NewApproach

V.V.

Terzija,

Member,

to Arc Resistance Calculation

H.-J.

IEEE

Saarbriicken,

Saarbrticken,

Germany

Abstract An important macroscopic arc parameter, describing its

complex nature is arc resistance. As known, the fault arc
resistance can be calculated by the Warrington formula. Authors
investigated the results of Warringtons tests. Warrington derived
a relation for the arc voltage by using the measured arc voltage
gradient and arc current as input data. By analyzing these
measurements and by taking into account the conditions under
which they are obtained (inaccurate measurement devices), it is
unquestionable that the results are highly empirical and not
accurate and general enough, Laboratory testing, provided in the
high power test laboratory FGH-Mannheim (Germany), in which
long high current arcs are initiated, was the base for the research
results presented. In this paper a new approach to ruc resistance
calculation is given. Two independent approaches delivered the
same equation, Both approaches are based on a suitable and a
simple arc model assuming the rectrmguhm wave form of the arc
voltage, which is in phase with the arc current wave form The
new formula for arc resistance is compared with the Warrington
formula. The influences of arc elongation are investigated, too.
Keywords: Long arc in still air, arc resistance, Wamington
formula, laboratory testing, new arc resistance formula.

discharge

power

is encountered

equipment.

Permanent

Whenever
current,

a circuit

breaker

in the everyday
faults

machine, cable, or transmission

in

use of

a transformer,

line always involve

is opened while

an arc strikes between its separating

an arc.

currying

contacts. In

Fig. 1, an example of a three-phase arcing fault on a 20 kV

overhead
existing
air.

transmission

line

is presented

at the fault point is a high ~wer

It has not the same properties

[1].

of factors.

as the much

An arc can be considered

power system having

in describing

the arc behavior

nature of arc elongation

arc
more

arcs posses a
by a number

as an element

a resistive

pure resistance. The length variation

The

long arc in still

shorter arc existing in circuit breakers. All

highly complex nonlinear nature, influenced
electrical

Germany

Fig 1: Three-phase arcing fault on a 20 kV overhead transmission

line.

non-stationary,
so they are not simple to be modeled.
In the case of short-circuits
occurring on lines within
medium-

and high-voltage

has to locate
interruption
circuits
faults),

precisely

networks,
the

of the fault.

fault

distance

point

protection
a selective

In most cases (over 90Yo) short

in a network are followed

so an impedance evaluation,

disturbed

for

by the arc voltage

with an arc (arcing

i.e. fault location, is

arising

at the fault point.

In

other words, arc is the source of errors, if it is not taken

into the consideration
when locating the fault. To avoid

I. INTRODUCTION
Arc

Koglin

Saarland University

Saarland University

is an important

and arc resistance.

effects are difiicult

of

nature, i.e. as a
factor
The

and extremely

these errors, the well known

formula

[2] for

arc resistance calculation is used.

Empirically
obtained results play an important

role in

investigating

of the

earliest
still

the

nature

experimental

air

are

Warrington

of electrical

arc.

studies considering

presented

in

[2,3,4].

One

the long arc in

Nowadays

modern

transient recorders with fast A/D converters are available.

In this paper the results derived by Barrington
[2] are
investigated
laboratory

and compared
tests provided

with the results obtained

in a high

FGH-Mannheim
(Germany).
It
is
concluded
Warrington
formula
is not quite correct, so the
formula
for arc resistance calculation
is derived
compared with the 014 Barrington
Two

independent

equation

for

resistance

arc

approaches
resistance.

in a-c circuits

formula

derivation,

analysis

approach

used.

that
new
and

formula.
delivered
the

first,

was the starting

whereas
is

In

from

power test laboratory

the same new

definition
point

of

for the

in the second, the spectral

Obvious

absolute

relative

differences between the formulae, in particular for the wide

range of currents, are noticed. The results obtained are
discussed.

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781

In this paper, first Warrington

From (2) the next equation for arc resistance follows:

results are teste~ judge~

discussed and criticized.

Secon4 the results obtained in
FGH-Mannheim
are presented and a new macroscopic arc
model

is derived. Thir&

is derived.

Two

same formula.

independent

Fourth,

the Warrington

a new formula

for arc resistance

approaches

the new formula

formula.

Before

delivered

is compared

concluding

II. DISCUSSION

ON WARRINGTON

In [2] Warrington

presented

the

his remarkable

results of

and the Tennessee

Power

these tests he investigated

Company.

Through

of arc resistance on

devices and derived his well known

applied general formula

Ua=Ea

the influence

where voltage is in volts (V), current is in amperes (A) and

arc length in meters (m).

