Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
1. Report No.
FHWATX-77-23-l
4. Title and Subtitle
5. Report Date
7. Authorl s)
February 1977
~------------------------------------------------------~
12. Sponsoring Agency Name and Address
Interim
14. Sponsoring Agency Code
Unclassified
Unclas s ified
(e-611)
165
22. Pri ce
conducted for
Texas
State Department of Highways and Public Transportation
in cooperation with the
U. S. Department of Transportation
Federal Highway Administration
by the
ii
PREFACE
Computational procedures for predicting temperature and stresses in
highway bridges due to daily environmental changes are presented.
A two-
The
environmental data required in the analysis are available from daily weather
reports.
Program TSAP, which included the subject procedures in a complete system,
was used to predict bridge temperature and stress distributions caused by the
climatic conditions representative of the city of Austin, Texas.
individuals have made contributions in this research.
Several
project special thanks are due to John Panak, Kenneth M. Will, and Atalay
Yargicoglu.
the staff of the Center for Highway Research for their assistance in producing
this report.
iii
ABSTRACT
This research focused on the development of computational procedures
for the prediction of the transient bridge temperature distribution due
to daily variations of the environment such as solar radiation, ambient
air temperature, and wind speed.
to be constant along the center-line of the bridge but can vary arbitrarily
over its cross section.
The
environmental data required for input are the solar radiation intensity,
ambient air temperature and wind speed.
the extreme summer and winter climatic conditions representative of the city
of Austin, Texas.
SUMMARY
A computational procedure for the prediction of temperature induced
stresses in highway bridges due to daily changes in temperature has been
developed.
TSAP, which is able to predict both the temperature distribution and the
temperature induced stresses for a variety of bridge types.
This work
A two-dimensional
been considered in the past, was included in the finite element temperature
model, thus allowing for a continuous temperature prediction over a given
period of days and nights.
This research indicates that the amplitude and form of the temperature
gradient are mainly functions of the intensity of the solar radiation,
ambient air temperature and wind speed.
conditions for Austin, Texas, were found to take place on a clear night
followed by a clear day with a large range of air temperature.
The shape
and depth of the bridge cross-section and its material thermal properties
such as absorptivity, emissivity, and conductivity, are also significant
factors.
vii
viii
IMPLEMENTATION
As a result of this research a computer program, TSAP (Temperature
and Stress Analysis Program), has been developed to form a complete system
for predicting temperature behaviors of highway bridges due to daily changes
of temperature.
Bureau Reports while material thermal properties may be obtained from one
of the handbooks on concrete engineering.
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PREFACE
iii
ABSTRACT
SUMMARY
..
IMPLEMENTATION
...
LIS T OF TABLES
...
LIST OF FIGURES
CHAPTER 1.
..
vii
. . . . ix
. . . xv
xvii
.......
....
....
.... .
INTRODUCTION.
1.1
General
1.2
Literature Review
1.3
CHAPTER 2.
2.1
The Need .
2.2
The-Approach.
CHAPTER 3.
9
9
10
13
3.1
Introduction. . . . .
13
3.2
Environmental Variables
13
3.2.1
Solar Radiation.
14
3.2.2
Air Temperature
18
3.2.2
Wind Speed
20
3.3
CHAPTER 4.
4.1
23
3.3.1
23
3.3.2
26
3.3.3
27
31
MATHEMATICAL MODELS
Introduction .
31
xi
31
xii
Page
4.2.1
4.3
31
39
46
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
CHAPTER 5.
49
52
53
57
5.1
Introduction
57
5.2
57
5.3
61
5.3.1
63
69
77
6.1
Introduction . .
77
6.2
77
6.2.1
79
6.2.2
82
6.2.3
86
6.2.4
86
6.2.5
89
94
94
6.2.6
6.2.7
6.3
6.4
96
100
xiii
CHAPTER 7.
Page
103
7.1
Introduction . . . .
103
7.2
104
7.2.1
104
7.2.2
108
7.2.3
General Remarks
110
7.3
110
7.3.1
7.3.2
...........
7.4
Interface Forces
7.5
....
114
117
.....
CHAPTER 8.
III
120
127
8.1
Summary
127
8.2
Conclusions
128
8.3
Recommendations
129
133
139
BIBLIOGRAPHY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
141
APPENDIX A.
APPENDIX B.
LIST OF TABLES
Table
Average maximum total insolation in a day on the
horizontal surface (1967-1971) and length of daytime
(Latitude 30 0 N) . . . .
16
3.2
21
3.3
24
5.1
60
5.2
65
5.3
66
5.4
72
5.5
73
6.1
3.1
(August)
6.2
.......
. . . . . . . . . . . .
xv
80
81
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure
Page
7
1.1
3.1
17
3.2
19
3.3
22
28
3.5
28
4.1
35
37
4.3
44
4.4
4.5
44
48
4.6
50
50
4.8
54
5.1
58
5.2
59
5.3
59
5.4
62
5.5
64
5.6
67
70
5.8
71
5.9
74
3.4
4.2
4.7
5.7
xvii
xviii
Figure
Temperatures and vertical deflection vs. time
(Dec. 11, 1967) . . . .
76
6.1
160 I
78
6.2
83
85
87
6.5
88
6.6
90
5.10
6.3
6.4
6.7
6.8
6.9
. . .
induced stresses for a one-, two-,
(August)
Temperature
and threespan bridge
Temperature induced stresses for a one-, two-, and threespan bridge (January)
91
93
95
97
98
6.12
99
7.1
Typical interior girder idealization of a composite precast pretensioned bridge (Texas standard type B-beam).
105
106
6.10
6.11
7.2
7.3
/I
/I
/I
/I
/I
/I
/I
/I
/I
/I
/I
/I
/I
/I
/I
107
/I
7.4
7.5
7.6
7.7
7.8
7.9
/I
/I
/I
/I
/I
/I
/I
/I
II
/I
/I
/I
/I
/I
Temperature and stress distributions at the section of
symmetry (August)
Temperature and stress distributions at the section of
symmetry (January)
109
112
113
115
116
118
xix
Figure
Interface forces near the slab end caused by a
temperature differential . . .
119
7.11
121
7.12
123
7.13
125
126
134
7.10
7.14
A.1
CHAPTER 1.
1.1
INTRODUCTION
General
It has been recognized for a long time that bridge superstructures
This
How-
For inde-
The shape and depth of the bridge cross-section and its material
dition, are additive to stresses caused by dead load and live loads; thus
increasing the magnitude of the final stresses.
Cracks in an exposed
The
survey of bridge specifications by Zuk (59) has shown that Germany, Austria,
Sweden and Japan are the only countries with a thermal induced stress provision in their specifications.
be presented.
1.2
Literature Review
Narouka, Hirai and Yamaguti (40) performed temperature tests on the
tests showed that temperature distributions over the thickness of the concrete slab were nonlinear.
was about 16F.
bottom flanges of the steel girder, on the other hand, was only 5F.
In 1957, Barber (1) presented a formula to estimate the maximum pavement surface temperature.
The
that the deflections were less than 0.04 percent of the span length, and
the changes in prestressing force varied from -3 percent to 5 percent of
initial prestress.
He
also presented an equation for calculating the maximum temperature differential between the top and bottom temperatures of a composite steel bridge.
Good correlations were reported between the computed and the measured values.
For example, the predicted maximum surface temperature was 102F, compared
to the measured value of 98F.
It
was confirmed from these field tests that the temperature distributions
over the concrete slab deck were nonlinear.
one year, he found that there existed a relationship between the air temperature and the bridge movement.
mode1~
A significant dis-
crepancy was found between the measured and the calculated deflections
which was attributed to the deviation of the bridge from the theoretical
model and the inability to accurately represent the temperature distributions for the analysis.
dimensional linear flow of heat was successfully used to predict the temperature distributions in concrete slab bridges.
Tempera-
tures predicted by this model were shown to compare favorably with experimental results.
Con-
sideration was given for both a simple span and a continuous composite steel
bridge.
gradients, linear in concrete slab and uniform in steel beam, were found to
be of sufficient magnitude to warrant further investigations.
Will (49) has recently developed a finite element program for predicting
bridge response under temperature changes.
ture may be linear in the plane and may have a quartic distribution over its
thickness.
thermal behaviors.
Selected
bridges were also field tested and good correlations between the predicted
and measured values have been obtained.
1.3
The
data required for input are the solar radiation intensity, ambient air
temperature and wind speed.
through the U.S. Weather Bureau (14) at selected locations in the nation.
The air temperature and wind speed, on the other hand, can be obtained from
local newspapers.
To accomplish the goal of the study, the scope consisted of the
following works.
presented has the superiority in that the temperature can be predicted continuously over a given period of days and nights.
shape of the bridge section, for example the section of Fig l.lb, the twodimensional temperature model was developed in order to take into account
the temperature distribution which is nonlinear both vertically and horizontally.
developed,
of summer and winter conditions were carried out and the results of the
investigations were discussed.
solar radiation levels and the daily air temperature distributions during
the years 1967-1971 were used.
and the suggestions for future researchers based on the findings of this
work are presented at the end of this report,
It is also of importance to note that the study concerns primarily the
stresses induced by temperature differential over the depth of highway
Overall Width
Roadway Width
1,;-C
Beam Spacing
Slob depth
Neutral axi s of
composite section
Neutral axis 0 f
beam section
Beam
depth
b) Composite precast
pretensioned
C to C Beam Spacing
'0
....
bridge
- - - Neutral axis of
composite section
Overall
depth
Neutral axis of
steel sec tio n
Fig 1.1.
bridges.
Combining effects caused from dead load and live loads plus
CHAPTER 2.
2.1
The Need
The problem of thermal effects in various types of highway bridges has
Past
research which has been done in this area indicated that a temperature
difference between the top and bottom of a bridge can result in high
temperature induced stresses (4,58).
As concrete bridges
become more frequently designed to behave continuously under live load, the
temperature effects become more significant than those designed with simple
spans.
long span bridges, the temperature distributions over the depth will be
highly nonlinear thus resulting in high internal stresses.
