is countable, so 9x 2

However, there is a net in F that converges pointwise to 1: the net f A : A nite,

A [0; 1]g directed by set inclusion. Indeed for any x 2 [0; 1] it holds A (x) = 1 8A s.t.
A fxg.
Thus the identically 1 function is in F but is not the limit of any sequence in F.

Theorem 1.11.7 The uniform limit of a net of continuous real functions is continuous.
Proof Let ff g be a net of continuous real functions on a topological space X that
converges uniformly to a function f 2 RX . The thesis is to show that if x ! x then
f (x ) ! f (x). First observe that for any x ! x we can write
jf (x )

f (x)j

jf (x )

f (x )j + jf (x )

f (x)j + jf (x)

f (x)j:

Now x a sequence x ! x and " > 0. Since ff g converges uniformly to f , 9 0 =

(")
s.t. 8
f (z)j < "=3 8z 2 X. Fix any
0
0 it holds jf (z)
0 to get in
particular that jf (x ) f (x )j < "=3 and jf (x) f (x)j < "=3, so
+ jf (x ) f (x)j + :
3
3
For the addendum in the middle we use the continuity of the function f : since x ! x,
9 0 s.t. jf (x ) f (x)j < "=3 8
0.
Summing up, we have proven that
jf (x )

f (x)j

8x ! x 8" > 0 9

s.t. jf (x )

f (x)j < " 8

0;

or, equivalently, that if x ! x then f (x ) ! f (x).

Here is a simple su cient condition for a net to converge uniformly.

1.11. POINTWISE AND UNIFORM CONVERGENCE

39

Theorem 1.11.8 (Dinis Theorem) If a net of continuous real functions on a compact

space converges monotonically to a continuous function pointwise, then the net converges
uniformly.
Proof Let ff g be a net of continuous functions on the compact space X satisfying
f (x) " f (x) for each x 2 X.
Let " > 0. For each x 2 X pick an index x such that 0 f (x) f x (x) < ". By the
continuity of f f x there is an open neighborhood Vx of x such that f (y) f x (y) < "
8y 2 Vx . Note that since f (x) " f (x) for each x 2 X then f (y) f (y) 0 8y 2 X 8
and f (y) f (y) < f (y) f x (y) 8
x 8y 2 X, thus
8" > 0 8x 2 X 9

9Vx 2 Nx : 0

f (y)

f (y) < " 8

8y 2 Vx :

Since X is compact and X = [x2X Vx , there are x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn 2 X s.t. X = [ni=1 Vxi .

Dene 0 = maxf x1 ; x2 ; : : : ; xn g: then
8" > 0 9

:0

f (y)

f (y) < " 8

8y 2 X;

which shows the uniform convergence of ff g.

If instead f (x) # f (x) for each x 2 X, then for each x 2 X pick an index
that 0 f x (x) f (x) < " and repeat the argument.

such

We now study some natural topologies on sets of real-valued functions on a given set.
Facts Q
1.11.9 1. A function f : X ! R can be regarded as an element in the product
RX = x2X R by identifying:
f = (f (x))x2X :
2. The projections of RX are called evaluation functionals: px (f ) = f (x) consists in
evaluating f at the point x, 8x 2 X. Thus the product topology of RX is the weak topology
generated by the evaluation functionals.
3. Let ff g be a net of real-valued functions on X. Then:
ff g converges pointwise () ff g converges in the product topology
4. Consider RX with the product topology and a subset F. Then:
F compact () F closed and pointwise bounded:
Here are some more advanced topics, concerning duality.

40

CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GENERAL TOPOLOGY

Denition 1.11.10 A real-valued function f on set X is called a functional. Let F be

a family of functionals on X. Then we have a function, called evaluation pairing, from
X F to R denoted h; i and dened by:
h; i : X F ! R
(x; f ) 7! hx; f i = f (x)

8x 2 X; 8f 2 F:

According to the evaluation pairing h; i, the elements of X can be regarded as evaluation

functionals on F by setting x = hx; i, that is x(f ) = hx; f i = f (x) 8f 2 F, and the
elements f 2 F can be regarded as evaluation functionals on X because f = h ; f i, that
is f (x) = hx; f i 8x 2 X.
Proposition 1.11.11 The evaluation pairing h; i embeds (F; (F; X)) into RX ; (X; ) .
Moreover, if the family F of real-valued functions on X separates points, then the evaluation pairing h; i embeds (X; (X; F)) into (RF ; (RF ; )).
Proof (First embedding) It is clear that F RX for each family F of functionals on
X. Thus the statement means to prove the following claim:
Claim The weak topology (F; X) induced on F by the family of functionals on a set X
is equal to the relative topology on F induced by the product topology (X; ) of RX .

Before proving the claim, let us discuss about convergence in those topologies. Recall
rst that the weak topology (F; X) is generated by the evaluation functionals x =
hx; i, which are dened by x(f ) = f (x) 8f 2 F. Lemma 1.9.3 states that a net
ff g F converges in (F; X) i x(f ) ! x(f ) 8x 2 X: this means by denition that
f (x) ! f (x) 8x Q
2 X, that is, pointwise convergence. Recall now that the product
topology of RX = x2X R is the weak topology generated by the projections px . These
projections are again the evaluation functionals at points x 2 X: it follows immediately
that convergence in the product topology means again pointwise convergence. Finally,
the relative topology on F
RX is still generated by evaluation functionals at points
x 2 X and thus convergence still means pointwise convergence: the only dierence is that
in the relative topology only the functionals in F are considered, instead of the whole
functionals in RX . Therefore the two topologies induces the same notion of convergence.
Concerning the open sets of the two topologies, Facts 1.9.2 and 1.10.2 give explicitly a
base for each of the two topologies: if denotes the standard Q
topology on R, then a base
for both topologies is given by considering all sets of the form x2X Vx where Vx 2 fx 1 ( )
for some fx 2 F and Vx = X for all but nitely many x 2 X. It follows that the inclusion
F X is an homeomorphism according to the topologies (F; X) on F and (X; ) on
X.
(Second embedding) If F separates the points in X, the mapping which associates
to a point x the evaluation hx; i is one-to-one. Again, recall that (X; F) is generated
by the evaluation functionals f = h ; f i and that in the product topology (RF ; ) the
projections are again the evaluation functionals f = h ; f i. It follows, exactly as above,
that both topologies are the topologies of pointwise convergence on the set F.
Lemma 1.11.12 A subset of F is weakly compact, that is, compact in weak topology,
i it is pointwise bounded and contains the pointwise limits of its nets.

1.11. POINTWISE AND UNIFORM CONVERGENCE

41

Proof First note that, since (F; (F; X))

RX ; (X; ) is an embedding, we may
X
think to (F; (F; X)) as a subset of R with the relative topology on F induced by
product topology on RX . Thus the theorem reduces to prove that
Claim In RX with the product topology, a subset K F is relatively compact i it
is pointwise bounded and contains the pointwise limits of its nets.
Always considering RX ; (X; ) as the ambient space, property (4) of Facts 1.6.10
states that K
F is relatively compact i K is compact in RX . At this point, the
statemtent is a consequence of Theorem 1.10.9: K is compact in RX i Kx = px (K) is
compact in R = Rx 8x 2 X, exactly the two conditions in the RHS of the statement.

42

CHAPTER 1. BASIC ELEMENTS OF GENERAL TOPOLOGY

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