FORMULA

systems of the New England

protective

and widely

for arc resistance calculation:

L=~L
In

(1)
200

0
where

U, is arc voltage

(V/ft, or V/m),
is arc RMS

(V),

E. is arc voltage

1 m = 0.3048 ft,

current

(A)

constants. The unknown

from

measurements.

gradient

L is arc length

Fig.

incorporated

(ft, m), 1

third

Fig.

gradient,

over currents
set is

in

K=8750,

[2],

scanned

and

E, expressed in (kV/ft),

amperes.
Bad

Only

the

is

selected

measurements

are

parameters included

,. 8,?50 L

1$ ~

n=0.4,

formula

~=2.5
n

measurement

set,

In other

words,

from

a table

with

all

the

determined

parameters

are

essentially

different

from

the

2000
1500

. . . . . . . . ..{ . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .
. . . . . . . . ..+ . . . . ... ..-.. \-----------L . . . . . ... . . . . ... . . . . ... . . . . .,. . . . . . . . . . . .
...:......:.*g...:.....

one obtains the

. . . . . . . . . ..i . . . . . ...-.. --... --.....*.

-.-.:.

----+ ----{ ---; : -;.; .;...;.

o
0

1002C03X14CK15CX3

&X17CX38CX)9CKI

1
ICMl

I (A)

[V/ft]

= 28~~~5 L [V/m]

(2)
Fig. 3: Full measurement set and estimated arc vokage gradient curve.

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by

parameters obtained by Warrington.

250

8750
~L
= z.fi L = ~o.4

obtained

this case are:

parameters K and n, and by using (1) obtained the curve

showing the relationship between arc voltage gradient and
arc current. By including K and n into (l),
following formula for the arc voltage:

measurements

and new estimated curves E. over i, are derived. In Fig. 3

both the full measurement set and the estimated curve for
arc voltage gradient are presented. Parameters estimated in

Both

Warrington

[2]

K = 3460.49, n = 0.225333, ~ = 4.437877

n

given below the graph, the arc

is expressed in (kV).

In

[2].

Warrington
are given. Based on the fill measurement set
from [2], in this paper parameters K and n are estimated

in ( 1):

Parameters are valid if length is expressed in (fI). In Fig. 2,

equation

expressed the arc

from

depicted.

obtained using the following

selected

&w9

Fig. 2: The original measurements aud results obtaiued by Barrington

the

in the Warrington

800

characrmisdc

produce
voltage

omitted. In [2] it is not explained how the measurements

are omitted. In the same figure, a curve defining
the
relationship between E. and current is plotted. The curve is

voltage

%.-~esrs

parameters K and n are estimated

into this paper, is presented. In this figure the

measurement

Fig,

600

F%hmaryWwmi

and K and n are the unknown

In [2] Warrington

measured arc voltage

presented

AM

Amp-s

length in feet @).

In

(3)

[Q/m]

to arc

field tests on the high-voltage

Electric

28885L
~1.4

the
with

remarks,

aspects of arc elongation effects and its influences

resistance are investigated.

Ra =$.

782

By observing
follow

Fig. 3, it is obvious that for one current

several various values for arc voltage gradient.

variety

is probably

occurring

the

consequence

3.

A criterion
rejecte~

This

that some measurements

This

were not

in this paper a reduced measurement

following

unknown

some bad data are

the consideration,

should

be solved

robust estimators,

by

4.

mentioned

parameters are estimated:

is not

formula

the

known

to bad data

is derived is not

in the text.

5.

The range

6.

Warrington

K = 11387.4, n = 0.427663, ~ = 2.338289

n

using

not sensitive

(outliers).
The method how Warrington

set is selected and

set the

task

standard

correct, i.e. that some of them could be treated as bad data,

presented in Fig. 4. From the reduced measurement

from

described.
It seems that
the selection
of the
measurements processed is provided quite arbitrarily.

of arc elongation

during the tests?

Under the assumption

used in [2] by which

i.e. omitted

of arc currents

observed

is rather

small

(< 1 kA).

The new curve for E. is depicted in the same plot.

correct,-

formula

so the

can not be accepted as absolute

new

formulae

sho~d

be

derived,

compared with it and applied.

The 6-th

observation

absolute correct,
derived

by

analyzing

over

50 kA),

motivated

The new formula

Fig. 4: Reduced measurcmmt

set aud estimated arc voltage gradient curve.