For example,
Van (45) found that under certain conditions thermal stresses could cause
serious crackings in reinforced concrete structures, and that daily amplitudes of stresses of the order of 200 to 600 psi could result in the exposed
concrete structures.
Simi-
lar concerns have also been expressed and the problems investigated by other
researchers are cited in section 1.2.
As mentioned in Chapter 1 the magnitude of temperature induced stresses
principally depends on the nonlinear form of the temperature gradient over
10
the depth of the section; thus in order to predict reliable stresses actual
bridge temperatures must be obtained.
been able to determine bridge temperatures using recorded weather data the
method is limited only to the unidirectional heat flow.
The
result of this research will provide bridge design engineers a simple but
rational approach to the problem of estimating the effects of environmental
changes on bridge superstructures.
2.2
The Approach
As noted in the preceding chapter, the purpose of this work is to
To solve
11
The
solar radiation, ambient air temperature and wind speed have been shown to
be the most significant factors (1,58).
The purely analytical solution of the above heat flow theory is possible
only in a few simplified cases.
The first is
Thils con ..
d'ition also induces a set of end forces which are applied back at the ends
sinceLthe bridge is free from external end forces.
of, stresses which vary linearly over the depth.
This,causes anether:set
In the following
chapters, the detail of the development of the mathematical models and their
applications will be presented.
CHAPTER 3.
3.1
Introduction
It is true that there are a large number of factors, in addition to dead
and live loads, which affect the structural response of highway bridges.
Factors such as creep, shrinkage, temperature, humidity and settlement are
known to have the most significant effect.
It is found in
Also presented in this chapter are the heat exchange processes which
exchange heat between bridge surfaces and the environment, and the heat conduction process which conducts heat from exterior surfaces to the interior
body of the bridge.
3.2
Environmental Variables
Temperature behavior in highway bridges is caused by both short-term
Seasonal environ-
mental fluctuations from winter to summer, or vice versa, will cause large
overall expansion and contraction.
tudinally the seasonal change will not lead to temperature induced stresses.
However, daily changes of the environment result in a temperature gradient
over the bridge cross section
The
area indicates that the most significant environmental variables which influence the temperature distribution are solar radiation, ambient air temperature
13
14
Solar Radiation
Solar radiation, also known as insolation (incoming solar radiation), is
the principal cause of temperature changes over the depth of highway bridges.
Solar radiation is maximum on a clear day.
directly by the top surface cause the top surface to be heated more rapidly
than the interior region thus resulting in a temperature gradient over the
bridge cross section.
surface is perpendicular to the rays and is zero if the rays become parallel
to the surface.
zontal surface varies from zero just before sunrise to maximum at about noon
and decreases to zero right after sunset.
This lag
4 p.m.
Another approach
Solar radiation
intensities measured at different weather stations over the nation are recorded every day.
Since it is desirable to
use data which has been recorded to predict the bridge temperature distributions, several approximate procedures have been proposed to estimate the
variation of solar radiation intensity during the day using the daily
radiation data.
15
sinusoidal.
For example, Monteith (39) has shown that a sine curve repre-
sentation will give good results at times of high radiation intensities, i.e.,
at about noon.
His method
has been shown to give better results at times of relatively low intensities
as well as high intensities of radiation.
~d
(3.1)
let)
btu/ft 2 ,
hr,
TIt
T
elevation above sea level, affect the total solar energy received by a surface.
Hence, Eq 3.1 may yield good estimates at some locations but may fail
at others.
comparisons were made between the results using Eq 3.1 and the measured
values
(4~
lation in a day (S) were taken from the U.S. Weather Bureau Reports.
They
represent the average of the maximum values as recorded during the years
1967-1971.
Correlations of
the predicted values using Eq 3.1 with measured values (42) for three typical
months are shown in Fig 3.1.
Also, at
model, which is basically based on the Gloyne's model, was obtained by trial
16
TABLE 3.1
Time (CST)
Month
Insolation
(btu/ft 2)
Sunrise (A. M. )
JAN
1500
7:30
6:00
10.5
FEB
1960
7:15
6:15
11.0
MAR
2289
6:30
6:30
12.0
APR
2460
6:00
7:00
13.0
MAY
2610
5:30
7:00
13.5
JUN
2631
5:30
7:30
14.0
JUL
2550
5:30
7:30
14.0
AUG
2380
6:00
7:00
13.0
SEP
2289
6:30
6:30
12.0
OCT
1925
6:30
6:00
11.5
NOV
1570
7:00
5:30
10.5
DEC
1329
7:30
5:30
10.0
Length of
Sunset (P. M. )
Daytime (hr.)
17
400
- - - ref.22
predi cted( Eq. 3.2)
300
200
100
0
5 6
12
Time (CST)
...
s:.
--
N.......
.......
400
::I
&J
>I/)
300
200
c
CIJ
-c
...0
100
0
5 6
V')
12
noon
Time (CST)
June
300
200
100
o~~-.~------~--------~~---
5 6
I2
noon
Time ( CS T )
December
Fig 3.1.
18
and error.
(3.2)
Good correlations between the predicted values using equation 3.2 and
the measured values are shown in Fig 3.1.
months are used in this comparison, it is believed that the method applies
for other months of the year.
i~cidence
Air Temperature
Air temperature varies enormously with locations on earth and with the
seasons of the year.
The
maximum and the minimum value of air temperatures in a day are regularly
recorded at almost all weather stations in the nation.
ture distribution, however, can only be obtained from local weather reports.
On clear days with little change in atmospheric conditions, the air
temperature generally follows two cycles.
form a blanket so that much of the sun's radiation fails to reach the earth,
this results in lowering air temperature during the day.
At night, back
Plots
of hourly air temperature variation on a clear day for typical summer and
winter months are shown in Fig 3.2.
19
/00
I.L.
I.
40~----------~----------~----------~--------~
12
midnight
12
noon
12 (CST)
midnight
0) Summer
January (range 45 0
90
80
t;: 70
~
60
:t
...o
~
a.
{!!.
40
20~--------~----------~--------~----------~
12.
6
6
12
12 (CST)
midnight
noon
midnight
b) Winte r
Fig 3.2.
20
It is worth noting that the times of high and low ambient air temperature
do not coincide with the times of maximum and minimum solar radiation intensity.
This is true for both the daily and the yearly conditions.
The month
occurs at 4 p.m., yet the maximum solar radiation intensity occurs at noon.
Table 3.2 summarizes temperature data as recorded in Austin, Texas.
and extreme air temperature are tabulated for each month of the year.
Normal
Figure
At this time,
In this
study, it was also found that the range of air temperature from a minimum
value to a maximum value during a given day affects the bridge temperature
distribution.
differential over the bridge depth which in turn causes high temperature
induced stresses.
It is
Wind Speed
Wind is known to cause an exchange of heat between surfaces of the bridge
maximum temperature gradients over the bridge depth are reached on a still
day.
Temperature
Daily
Max.
Normal
Daily
Min.
JAN
60.3
FEB
Month
Monthly
Extremes
Year
Record
Lowest
Year
Mean
Hourly
Speed
Fastest Mile
Direction
Speed
Year
(4v. )
Record
Highest
40.5
50.4
86
1963
12
1963
9.9
47
1962
64.0
43.5
53.8
87
1962
22
1967
10.2
57
1947
MAR
70.6
48.7
59.7
96
1967
23
1962
10.9
44
1957
APR
78.0
57.3
67.7
98
1963
39
1962
10.9
44
NE
1957
MAY
85.2
64.9
75.1
99
1967
52
1968
10.2
47
NE
1946
JUN
92.0
71. 7
81.9
100
1967
55
1964
9.6
49
SE
1956
JUL
95.1
73.9
84.5
103
1964
64
1968
8.7
43
1953
AUG
95.6
73.7
84.7
105
1962
61
1967
8.3
47
1959
SEP
89.7
68.5
79.1
102
1963
47
1967
8.0
45
NE
1961
OCT
81. 9
59.5
70.7
95
1963
39
1966
8.1
47
NW
1967
NOV
69.6
47.9
58.8
89
1963
31
1966
9.1
48
NW
1951
DEC
62.8
42.6
52.7
84
1966
21
1966
9.2
49
NW
1956
N
I-'
22
100
Mallimum Temperature
90
80
u...
-...
70
QI
-...
:::J
QI
Q.
E 60
QI
....
50
Minimum Temperature
40
30~~~~--~--~--~--~--~--~~~~---L---
Jon
Feb
Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep Oct
Nav
Manth
Fig 3.3.
Dec
23
average wind speed for each month of the year as recorded in Austin, Texas.
between the bridge boundaries and the environment by radiation and convection.
Heat, on the other hand, is transferred within the bridge boundaries by conduction.
relationship between atmospheric conditions and the heat transfer from the
bridge boundaries to the atmosphere must be known.
radiation during the day and loses heat by emitting out-going radiation at
night.
The amount of heat exchange between the environment and the bridge
surface color.
Concrete with
asphaltic surface has higher absorptivity and published values are between
0.85 to 0.98.
face color.
The emissivity, on the other hand, is independent of the surIts values lie between 0.85 to 0.95.
varies from 0.65 to 0.80 and the emissivity is between 0.85 to 0.95.
The heat transferred by radiation is caused by both short-wave and longwave radiation.
(3.3)
24
TABLE 3.3
Emissivity
50-100 F
Absorptivi ty
for Solar
Radiation
0.90 to 0.98
0.85 to 0.98
etc.) . . . . .
0.85 to 0.95
0.65 to 0.80
0.85 to 0.95
0.50 to 0.70
0.85 to 0.95
0.30 to 0.50
0.20 to 0.30
0.40 to 0.65
Surface
. . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
where
and
Qs
Values of
btu/ft 2 /hr,
btu/ft /hr,
emit radiant electromagnetic energy at a rate which is found to be proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the body.