In Fig. 5 the full measurement

set from [2] and three arc

voltage gradient curves (the Warrington,

the full
reduced measurement set curves) are presented.

and the

currents

for deriving

Warrington

2C0

8CKI

investigate

the

for arc resistance.

of

the

to the

international
which will be
if it is suitable

applications.
TESTING

AND MODELING

ARC IN STILL

OF

AIR

FGH-Mannheim

in the

(Germany),

in

a series of laboratory tests are provided. Voltage

u(t),
current i(t) and arc voltage u,(t) are digitized fkom the
laboratory test circuit depicted in Fig. 6. Arcs between
arcing horns of vertical and horizontal insulator chains are
initiated by means of a fise wire, when switch S in Fig. 6

800

IU30

I (A)
Fig. 5: Full measurements~

response

(the

today values

which

400

to

is not

currents

are reaching

authors

high power test laboratory

..l.. . .. . .. ...!.. .. . .. .. . ..

of

scientific
society to the new approach,
presented, should judge it and investigate
for the practical

is not

The nature of long arc in still air is investigated

.
.
.i
.
.
.?
.
.
ml~
1

range

a new formula

The

III. LABORATORY

g-

formula

should be used as an alternative

one.

LONG

o}

Barrington

a wide

expected short circuit

possibilities

that

as well as the fact that the formula

is closed. The distance between

from [2] aud three arc voltage gradient curves.

the range of 0.17-2

electrodes

is changed

in

m. The range of arc currents varied

between 2 and 12 kA.

It is obvious
equations

for

obtained.

From

observations
formulated

that two new independent

arc

voltage

resistance

the above results,

regarding

calculation

the following

Warrington

field

are

i(rj
4

general
tests

are
U(lj

~ (q

-IT
arc

1.

Measurement

2.

are not reliable enough.

During the arc life the arc length

were relatively

and different

devices used during

inaccurate,

changes are not considered

is derived.

Warrington

testing

so the conclusions

derived

when Warrington

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~J
Fig. 6: Laboratory

is changed.

test circuit.

These
In Fig.

formula

7 the recorded

arc voltage

u,(t),

current

i(t),

which is at the same time the arc current is(t) and the
recalculated
instantaneous
electrical
power of arc are

783

plotted.

Arc

confirming

voltage

and

the resistive

power is distorted
proportional

arc

current

are

in

and from the amplitude

to arc current.

point

gradient E.. It is almost independent

amplitudes

of view,

The long high current

voltage amplitude is proportional

to arc voltage
Here the coefficient
of proportionality
is arc
so the voltage

phase,

arc nature. The wave form of arc

of long

a-c arc
length.
voltage

from the arc current,

high

current

arcs are

determined by the arc length L. Over the range of currents,

100 A to 20 ~
the average arc voltage gradient lies
between 1.2 and 1.5 kV/m

[4,5,6].

In [3] it is shown that

for long arcs almost all the total arc voltage appears across
arc column.

where

Ua(t)

and ia (t)

are voltage

and current

of an arc

having the constant length L and U, is the amplitude

rectangular

signal. In (5), sgn is a sign fimction

sgn(x) = 1 ifx20

and sgn(x) = -1 ifx<O

of the

defined as:

and ~(t) is zero-

mean Gaussian noise. The value of U, can be obtained

the product
length, L.

of arc-voltage

gradient

as

E. and the actual arc

The arc voltage model (5) has been already successfully

used for the purpose of overhead lines protection (see Lit.
[9, 10]). In this paper, it will be the starting point for the
derivation

of

calculation.

In Fig. 8, the simulated

the

new

formula

and current from the circuit

for

arc

arc voltage

resistance
(eq. (5))

depicted in Fig. 6, as well as

the recalculated instantaneous electrical power of arc are

presented. Simulation is provided using a software package
presented in [1 1].

0.14

0.15

0.16
t (s)

0.17

0.18

Fig. 7: Recorded arc wave forms.

3 -lo
The quantitative
total distortion

expression

of signal

distortion

0.04

is the

O.ffl

factor THD, calculated as follows:

0.06

0.07

0.06
t (s)

Fig. 8: Simulated arc wave f-.

IV. NEW FORMULA

FOR ARC RESISTANCE

(4)
In
where

&

(h=

l,..., M ) is the

amplitude

of the

lr-th

harmonic. Spectral analysis of arc voltages and currents is

provided through the application of Fast Fourier Transform
(FFT).