The rate
= e0'9
where
(3.4)
btu/ft 2 /hr,
= emitting energy,
= emissivity,
0'
= Stefan-Boltzmann constant,
0.174 X 10 -8 ,
and
Note that OR
= absolute temperature, oR
(Rankine).
of + 459.67.
where
QL
eO' (9 s - 9:;)
QL
9s
surface temperature,
oR,
air temperature,
oR
9a
(3.5)
btu/ft 2 /hr,
It has been confirmed from field measurements (51) that Eq 3.5 yields a
reasonable estimate of radiation loss between the earth's surface and the
26
underestimate the net heat loss from the surface when the sky is clear.
This
is due to the fact that the clouds, which can be regarded as a black body,
absorbs solar radiation during the day and emits it back to the earth during
the night.
where
a co:iastant, approximately
air temperature,
and
(3.6)
0.496 x 10
14
btu/ft 2 /hr,
, btu!t 2 /hr/oR6 ,
Equation 3.6 has been shown to represent the data from a number of sites
with a high accuracy.
bridge is given by
=
where
QLC
eO'e
4
6
s -eee a
(3.7)
btu/ft 2 /hr
In the absence of
the wind, heat is transferred from the heated surface by air motion caused by
density differences within the air.
27
Therefore, in
where
Qc
Qc
btu/ft 2 /hr,
surface temperature,
of,
air temperature,
of,
Ta
h
(T
- T )
a
(3.8)
btu/ft 2 /hr rF
wind speed,
mph
For a
known time-dependent boundary temperature, the interior temperature distribution is governed by the well-known transient heat-conduction equation,
(3.9)
where
time.
hr,
ft,
x, y, z
and
= thermal conductivity,
btu/hr/ftrF,
= density,
lb/ft 3 ,
= specific heat,
btu/lbrF
28
lI......
2,4
...
c't
......
'\
2.0
~'\
:::J
,&l
c:
II
fOfO~
1.6
,,0,
u
0
c:
1.2
\'l;)'l;)
X'
>
c:
0.8
U
II
,,~'!I
II
u
E
i.L
~o
0.4
10
12
14
Fig 3.4.
-...
I.L
......
12
N......
......
10
C
:::J
, &l
>-
>
U
:::J
"c
8
6
4
CJ
...E
II
~
....
20
40
60
80
Density (Ib/ft!)
Fig 3.5.
16
29
Experiments (5) have shown that its magnitude increases as the density of
the material increases.
Results of such
~xperiments
Normally, the average thermal conductivity of concrete and steel are 0.75
and 26.6 btu/hr/ft/oF respectively.
affects the thermal conductivity.
Nonlinear
CHAPTER 4.
4.1
MATHEMATICAL MODELS
Introduction
The three basic mechanisms of heat transfer, conduction, convection and
It should be
noted, however, that the actual flow of heat is a result of all three mechanisms of heat transfer acting simultaneously.
In general, convection
and radiation will govern the flow of heat at the boundaries while conduction
governs the heat flow within the body.
cludes the heat transfer and the thermal stress analysis in one complete
system.
4.2
temperature distributions for both one and two-dimensional heat flow will be
discussed.
deck may be approximated by assuming that the heat transfers through a slab
having a finite thickness and infinite lateral dimensions.
In this approach
edge effects are neglected and the heat transfer will depend on only one space
variable in the direction of the slab thickness.
31
32
where
(4.1)
x, y, z
t
T
K
time,
ft,
hr,
t , of,
diffusivity,
The diffusivity is
defined by
where
.k
cp
(4.2)
thermal conductivity,
btu/hr/ftjOF,
specific heat,
btu/lbjOF,
density,
Ib/ft 3 .
dT
dt
(4.3)
and
only.
33
These tempera-
tures can be predicted by considering the heat exchange process which takes
place at bridge surfaces.
Under clear sky condition, the above equation is then represented by a sum of
EQS 3.8, 3.7, and Eq 4.3 at initial conditions:
where
+ (e (j e4s
ea6)
rI
h (T
T
8
- e
k(~)
OX x=O
(4.4)
- T )
I
h
s
==
2
4
btu/ft /hr/OR
34
or
k(a.)
oX x=L
where
(4.5)
T
a
Ss
Equations 4.3, 4.4 and 4.5 are thus the necessary equations to predict
the transient temperature distribution over the bridge deck.
Although
The
~x
The
,
Details of developing the numerical forms are outlined by Kreith (33) and
will not be discussed here.
T~
K~t ( T _ Ti + --Z
i 1
~x
T~
temperature at node
Ti
temperature at node
diffusivity,
l.
where
l.
~t
~x
zr i + Ti +l )
space increment
(4.6)
35
Top Surface
.2
6f
i-J
ei
6X
Thickness
e i+1
e etc.
Bottom Surface
Fig 4.1.
36
is
rI
where
i=l.
(4.7)
Hence,
T _
i 1
Eq 4.6 into Eq 4.7 yields
no longer exists,
Substituting
Ti _
T'
1
where
from
(4.8)
~xhc
0:'1
- 2- 2
a1
2 -k-' and
1'1
2~ (rI - eO' 84 + e
k
~xhc
8a )
By substituting for
Tn+1
h (T
- T ) + e 0' (8
n
an
(4.9)
(4.10)
where
0:'2
- 2- 2
a2
l\xhc
2-k
l\xhc
k
37
4
2 1e. (e a e - e a e4)
k
a
n
Thus, Eqs 4.8 and 4.10 give, respectively, temperatures at the top and
bottom surface of the bridge deck in terms of environmental variables and
temperature history within the slab.
T
used in these
a
two equations will be the average at the beginning and at the end of the time
Values of
and
Due to
6x
and
6t
It can be shown
that limitations on the selection of the spatial and time increment are
governed by Eq 4.6.
T'
(4.11)
(1 - 2 KA~)
6x
,
must at all times be positive to avoid oscillation, i.e., if all nodes have
initially zero values of temperature except at node i where T. > 0 , the
l.
It has been proved (31)
condition for T' to be positive is when KAt s; -1
i
6x2
2 K t
1
that the error of the solution is a minimum when
Therefore, for
~
6
6x
a selected time increment, 6t , a reasonable magnitude of the spatial incre-
6x
and
T'
1
T + KA t (zr 2 +
( 1 + KAt)
6x2 0'1
1
6x2
f.'
1 Ta + Y )
l
(4.12)
38
777 7
Top
1117777
T'
::
TI +
~~~
.2
T' :: T + K6t
6X 2 tTl - 2Tt
z
z
r':5
+ T3 )
t:..X
::
1;
K6t
6X
~ (Tt
2T3 + T4 )
t:..X
etc.
-4
etc .
n-I
1111,11111/
Fig 4.2.
Bottom
(4.8 )
(4.6 )
39
(4.13)
,the in-
2.
3.
4.2.2
~t
~t
and
~x
respectively,
4.
5.
6.
7.
In the preceding section, the temperature and the heat flow in one
spatial dimension and the method of analysis were discussed.
Good correlations
Also, in Chapter 7,
40
able for the solution to this type of problem, the finite element method was
selected for this work.
In
matically, that the method converges to the exact solution as the number of
elements is increased.
In the finite element method it is necessary to find a functional such
that the minimization of this functional will give functions which satisfy
the field equations and boundary conditions of the problem of interest.
Many
functionals have been used by many researchers in solving the uncoupled field
problem.
Another func-
tional was also presented by Brisbane, Becker and Parr (9) for thermoelastic
stress analysis.
the final forms for the finite element equations will essentially be the same.
Instead of following the formal mathematical method, Wilson (52) used another
approach.
41
TT
J {~'Z
U ~ y U + P c U ir
where
= c(xi)
= p (xi)
= ,....,q(xi)
i
n(x )
U(xi,t)
U(xi,t)
specific heat,
= density,
heat flux vector across a boundary,
unit normal vector,
= temperature,
time derivative of temperature,
gradient of
xi
(4.14)
~
,....,
1d v - J~ .~ U d s
U, and
coordinates.
If temperature
element and that it can be defined by the nodal point temperature, u , the
functional above becomes
TT(U,
u).
aJ:!. (u , u )
ou
,...., ,....,
(4.15)
(4.16)
Let
Nu
then
Nu
U =
~Nu
,....,,....,,....,
and
Du
~,....,
(4.18)
42
Substituting above values into Eq 4.14, the result in the matrix form is
rr(u , ~)
(4.19)
ITT
~ ~ ;! d s
s
= 0
(4.20)
~r
' over
S2'
, over
Sl
will
and a radiation
h (U - U )
q
'"
formulation.
SLC
However, this is not the case for the radiation term because
According to Eq 3.7
+ 460)6 e
(4.23)
U in Eq 4.23.
in section 4.2.1, previous values of temperature were used explicitly without considering this as the source of error.
Equation 4.20 can then be rewritten as
,(4.24)
43
C u + (B + H) u
or
~~
where
pC
I NTN d v
(4.26)
Iv """''''''''
~T1s ;g
dv
,. . .,
(4.27)
t..
and
(4.25)
''/v'"'''' ,.....,
q* + h*
~,....."
Isl NTN
~
IJ
ds
NTnT Q
,.....,r
Js2 ,.....,,.....,
q*
h*
= h cUa
(4.28)
ds
(4.29)
NT ds
(4.30)
s1
Coefficients for the matrices and vectors from Eqs 4.26 through 4.30
can be computed if the shape of the element and the form of temperature
distribution over the element are specified.
linear temperature field over the element is used here, see Fig 4.3.
Matrices of the above equations are given explicitly in Appendix A.
For a
This
lumped method results in a diagonal heat capacity matrix, thus requiring less
computation effort.
~t
where
and
+ ~ ~t
B
q* + h*
~
(4.31)
(4.32)
(4.33)
44
j I Uj
"""""----......
bj
~--------------------------------~-x
J.i1---------
~-------------------------~x
Fig 4.4.
45
(4.34)
time increment
where
F*
K* ,....",t
u
(4.35)
where
K*
(4.36)
and
F*
(4.37)
Equation 4.35 is now a system of linear equations and can be solved for
the new temperature.
time steps, the
a case, K*
K*
In such
2.
3.
Form K*
4.
Triangularize K*
K ,
1.
and
,
~
Calculate
where
gs
and (t-tlt) ,
At
46
h*
'" LC .
.6.
7.
F*
'"
Solve equation
and (t-6t) ,
Calculate
F* , and
'"
8.
4.3
restraints and the unexpected unsymmetrical geometry of the bridge also affect
the resultant stress.
2.
3.
4.
An isoptropic material,
5.
6.
In addition, the upcoming discussion will follow the classical thermoelasticity theory as developed by Duhamel and Neumann.
ture, a typical beam section away from the ends is represented by a set of
47
Originally,
at zero reference temperature, all springs have the same length and are free
from stress.
shown in Fig 4.5b, all springs will expand unequally and the system will seek
a new equilibrium configuration.
e!
where
Q' T.
th
= 1,5
(4.38)
spring,
Q'
The position of the system at this stage is shown in Fig 4.5c which
violates the assumption that the plane section remains plane after deformation.
- E Q'T
where
E
1,5
spring constant.
(4.39)
E Q' Ti
at sections away from the ends can be estimated by the use of statically
equivalent forces.
48
T=O
C'J"=O
311---NlJ~
4 II---W---li
II..-."""",~
,.,.
vI " 0-"
---3----
Peq
Meq
I
j
stress (d)
---1111
I
I
stress(e)
Fig 4.5.
49
will be linear over the depth and the final position of the spring system
satisfies the assumption of plane sections remaining plane after deformation,
Fig 4.Se.
"
i = 1,S
(4.40)
O'i
E i"
where
O'i" =
and
i" =
strain in the i
forces.
th
Temperature induced stress in each spring is thus obtained by superimposing stresses of Fig 4.Sd and Fig 4.Se.
Fig 4.Sf,
i
where
1,S
(4.41)
consider a unit width of slab cross section subjected to temperature distribution as shown in Fig 4.6.
neutral axis
are
d/2
eq
J- d/2
E ct T(y) dy
(4.42)
50
f~
1
- ,-----
d,t.
_ -_ _
-t-
f ... PI
N.A.
T (y)
x
n-I
n
-'-
-..,--------t~
..
Poi f n is even
EdTn
Fig 4.6.
~_ _~Tk
Ye
1--_1-1..
r-t--;::::l-- Ea Td A
---+-+
X
(b) Quadrilateral element
. - _..Tj
(a) cross secti on
( c) Tr i angular element
Fig 4.1.
51
d/2
and
(4.43)
E Q' T (y) Y dy
- d/2
The close form of integral calculus cannot be used directly since the
shape of the temperature distribution is not available.
As temperatures are
three successive points, the force and the location of the centroid under
this parabolic temperature distribution are
(4.44)
and
(4.45)
(4.46)
o
h(2T
+ Tn- 1)
(4.47)
is odd
p
eq
(n-1) /2
L:
P.
i=l
(4.48)
(4.49)
52
if
is even
(n-2) /2
P.
L:
eq
i=l
(4.50)
L:(n-2)/2 P. [d
-2 - {Yi
and
i=l
+ (i -1) 2h
'l
r
,
P {d
-2 - (h - -Y ) ~r (4. 51)
0
from the
(4.52)
4.3.2
For a linear
temperature distribution over the element, Fig 4.7, the equivalent end force
of element
e
P
where
and
is
=
e e Q'e T av
av
(4.53)
A E
"4
(T i + Tj + Tk + Tt)
for a quadrilateral
for a triangle.
av
~
e
P x
e e
(4.54)
53
eq
l:
e=l
~
eq
P x
l:
e=l
(4.55)
Finally, temperature induced stress at point
having coordinate
(xi'Yi) is
Peq
Yi
Ix
eq
-+-M
4.3.3
xi
+ - MY
Iy
eq
-E
(4.56)
T
i "'"i i
1'\1
conditions are such that these deformations are prevented, additional stresses
associated with the restraining forces must be considered.
A simply supported bridge is shown in Fig 4.8a.
distribution at a section which is far away from the ends, under free movement
condition, can be obtained directly by using Eq 4.41.
Similarly,
in the case of a continuous bridge, Fig 4.8b, the free vertical displacement
is not allowed.
calculated by substituting
for
M
in Eq 4.52. Another example is
eq
when the bridge has varying thicknesses along the length, Fig 4.8c. In this
case, the bridge is first divided into a number of prismatic beam members.
It can be seen that the method approximates the geometry of the bridge in the
region of the varying thickness.
are computed.
54
M~
M~
Peq~~k----------~......,L0
..
Peq
CD
Meq
Peq
MH
Meq
~ G ;J.r;;~====:::::::;;J37;:::==)~'1It:C===;;;;;;::::::====::;T:::::::=======l7b~ Peq
CD
(b) Four-span brid(;Je
(c)
55
Stresses caused by
Final
CHAPTER 5.
5.1
Introduction
The purpose of this chapter is to correlate existing measured bridge
temperature distributions with the results computed from theoretical considerations developed in Chapter 4.
Although the
Two
types of highway bridge as shown in Fig 5.1 and Fig 5.4 were used for this
purpose.
5.2
Houston, Texas.
The solar radiation intensity, ambient air temperature and wind speed were
recorded.
The
As
is shown in Fig 5.2, the variation of the measured solar radiation intensity
experienced a great deal of fluctuations.
57
V1
co
lines of support
)(
)(--
...
"~
.....
""
... ,
.......
........ -
"'-
.......
'i
..........
..........
i
roadway
Fig 5.1.
59
300
measured
..... - used
-...
gooF
s:.
N......
......
::I
,Q
0.
Air Temperature
200
cu
.-...
c:
0
<[
0
'0
0
0::
... 100
~
0
(/)
Fig 5.2.
10
II
12
noon
Time ( hrs) COT
- - measured
--- predi cted
.. - .. consider 10 %
105
I
-...
1.1..
100
cu
-...
Top Surface
::I
/
I
cu
0.
--1
cu
Bottom Surface
90
.-:::::--="":
. ---- --- -- -- -- ----- L-~~===:--..-- . . . .
'-------------~--+--........
80~----~----~----~----~--~~--~----~----~----~
Fig 5.3.
10
II
12
noon
Time (hrs) COT
60
mation concerning the temperature variation inside the slab, the reference
time was assumed to take place at the time when the top and the bottom
surface temperatures reached the same value.
time at 9:00 a.m. was used with the initial uniform temperature distribution
86F.
In the analysis, a time increment of 15 minutes was selected.
Solar
Since no infor-
mation was available on the thermal properties of the concrete for the test
bridge, the material properties were assumed to be at their typical values.
Table 5.1 gives the average values of concrete thermal properties and pertinent data used in the analysis.
TABLE 5.1
Fig 5.2
Air temperature
Fig 5.2
Wind speed
10 mph
86 of
0.5
Emissivity
0.9
Density
150 lb/ft
Thermal conductivity
0.81 btu/ft/hr/oF
Specific heat
0.23 btu/lb/oF
61
greater discrepancy at the bottom surface of the bridge which has been
attributed to the fact that the sun's rays reflected from the roadway underneath were neglected in the analysis.
Subsequently
an additional analysis was made by assuming that the bottom surface absorbed
10 percent of the measured solar radiation intensity.
analysis are also shown in Fig 5.3.
In the next
example, where more extensive data from field measurements were available,
comparisons of temperature distributions throughout the depth during a summer
day and a winter night will be given.
5.3
46 feet.
beams.
Antonio, Texas.
The bridge was field tested under temperature effects by Wah and Kirksey
(48).
62
Sym. about
2'-9~[
l'
16
1~1/2
r--- 4"
20'-1"
~I
II"
6'
1 ..
4 /z
2'-3" 2:;-~'
3'-0"
6 spaces
b)
3'-0" - 18'-0"
1'-6"
Fig 5.4.
<t
63
temperature.
remaining seven in the beam portion, were used to measure temperatures over
the depth.
Fig 5.5a.
Three element layers were used over the slab thickness while two
Triangular as well as
On August 8,
1967, a field test was performed from 6:00 a.m. to 8:00 p.m. (48).
Table
5.2 gives the ambient air temperatures and a brief description of weather
conditions during the test period.
a horizontal surface, on the other hand, was obtained from the U.S. Weather
Bureau Reports (14).
From the study of temperature logs given in Ref 48, it was apparent that
the bridge temperature distribution was almost uniform at 9:30 a.m.
Hence,
for simplicity of input data, it was assumed that the starting time is at
9:30 a.m. and the temperature is uniform over the cross section at 89F,
Fig 5.6a.
the analysis were the average values of the measured top and bottom ambient
temperatures given in Table 5.2.
sity, i.e., 100 and 80 percent of the value obtained from Ref 14 were used in
computing the bridge temperatures.
18"
I"
..,
.-::L __
4.5
19' v
Is::
'S'
12
18
24
28
31
34
37
40
@ @
Th"moeou,Ie,
41
43
Fig 5.5.
44
46
@~
47'
38
1 149
48
65
TABLE 5.2
Time
Ambient
TemE {T2*
0600
Remarks
Power turned on for
instrument warm-up
Clear sky - Light wind
0630
78F
78F
0800
79F
80F
II
"
0930
80F
82F
"
11
1100
86F
91F
II
"
1230
90F
95F
"
II
1400
95F
lOOF
"
II
1530
97F
97F
II
11
1700
99F
103F
II
"
1830
98F
104F
"
11
2000
94F
97F
"
"
66
Table 5.3 gives the average concrete thermal properties and relevant
data used to perform the analysis.
TABLE 5.3
2380
Wind speed
10
89F
0.5
Emissivity
0.9
Density
150
Thermal conductivity
0.81
Specific heat
0.23
btu/ft 2
mph
1b/ft
btu/ft/hr/oF
btu/1brF
3.79 X 106 1b/in 2
6 X 10- 6
Time increment
1.5
in/inrF
hr
been attributed to the inaccurate wind speed information and the time of
sunset.
It is also of interest at this point to mention the necessity of the
two-dimensional heat transfer model.
cross section has been found to vary nonlinearly in both vertical and horizontal directions.
is a result of the heat conducting from the top surface and that of the
surrounding air temperature exposed to the exterior surfaces of the beam.
The distribution of temperature over the depth computed from the onedimensional heat flow model is depicted in Fig 5.6h for comparison.
It can
be seen that an erratic magnitude of temperature was calculated when the onedimensional code was used.
67
... --....
o
measured (Ref. 48 )
predicted (100% insolation)
"
predicted (80%
)
-N
.c.
0.
<II
storting
condition
70
80
90
100 110
120
70
80
90
100
110
120
110
120
Temperature (OF)
(0) 9:30a.m .
(b) 11:30a.m.
.c.
0.
<II
\
70
80
"
90
100
110
120
70
80
90
100
Temperature (OF)
(c) 12:30 p.m.
Fig 5.6.
(d) 2:00p.m.
68
--"measured (Ref. 48 )
--predicted (100% insolation)
o 00 predicted (80%
"
)
.s::;
0.
III
Cl
70
80
90
100
110
120
70
80
90
100
110
120
Temperature (oF)
(e) 3: 30 p. m.
,
,\
.s::;
0.
III
Cl
70
80
90
100
110
120
70
80
90
100
Temperature (OF)
(g) 6:30 p.m.
Fig 5.6.
(h) 8:00p.m.
Continued.
110
120
69
Deflection at the mid-span of the bridge caused by temperature differentials was also measured at 1-1/2 hour intervals.
obtained by the method described in Chapter 4.
No theoretical
upward because the top surface is warmer than the bottom surface.
Although
It is
Compressive stresses
are found at the top and bottom regions while tensile stresses are found in
the vicinity of the neutral axis of the beam with a maximum value of 182 psi.
5.3.2
During the winter, tests were performed on 10 December 1967 at 5:00 a.m.
and continued until 3:00 p.m. of the next day.
as described earlier, thus the starting time at 9:00 p.m. was used with the
initial uniform temperature distribution 43F, Fig 5.9a.
the data which was used in the analysis.
70
120
lL.
110
2...41
....
:::I
100
....
41
0.
90
41
t-
80
10
12
4
2
Time ( hrs) CDr
noon
"
( 80% insolotion)
.14
.12
.10
.08
c
c
.06
u
~
.04
41
0.
:::I
t
i
.02
0
12
noon
-.02
4
Time (hrs) CDr
"t)
-;04
Fig 5.7.
(Aug.8,1967).
71
N.A.
-<7'
N.A.
-.,
J:
- - 80% insolation
--- 100% insolation
-300
-100
compression
0.
100
-200
300
tension
Fig 5.8.
Stress (psi)
compression
200
tension
72
TABLE 5.4
Time
Ambient
TernE {T}*
1700
Remarks
Power turned on for
instrument warm-up.
1730
41F
40F
1900
41F
40F
2100
44F
43F
2230
41F
40F
Clear - Still
2400
39F
3rF
"
"
0130
38F
36F
"
"
0300
41F
39F
0430
38F
35F
"
"
0600
36F
33F
"
"
73
TABLE 5.5
0.5
Emissivity
0.9
Density
150
Thermal conductivity
0.81
Specific heat
0.23
lb/ft
btu/ft/hrrF
btu/lbrF
3.79Xl0 6 lb/in 2
6 X 10- 6
Time increment
1.5
in/inrF
hr
It
should be pointed out that in this analysis the wind speed is not a sensitive
parameter since the surface and the surrounding air temperature at all time
increments are approximately the same.
ward since the temperature at the top was cooler than the bottom surface.
Thermal induced stress distribution at 6:00 a.m. is shown in Fig 5.8b.
Maximum tensile stress of 100 psi is observed at the bottom surface of the
beam.
This stress will, of course, be additive to the dead and live load
74
.. ---...
measured (Re f. 48 )
predicted
-0'1
(\J
starting
condition
20
30
40
50
60
70
20
30
40
50
60
70
60
70
Temperature (0 F)
(a)
9:00 p.m.
a.
QI
Cl
20
30
40
50
60
70
20
30
40
50
Temperatu re (0 F)
(c )
Fig 5.9.
12:00 a.m.
75
tt---"
measured ( Re { 48)
- - predicted
s::.
a.
CLJ
20
30
40
50
60
20
70
30
40
50
Temperature (0 F)
(e) 3:00 a.m.
(f) 4:30a.m.
s::.
a.
CLJ
20
30
40
50
60
Temperature (Of')
(9) 6:00 a.m.
Fig 5.9.
Continued.
70
60
70
76
LL.
2.-
...
0
...
40
__----
QJ
:J
---
--..--------- -
~- -...-....-.--~-...
QJ
.......
0.
E 35
QJ
t-
30
a) Surface temperatures
0.
:J
r::
c
0
QJ
QJ
t
c
.02
0
10
midnight
12
-.02
't:J
-.04
predicted
b} Bridge deflection
Fig 5.10.
CHAPTER 6.
6.1
Introduction
In this chapter, the one-dimensional mathematical model developed in
Chapter 4 will be used to study temperature effects in a prestressed concrete slab bridge.
On a clear day,
the amount of the solar radiation intensity absorbed by the top surface is
a maximum, thereby causing a large temperature gradient over the bridge
depth.
Para-
meters affecting bridge thermal behaviors such as material thermal properties, depth, indeterminacy of the structure, span ratio and variable
thickness are also considered.
temperature were obtained from the U.S. Weather Bureau records (14) and
newspapers.
6.2
p~estressing
steel
In view of the
bridge cross section which is depicted in Fig 6.1b, it is evident that the
temperature will be practically uniform across the width of the bridge
77
-../
00
Sym. about
[F
A
======:;
1-5
15~ parabola
32.821'
12.821'
2.179
50'-0"
30'-0
Post-t
I~
Cables Ea. S
Sym. about
<t
2'-0 _I
9'-0" Roadway
II '-0"
t b)
Fig 6.1.
!=r:
Section A-A
79
Also
Material
These
experiences which indicated that temperatures in a bridge would be relatively uniform at or a few hours after sunrise with a value equaling the air
temperature at that time.
By keeping the rest of the variables at their average values, one variable
at a time was increased by 10 percent and the temperatures and stresses
were computed.
It can
be seen that the most significant factor with respect to the material
thermal properties is the absorptivity of the surface to the solar radiation.
Also of importance is the coefficient of thermal expansion and contraction,
since the thermal induced stresses vary linearly with this variable.
How-
An
80
TABLE 6.1
2380
Fig 3.2a
Wind speed
10
0.5
Emissivity
0.9
Thermal conductivity
0.81
Specific heat
0.23
Unit weight
150
btu/lb;oF
lb/ft 3
Depth
17
mph
4.25 X 10
6.0xlO- 6
inches
lb/in 2
in/in;oF
120
30
239
psi
318
psi
818
psi
0.125
inch
35
increase in the wind speed, on the other hand, decreases the computed
results.
take place on a still day with a maximum value of the solar radiation and
a maximum range of daily ambient air temperature.
Comparisons of predicted results using different variations of solar
intensity are also given in Table 6.2.
TABLE 6.2
Reverse
Tensile
Vertical
gradient stress(top) deflection
Temp.
(top)
Temp.
gradient
Tensile
stress
Compo
stress
Mean bridge
temp.
Average
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
0%
Insolation
2.5
10
9.2
8.1
1.6
9.6
2.9
Absorptivity
2.5
10
9.2
8.1
1.6
9.6
2.9
Conductivity
-0.8
-3.3
-0.8
-3.3
-2.5
-0.8
Specific heat
-0.8
-3.3
- 2. 9
-0.1
- 2. 5
-2.4
- 2.9
Density
-0.8
-3.3
- 2.9
-0.1
-2.5
-2.4
- 2.9
Wind speed
-0.8
-3.3
-2.1
-1.5
-2.4
Thickness
-0.8
3.3
-0.3
-11. 2
-5.7
Range of air
temperature
1.7
2.1
3.1
14.3
4.7
0.8
2.9
I
Insolation
(Eq 3.1)
3.3
13.3
9.2
11.4
0.3
10.4
-0.3
I
co
I-'
82
a day the same, Eq 3.1, instead of Eq 3.2, was used in the analysis.
Two
solar radiation and air temperature variation indicates that the temperature
in a bridge will be relatively uniform early_in the morning.
At about this
time, the sun's radiation is small and the air temperature has just passed
the minimum value.
The
analyses were made at 15 minute intervals using the data contained in Table
6.1.
FromrFig 6.2,
At
p.m. and the corresponding maximum compressive stress is 818 psi at the top
fiber of the bridge.
83
A-
,,-::. ~
"
..... ~
",/,,:
"
//,"
,</
/
.S
I'-
.r:.
d;.
2
0.
ClI
/1:
I I
I
\I
\
3:00p.m.
,\,
'.
70
"
80
'.
90
100
110 120
- 800
-400
o 200
compression Stress (psi) tension
..
8:00o.m
86F
.r:.
<12
0.
ClI
5:00a.m.
50
60
70 80
90
Temperature (OF)
100
-400
compo
o
Stress (psi)
400
ten.
Fig 6.2.
84
The above stresses were computed at the center of the middle span.
However, it should be pointed out that, in this three-span case, the
temperature induced stresses are constant longitudinally in the middle
span.
In the exterior spans, the stresses reduce linearly such that zero
equilibrium was assumed to take place at 7:00 a.m. and calculations proceeded for three consecutive days.
the first day additional heat is stored within the bridge, thus decreasing
the nonlinearity of the temperature distribution.
ever, reduces considerably during the second day and a isothermal condition
is observed on the third day.
According to the
dition was assumed to occur at 8:00 p.m. with a uniform temperature of 65F.
This time was selected since experimental data (20,48) have shown that
during the winter period the temperature distribution over the depth is
relatively uniform at about this time.
changes of temperature between the first and the second day are small and
that computed stresses are almost identical.
of 9F was calculated and a maximum tensile stress of 352 psi was predicted
at the top surface.
85
L4
3:00 p. m.
70
80
90
100
110
120
-800
(a)
-400
com pression
Temperature (0 F)
200
Stress (psi)
tension
August
first day
second day
-
third day
,/
'""-
,/
,/
\".
I'
'\\.
\~
\.
c:
\"
\\I:
I.
,.q
0.
III
1/
I
30
40
50
\
\
7:00 a.m.
/:
\
\
\
\
60
70
Temperature (OF)
80
-400
compressi 0 n
o
Stress (psi)
( b) January
Fig 6.3.
"
400
tension
86
The above study thus indicates that different starting times have
little influence on the induced stresses.
the starting time at 7:00 a.m. and 8:00 p.m. will be used for the summer
and winter condition respectively.
6.2.3
occur during a day with high solar radiation, large air temperature range
and no wind.
The analyses were performed using the starIn addition, a wind speed of 5 mph was used.
It can be
A maximum
At 2:00 p.m"
At this time,
the top surface is approximately 20F warmer than the air temperature.
6.2.4
87
Q.
CII
4:00 p.m.
400
Temperature (0 F)
compression
Stress (psi)
tension
400
(a)
_ " - June
- - - - July
- - - August
s:
Q.
5:00 a.m.
CII
60
-400
compression
Temperoture (0 F)
(b)
Fig 6.4.
88
"
----
12noon
12midnight
August
...
0
...
QI
70
'j
.......
QI
Q.
E
QI
I-
.......
.- ...
--
... .... -
50
40
30
12
midnight
12
noon
Fig 6.5.
89
the daily atmospheric variations in December, January and February are used
for this study.
These stresses, however, are less than those induced under the
summer conditions.
It is, therefore, concluded that the daily climatic changes in January
are the extreme winter conditions in Austin, Texas.
Plots of predicted
top and bottom surface temperatures versus time in this month are shown in
Fig 6.5b.
increases at a somewhat . faster rate than the air temperature, but the
maximum difference of only 6F is observed between the two temperatures and
takes place at 2:00 p.m.
6.2.5
90
,,
,,
"\
\
c::
..c:
Q
\
\
I'-
dl
2
\
\
\
I
I
/
QJ
I
I
.I
20
30
40
7:00 a.m.
50
60
70
-400
compression
Temperature (OF)
400
(a)
- " - Oecember
- - - - January
February
d
/"
.'
I
I
\
3:00 p.m.
\.
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
-800
-400
compression
Temperature (0 F)
400
Stress (psi)
tension
(b)
Fig 6.6,
91
LOA-
aL
4:00 p.m.
70
80
90
100
110
-800
120
-400
compression
Temperature (OF)
400
Stress ( psi) tension
(a)
- - - 3 - span (a = I)
3-spon (a: 1.5)
- - I-span
--64& 2 - span
0.
ell
4:00 p.m.
70
80
90
100
110
-800
120
-400
compression
Temperature (0 F)
400
Stress ( psi)
tension
(b)
Fig 6.7.
92
top as well as at the bottom surface with a maximum value of 460 psi at
1:00 p.m.
and three-span case, all sections below the neutral axis are subjected to
tension with a maximum value of 330 psi located near the bottom surface at
4:00 p.m.
This is
due to the fact that the intermediate supports prevent vertical movement of
the bridge, thus affecting only the bending stress component.
Temperature and temperature induced stress distributions in a 34 inch
concrete slab at 4:00 p.m. are shown in Fig 6.7b.
nitude of tensile stress is computed below the neutral axis, i.e., 230 psi,
a higher compressive stress is predicted at the top surface with the maximum value of 1100 psi at 2:00 p.m.
Figure 6.8, on the other hand, depicts the maximum reverse gradients
and the associated stresses computed under the winter conditions.
Tempera-
ture and stress distributions over the depth of 17 inches are shown in
Fig 6.8a.
span case yields higher tensile stress with a maximum value of 400 psi.
Similar forms of stress distribution are found in a deeper section, Fig
6.8b.
surfaces, i.e., 490 and 250 psi at the top and the bottom surface
respectively.
The above study also indicates that the temperature induced stresses
in any statically indeterminate bridge will be bounded by the stresses
computed from a one- and two-span case.
93
L '4
aL
"A-
7:00
30
40
50
60
70
o.m.
-400
80
Temperoture (OF)
compression
0
Stress ( psi)
400
tension
(a)
-I-spon
G>-----f>
- - - 3-span (a = I)
3-spon
2 - s po n
7:00
20
40
50
60
70
80
a.m.
-400
compression
Temperature (OF)
(a=1.5)
o
Stress (psi)
(b)
Fig 6.8.
400
tension
94
6.2.6
In general, as
~R,
where
is the coefficient of
The reaction
1280 lb with
equal to 0.2.
stresses caused by this restraining force have been found to be insignificant because the computed maximum stress is only 8 percent of the maximum
unrestrained temperature induced stress.
6.2.7
str~cture.
In doing so,
It can be seen that the quartic function has superior representation compared to the quadratic function in fitting the predicted temperature and the
stress distribution.
the depth of l7 inches, Fig 6.9a, poor results, .however, are observed for the
depth of 34 inches, Fig 6.9b.
95
s:
0.
CI.!
3:00p.m.
70
80
90
100
110
120
-800
-400
compression
Temperature (OF)
200
(a)
predicted
quartic
quadratic
d
;'
/'
""
;'
,;'
/'
/"
I
!>.
\
12 :00
\
nOOn
I
I
I
I
,/
70
80
90
100
110
120
-800
compression
Temperature (0 F)
-400
( b)
Fig 6.9.
200
96
ompon~nt
linear and the cubic stress components depend on the span ratio, thus
affecting the flexural stress.
The quadratic
and the quartic stress components, on the other hand, are independent of
the span ratio, thus affecting only the axial stress.
It should be noted
that these two stress components always exist even for the statically
determinate bridge.
studied so far assumed that the bridge had a uniform thickness throughout
its length.
connected at nodal points, net forces will be left over at points where
adjacent elements have different thicknesses.
To obtain the
_m~
F!
eq
~ ~ p =p
-c:;- '""
;g;::
/3LI2
1~
M~
\.
6To
d/2~T'
T2
d/4
T,
-d/4
T.
-d/Z
T~
T(Z)
- Meq ( 3/3 + 2)
+
0
-O"T = 0"8
= 3 (/3+ I) Ea6T.
3/J+2
O"T= 0"8
= -2Ea6Ti!
'3
az '
ez 2
OZ
-O"T'"O"a
Fo~rth
(I-span)
r
AZ
OM= Ea6 Ta
Fig 6.10.
ratio (3-span)
(2-span)
= -I
= span
=0
o 1 [ !
E
@ I.
/3
6T 2
6T,
1=
stress
~ ~
]
O"T =0"8
= - 4 Ea6T.
5
0".. = Ea6T.
\0
"
\0
00
CD
It
.4
@)
~@
@
6 8 Ii- 10 12
13
14
7
Ii
9
(b) Beam element idealizotion
Fig 6.11.
!
i 15
I
99
Stresses (psi)
Depth 17 in.
-800
-400
compression
Stresses (PSi)
Constant
section
Vary
section
Vary Sec.
with PIS
-669
-731
-734
-420
-469
-472
-169
-206
-209
31
13
10
162
166
163
228
250
247
235
268
264
190
240
236
97
164
160
400
tension
(August)
Depth 34 in.
E c = 4.25 x. 10 6 psi
Es
30 x 10 6 psi
-400
compression
= 0.1
;n,2 I in.
400
Fig 6.12.
100
The
Also, in the table of Fig 6.l2a, the effect of the prestressing steel on
temperature induced stresses is found to be very small.
Summary
It can be seen from the foregoing studies that the daily climatic
maximum temperature differential between the top and the bottom surface of
35F 1s possible.
Consequently, on a cool
This
Analyses of
101
Also,
On a typical cool
winter morning, however, top surface tensile stresses of about 400 psi are
possible.
CHAPTER 7.
7.1
Introduction
The problem of thermal effects in composite structures has been studied
by many researchers.
Obviously, this
between the predicted and the measured bridge temperatures in a typical pantype reinforced concrete bridge, it is felt that temperature variations in
various types of highway bridges can be estimated in a systematic way.
In
since it inherits the complexities due to side heating of the girders and
shading of the slab by the parapet.
compare the measured effects with the results computed from theoretical
considerations employing the one-dimensional beam behavior.
103
104
7.2
live load by placing reinforcing steel in the slab over the piers.
The beam
The
compressive strength of the concrete slab and beam are 3000 and 6000 psi
respectively.
7.2.1
shown in Chapter 6 that daily environment during this month induces maximum
temperature stresses.
because the temperature is found to be uniform over the rest of the slab.
The top surface temperature at this time is about 20F warmer than the
surrounding air temperature.
slab is found to be warmer than the surface temperature along the side of
the beam.
conduction at the bottom slab surface while along the side of the beam heat
exchange is taking place only by convection and radiation.
At the center of
the cross section, the temperature distribution over the depth shows changes
in curvature, see Fig 7.3a.
cast beam.
the exterior and the interior face at the bottom portion of the beam.
Fig
7.2a also shows that although temperature distribution in the slab varies
constantly in the transverse direction, temperature distribution in the beam,
F
I
CD
(2)
12
23
34.
451
::
4
(4)
(3)
S
~I~ ~II
(6
If. "
6/2
6~
30
46
(34)
63)
47
48
(3~
49
56
66)
50 51
5"
--.i
23/~'
61 "
66"
7(
I@ e
73 I-- -
76 ' - - -
79
- -
@@
82 - -
85/
89/!
94/
100 \!!J
106~
112~113
Fig 7.1.
114
II!!
14" 40'
~"
5 3/4
--t
6"
~
~
116 117
.... 11
9
V1
.....
0
0-
123
122
ellS
el09
el05
114 e
107e
102e
104
looT
ell3 112
el05 104
elOO 99
e96 95
124
121
-442
-410
-404
e-273
e-145
e -69
-222e
-68e
45 e
16ge
-213
-34
66
210
-43
53
134 25()1t
92
98~93l91
96
Air Temperature
103F
97
129
322
304
92
97
97.
301
JJ.
;g.
178'
'231
185+
.284
LA-
94
309
'93
,91
370
90
414
98
e92
89
89
194
98
e92
89
216
e372
446
98
100
e94
92
98
201
155
e330
386
278
97
243
Fig 7.2.
450
465
107
- - I-span
c.
C1I
2-span
- - - 3-span
80
90
100
110
120
Temperature (OF)
Stress (psi)
tension
(0) August
o
v
c.
C1I
20
30
40
50
- 400 - 200 0
60
200 400
Temperature (OF)
tension
(b) January
Fig 7.3.
108
on the other hand, varies nonlinearly in both the vertical and transverse
directions.
High
tensile stresses are found near the bottom portion of the beam with a maximum
value of 465 psi at six inches above the bottom surface of the beam.
At the
same level on the exterior face, a tensile stress of only 194 psi is given.
Maximum compressive stress of 477 psi, however, takes place at 2:00 p.m. and
is found at the top surface of the slab.
other hand, are found near the bottom portion of the beam in the two- and
three-span cases.
surface of the composite section is located high in the upper portion of the
beam causing thermal bending stresses to be large in the bottom region.
7.2.2
shown in Chapter 6 that daily environment during this month yields the maximum reverse temperature gradient.
as 9F is observed between the exterior and the interior face at the bottom
portion of the beam.
is found at the top surface at section over interior support in the two-span
case.
38
40
39
44.
46.
47.
.42
.44
.44
43
Air Temperature
39 F
40
104
44 45
.47 48
.49 50
.50 52
"I"'"
.36
.2
.1
-44
33
73_
68
-II.
-67.
-94.
-158e
-19
-80
-118
-196
46
41
51
52
-29 ~15~
-201
45
.50
52
13 -113.
-172
51
-26
-121
46
49
46
49
3I
46
49
65
IHT
n9r
54
51
52
44
.50
44
.50
44
42
.49
46
Fig 7.4.
-34
-60
-84
53
53
-100
-97
151
53
31
47
r"
-39
(b) Stress
146
.2
-65
176
239
.55
5
121
153
distribution
( psi)
I-'
110
7.2.3
General Remarks
It has been shown that temperature distribution through the depth of a
conditions considered, the maximum tensile stress in the three span bridge
is 465 psi.
7.5
.~ where
~~c
fl
Of more importance is
the fact that this stress is additive to the design stresses caused by combinations of dead load and live loads.
recommend temperature rise and fall to be 30F and 40F respectively, section
1.2.15.
small.
Effects of
The thermal
behavior of this bridge type has been a major concern to many research
engineers for years.
recorded and plots of daily temperature distribution over the depth presented
for both cold and warm sunny days.
111
used.
psi.
Its average thermal properties are listed in Table 6.1. The modulus of
6
elasticity of the steel girder was taken to be 29 X 10 psi with a density of
490 1b/ft 3 The average thermal properties of structural steel are
6.5X10- 6
in/inrF
thermal conductivity
26.6
specific heat
0.11
btu/1brF
7.3.1
rF
rential through the depth of the bridge occurs at 2:00 p.m. and is 22F.
In addition, the top surface temperature is about 21F warmer than the
surrounding air temperature.
night, the bottom flange temperature is warmer than the air temperature.
This same phenomenon was also experimentally observed by Zuk (58).
Although a maximum temperature gradient occurs at 2:00 p.m., the maximum tensile stress in the steel beam is found to take place a few hours
later.
the cross section and not necessarily the highest thermal differential
between the top and bottom surface that induces the highest internal thermal
stress.
As is
while a uniform gradient is found over a large portion of the steel beam.
Stress distributions at the section of symmetry in a one-, two- and threespan bridge are also presented in Fig 7.6b.
Maximum compressive
112
40 6.75" = 27"
2
10
19
28
37
(I)
=<
9 0.1875
(2)
(9
@
1"
--.l
----r
0.3"
0
38
39
40
41
47
46
3
50
52
54
55. 625"
56
58
60
62
@64
66
65 66
(44)
67
L .1
7(J
1.125"
~
71
8"
Fig 7.5.
113
- - Top of slob
.-.-.- Air Temperature
130
---- Bottom of beam
120
~
110
...
CI.I
-...
~
100
CI.I
Q.
E
CI.I
I-
90
80
70
6
12
midnight
12 noon
12
midnight
L~
-If)
N
U)
If)
I-span
. - - 2-span
3-span
If)
6: 00 p.m.
90
100
110
Temperature (OF)
120
-0.5
0
0.5
1.0 1.5
compression Stress (ksi) tension
(b )
Fig 7.6.
114
stress, however, is 330 psi at the top of the concrete slab and occurs at
2:00 p.m.
Because of the steel's high,conductivity which is approximately 30 times
that of concrete, the steel beam will have rapid responses to air temperature.
The critical environmental conditions would, therefore, take place during a
hot sunny afternoon followed by a quick drop of air temperature.
depicts two kinds of daily air temperature distribution.
a normal increase and decrease of air temperature.
Figure 7.7a
Curve A represents
Curve B represents a
normal increase up to the maximum value and a sudden decrease of air temperature of 10F during the next hour.
Maximum tensile stress of 1910 psi is found at the bottom portion of the
steel beam.
ever, less than the AASHO allowable 25 percent overstress for group loadings,
section 1. 2. 22.
7.3.2 Temperature Effects on a Cold Sunny Day
Surface temperature distributions of a typical interior beam during a
cold sunny day in January are shown in Fig 7.8a.
sunny afternoon, the top slab temperature is only 10F warmer than the air
temperature.
the beam again follows the same trend as that of air temperature.
The
the bottom portion of the steel beam at the section over the interior support.
With regard to longitudinal movements, it is found that the range of the
rise and fall of the bridge temperature from an assumed temperature, 60F,
115
110
1.1..
A (Normal)
--- B (Ex1reme)
100
0.....-
-...
~
:::I
90
,,
III
Q.
'"
E 80
-- -- -
.... .....
{!!.
70
12
midnight
12noon
Time (CST)
12
midnight
.,
..
-"
....
I'
....
-- -- - ,,
...
I
I
I
I
I
I
Q.
III
\
\
6:00p.m.
.c
,\
\
I
I
I
I
I
\
\
80
90
100
110
-.5
120
Temperature (OF)
compress ion
.5
Stress (ksi)
1.5
2.0
tension
(b)
Fig 7.7.
116
90
- - Top of slab
-'-'- Air Temperature
80
70
60
\
50
40
30~----~--------~-----------L--------~
12
midnight
12 noon
Time (CST)
12
midnight
- - 1- span
-
2-span
a.
CIJ
Cl
II:OOa.m.
40
50
60
70
80
Temperature (OF)
-2.0 -1.5
compression
-1.0
-0.5
St r e ss ( ksi )
0.5
tension
(b )
Fig 7.8.
117
Interface Forces
The function of mechanical shear connectors in composite construction is
to transfer forces across the surface between the concrete slab and the beam,
so that the bridge can deform effectively as a single unit in resisting
external loads.
only for the forces caused by the dead load carried by the composite section
and the live load including impact (46).
ture changes, Zuk (58) found that there was considerable interface slip
between the steel and the concrete.
With regard to the effects of these interface forces, experiments by
Graf (24) has shown that the ends of a composite steel beam are subjected to
special shear forces due to temperature difference between the slab and the
beam.
He found that these shear forces are concentrated at the ends and
These test results perhaps explain why the German Specifications require
special heavy end anchorages tying the slab and beam together at their interfaces.
Zuk (3), it does not significantly affect the overall safety of the bridge.
This is perhaps due to the use of flexible shear connectors, such as stud and
channel connectors, which when slip occurs will experience redistribution of
force and distribute interface forces over a greater region.
t-'
t-'
()Q
II
2.
10
A--------------.,-------------->... . . .
-------------- J
/'
",
,'"
"y..............~.....
"",'
/ . ' = Test
;1
If
iL
"
~"
_._.
.
"\
"
",,~,
" -
-----------I /
"
'"
values
computed values
---. Flexible dowels (c = 830 t /cm)
Stiff dowels (C: 2100 I/cm)
- - Rigid dowels (C= 00 )
-- According to DIN 1078
"
......
:"'>.
10
15
20
25
Fig 7.9.
119
t
a) Triangular shear force diagram in
accordance with the German code.
slab
end
:.-
~. t"'-Sh,O' fo",
TA
(T)
Vertical anchorage
Fig 7.10.
UO
According to the
this force will be transmitted by shear across the interface near the ends.
Following the German code, this force will require additional shear connectors of approximately 50 percent of that required by the design load over
the length of the effective width of the slab.
This moment is
~ig
7.10b.
posite steel bridge, Fig 7.5, the interface shear and moment are found to be
6000 1b and 96000 1b in., respectively.
14 March 1975.
Its
transverse section including parapets, slab deck and girders are shown in
Fig 7.11b.
the slab thickness, the size of the girder and the spacing between the
center-to-center of the two girders are commonly found in highway bridges of
this type.
121
I"
-,-
90'
64.75"L"I
90'
~I
9'-4"
S'-o"
.--:IS
6.75"
EAST
40"
Texas standard
type C " beams
5'-2"
(b) Transverse section
Fig 7.11.
WEST
122
Since the developed two-dimensional temperature model does not have the
capability of predicting surface temperatures under such conditions, the
bridge was analyzed using measured surface temperatures.
The temperature,
therefore, was measured at 56 locations over the surface of the cross section
in order to predict a representative temperature distribution within the
bridge.
the slab over the end support were also measured continuously from 10:00 a.m.
to 7:00 p.m.
report.
Figure 7.12 depicts the observed temperature variations with time.
Originally, temperatures on the top were lower than those on the bottom surface.
other hand, the two surfaces did not reach the same temperature until about
noon which has been attributed to the side heating of the girder.
The
maximum difference in temperature between the top of the slab and the bottom
of the right girder was recorded to be 19F and occurred at 1:30 p.m.
The
maximum surface temperature, however, was 75F at 3:30 p.m. and took place
at the top surface of the slab.
In order to define accurately the temperature distribution over the
bridge cross section, a finite element idealization consisting of 256 elements
with 311 nodal points was used in the analysis.
element were utilized across the thickness of both the parapets and the slab.
For each girder, ten layers were used over the depth while six, four and
eight layers were used across the web at the top, middle and bottom portion
respectively.
slab and parapets were assumed to be 3000 psi while 6000 psi was assumed for
the precast beams.
From a study of the recorded surface temperatures at all 56 locations, it
was deduced that temperature variations within the bridge would be relatively
small at approximately 8:30 a.m.
123
Top
Bottom
I.t..
80
... 60
0
...
QI
-------------
QI
a.
--
40
QI
to-
10
II
12 noon 1
2
3
Time ( hrs) COT
I.t..
80
QI
60
...
QI
a.
------
40
QI
to-
10
"
12 noon I
2
3
Time (hrs) COT
I.t..
80
...
QI
-... 60
~
.------- ----
QI
a.
E
QI
to-
--------
40
10
II
12 noon
Time (hrs)CDT
(c) At center of the right girder
Fig 7.12.
124
It can be
The
The
In
view of these factors, the comparison between measured and predicted slope
change is considered to be favorable.
Plots of temperature induced stresses versus time at the section over
the interior support are shown in Fig 7.14.
A maximum tensile
stress of 360 psi was observed at 7 inches above the bottom surface and
occurred at 4:30 p.m.
that only 65 psi was computed at the bottom surface of the beam.
A maximum
compressive stress of 383 psi, on the other hand, was found at the top surface of the slab and took place at 1:30 p.m.
With regard to the discrepancy between the measured and predicted
movements of the overpass, it should also be pointed out that the concrete
thermal properties used in the analysis were assumed to be the same as the
values which gave satisfactory correlations for the Pasadena bridge.
It is
possible that the actual concrete thermal properties of this overpass were
slightly different than those used in the analysis.
predicted
3
<t"
'0
)(
CLI
C7'
0
..c
U
CLI
a.
,If '"
.2
(f)
I
10
'"
/
II
'"
, " '"
,.
,
,-
,-
12
,-
noon
Fig 7.13,
"
,- "
"
'"
",'" "
'"
....
........ "
.......
........
"
});
"""" .......
,.
;'
Time (hrs)C DT
I-'
N
V1
126
EAST
WEST
Top
Bottom
Location of maximum stress
---c
( ?"
400
en
c
~
III
III
GI
...
(f')
200
2
0
c
0
en
en
...
G>
a.
E
0
-200
_-
-_ ....
..........
_------
6
/
,/'
-400
400
en
!!
III
III
GI
...
(f')
200
0
en
en
...
G>
-200
a.
-400
II
12
__
noon
-..........
-..........
2:3
-............... ----~
---
'"
.-'
Fig 7.14.
CHAPTER 8.
8.1
Sunnnary
The computational procedures for the prediction of the transient bridge
Boundary
conditions at the exterior surfaces of the bridge are those of solar radiation intensity, ambient air temperature and wind speed.
The one-dimensional
heat equation is written in finite difference form and temperatures over the
bridge cross section are determined by an incremental process.
The finite
element method, however, is used in determining the distribution of temperature over the bridge cross section where the flow of heat varies two-dimensionally.
were studied.
All of these computations are included in a computer program to form a
complete system for predicting temperature behaviors of highway bridges
exposed to atmospheric conditions.
TSAP (Temperature and Stress Analysis Program), will be in a later project report.
127
128
Environmental
data can be obtained from regular Weather Bureau Reports and material thermal
properties can be obtained from handbooks or Table 3.3.
8.2
Conclusions
The study demonstrates the feasibility and validity of analytically
general in that it can be used to treat various conditions of the environment, types of highway bridge cross section as well as the indeterminacy of
the structure.
have existed in Austin, Texas, other locations can also be studied if the
relevant weather conditions are input.
It is found that the important weather parameters influencing the
bridge temperature distributions are radiation, ambient air temperature and
wind speed.
The
the maximum reverse gradient are normally found to take place one hour
before sunrise.
129
The magnitude of
i~
statically
are approximately 10 percent of the design dead and live load stresses in a
composite steel bridge.
character should not be compared with behaviors observed from a fatigue test
in which several hundred cycles per minute are normally applied.
It is also found that the interface shear force caused by the temperature difference between the slab and the beam is of considerable magnitude.
Consequently, temperature effects may cause slip to take place earlier.
8.3
Recommendations
The method presented has made it possible to study computationally the
DO
APPENDIX A
APPENDIX A.
Temperature dis-
and
U(x,y)
(A. 1)
U(x,y)
dJ (x,y) 8
(A. 2)
(x,y)
'"
where
(x,y)
ct
'"
[ 1 x y]
[~1
0'2
(A.3)
and
~~
(A.4)
13 2
0'3
133
where
Au
1
A
[b/'- bk
~
Au
'"
a}k - ~bj
- aj
(A.S)
b
k
-b.
-~
a.
(A.6)
J
J
[1
u.
133
.u.i
u
, and
.J
(A. 7)
134
0"j
~------------------------------------~x
135
U(x, y)
= cb (x,y) Au
~
'1
where
or
1
).
(A.8)
'"
Nu
(A. 9)
Du
(A. 10)
~~
[!]
Y,2(x,y) ~::
U(x,y)
Nu
~ (x,y) ~::
'"
~'"
[ 1 x y] A
~
[bj - bk
~
-a j
b
k
-bj
-~
a.
(A. 11)
kt
2).
bke - ~d
bke - ~d
2
2
b +a
k
k
b.e+a.d
bj~ - aj~
where
and
b.e+a.d
J
bj~ - aj~
2
2
b. +a.
J
(A.12)
- aj
(A. 13)
= b j - bk
(A.14)
For the heat capacity matrix, the lumped method is used instead of
Eq 4.26.
Therefore,
136
(A.15)
If both convection and radiation take place only on the i-j face with
the constant film coefficient, the matrix
H..
l.l.
H ..
JJ
Hij
The vector
(A.l6)
l.J
h*
is also given by
(A.17)
h*
q*
h C t
l.J
3
hct ..
and
H is then
q*
[~]
is
(A.18)
APPENDIX B
APPENDIX B.
To take into account the effect of the steel tendon, concrete and
steel are first considered separately.
and steel will expand unequally due to the difference in the coefficient
of thermal expansion.
e ci
where
ci
:,
(B.1)
concrete strain
gross area of the concrete section
A
c
Ix
+ ~
E I
c x
I d/2
"
bE ex T(y) dy
c c
(B.2)
bE ex T(y) Y dy
c c
(B.3)
-d/2
and
rd/2
~)
-d/2
Therefore, at the location of the steel, i. e. , at the distance
eci
P
E A
c c
Me
Ec I x
(B.4)
139
140
Let
(B.5)
'EA +
eci +
c c
J;.e
E I
(B.6)
c x
(B.7)
est - E A
s s
Since
si - ci
1 _.
1
e 2- ~
('EA+'EA+EII
S S
(B.8)
O'c
where
pI
and
M'
P+F
= M - Fse
M/Y
E ex T (y)
c c
(B.9)
(B.lO)
(B.ll)
BIBLIOGRAPHY
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Boley, B. A., and Weiner, J. H., Theory of Thermal Stress, John Wiley
& Sons, Inc., 1960.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
Chapman, A. J., Heat Transfer, The Macmillan Company, 2nd Edition, 1960.
13.
141
142
14.
15.
16.
17.
Ekberg, C. E., Jr., and Emanuel, J. H., "Current Design Practice for
Bridge Bearing and Expansion Devices," Final Report, Project
547-9, Engineering Research Institute, Iowa State University,
Ames, Iowa, August, 1967.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
Gloyne, R. W., "The Diurnal Variation of Global Radiation on a Horizontal Surface - with Special Reference to Aberdeen," Meteorological Magazine 101, 1972, pp. 44-48.
23.
Gortz, W., Agnew, F. S., and Palmer, M. F., "Bridge Deck Expansion
Joints," Consulting Engineer, Vol. 31, No.5, London, May, 1967,
pp. 76-78, 81.
24.
25.
143
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
Matlock, H., Panak, J. J., Vora, M. R., and Chan, J. H. C., "Field
Investigation of a Skewed, Post-stressed Continuous Slab Structure
Structure," Interim Study Report, Center for Highway Research,
Research Project 3-5-63-56, The University of Texas at Austin,
Texas, May 1970.
144
38.
39.
40.
Narouka, M., Hirai, 1., and Yamaguti, T., "Measurement of the Temperature of the Interior of the Reinforced Concrete Slab of the
Shigita Bridge and Presumption of Thermal Stress," Proceedings,
Symposium of the Stress Measurements for Bridge and Structures,
Japanese Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan, 1957,
pp. 106-115.
41.
42.
Strock, C., and Koral, R. L., Handbook of Air Conditioning Heating and
Ventilating, Industrial Press, Inc., 2nd Edition, 1965.
43.
44.
45.
46.
Viest, I. M., Fountain, R. S., and Singleton, R. C., Composite Construction in Steel and Concrete, McGraw-Hill, 1958.
47.
Visser, W., "A Finite Element Method for the Determination of NonS tationary Temperature Distribution and Thermal Deformations,"
Proceedings, Second Conference on Matrix Methods in Structural
Mechanics, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio, November, 1966.
48.
49.
145
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
Zienkiewicz, o. C., and Parekh, C. J., "Transient Field Problems Two and Three Dimensional Analysis of Isoparametric Finite
Elements," International Journal for Numerical Methods in
Engineering, Vol. 2, Wiley-Interscience, London, 1970.
57.
58.
Zuk, W., "Thermal Behavior of Composite Bridges Insulates and Uninsu1ated," Highway Research Record, No. 76, 1965, pp. 231-253.
59.
60.