From

corresponding
calculated.

the

calculated

amplitude

spectra,

current are approximately

It can be concluded

30 and 2

0/0,

that arc voltage

form, whereas arc current is not. Thereby,

arc current
distortions

modeling

resistance

electrical resistance in a-c circuits

spectral domain analyzes approach.

and b) by using

the

A. Derivation

Using the Classical Resistance Definition

u(t)and current i(t) are

modeled as follows:
u(t)= U.sgn[i(t)]

(6)

i(f) = JZI

(7)

sin cot

The resistance R of an element belonging

is defined as:

to an a-c circuit

the arc voltage [7,8]:

(5)

RZ2 = P = -jp(t)dt
o

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arc

are

a distorted rectangular form. Additionally,

it is in phase
with arc current. Thus, an arc can be represented through
equation,

for

can

By observing the arc voltage and current waveforms

plotted in Fig. 7, one concludes that the voltage signal has

the following

formula

Let us assume that arc voltage

wave

be modeled as a pure sine wave, whereas arc voltage must

be modeled in a such a way that its
realistically enough taken into account.

a new

and

respectively.
is a distorted

Section

the

THD factors for arc voltage and current are

The average THD factors for arc voltage

this

calculation
is derived. One formula
is derived in two
independent ways: a) by using the classical definition
of

784

= $(t~(t)dt
0

(8)

where 1 is the RMS of current and p(t) is the instantaneous

maximal

power. By including

respectively

RI

(6) and (7) into (8), one obtains:

.%Tp(t)dt
T

and RMS values of the h-th harmonics

calculated by using the following

can be

formulae:

(16)

(9)

o
(17)

Since
12

12

Hence, for the first harmonic,

ji(t)dt=fil

Jsincotdt=*

one obtains:

(lo)
(18)

equation (9) becomes:

By defining
(11)

the arc resistance as:

u
(19)

R=~
From

(11)

follows

the

explicit

expression

for

the

11a, m

arc

resistance:
and by including

R=
Suppose that there exists a linear relationship
voltage magnitude

between arc

(18) into (19), one obtains:

U1a,rms. k

11a, m

I-xI

_ 2&Ja

(20)

and arc voltage gradient:

U. =E~L

Finally,
formula

(13)

by including
(13) into (20), follows the same
for arc resistance, derived by using the classical

arc definition

(eq. (14)):

Hence
(21)
(14)
C. Arc Voltage
Equation

(14)

calculation.

It

value/expression
B. Derivation

is the
requires

new

formula

for

suitable

arc

resistance

selection

of

the

for the arc voltage gradient Ea.

Using Spectral Domain

odd sine components

already

gradient

Selection

mentione&

a suitable

in

the

Analyzes Approach

should be included.

of view,

a number

experimental

new

value/expression

formula

of equations

are derived

fimdamental

angular frequency.

order,

large, the terms involving

and

the

is the

and o is the

From (15) follows

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the

(22)

If in (22) L is made sufficiently

harmonic

point

from

studies. The first and best known is [3]:

only, as follows:

where h = 1, 3, 5, 7, ... is the harmonics

arc

properties

(u-i characteristic)

parameters
A and C may be neglectet
characteristic equation becomes approximately:
phase angle of the fimdamental

for

for the arc voltage

From the electrical

of an arc under steady conditions

A pure square wave (eq. (6)) can be expressed by Fourier

series containing

As

resistance

Gradient

that the

785

U.=

()
B+;

(23)

If in (23)

current

is sufficiently

becomes a fimction

large,

only of the arc length,

the arc voltage

changed in a wide range: from

according

formulae

to the

equation
U. = BL

(24)

Parameter
column.

B represents the voltage

The

arcs occurring

gradient

E. in the arc

on the fault

point

can be

Rw, R1,12001~ (Rl for E,=

1200 V/m),

E.=

are

1500 V/m)

(V/m)

to Warrington

resistance

for 1 = 6.64 ld

in accordance with (23) and from Lit.

Warrington

curve

crosses all

currents

which

the

at

EQ = 950+5000/1

currents

12]:

(V/m)

can be

RW is greater

new

are observable.

other

three

resistances

For

Rw.

The

curves.

The

are

equal

to

resistance can be simply detected in Fig. 11, in

errors, s (Yo), calculated

and Rz, with regard to Rw, are respectively

2.

clearly

9, it

that R1,1200
V/m

follows

which the absolute relative

(25)

Fig.

so that the points at which new arc resistances

Warrington
E. = (1200+-1500)

observing

and

that in some ranges of currents

and 5 m

4,5,6]:

9. By

R1,15001~ (Rl for

calculated

concluded

values/expressions

in accordance with (24) and from Lit.

Fig.

Rz

than RI and Rz, and vice versa. In Fig. 10, curves depicted
in Fig. 9 are zoomed and presented for currents between 2

example,

1.

and

in

are equal

are used:

A. By using

presented

treated as long high current arcs, so the aforementioned

discussion holds. In the open literature
the following
for E, calculation

100-50.000

(27), (28) and (29), the values for arc resistances

greater

than

respectively

for RI

presented. For

3.64,

2 and

6.5 kA,

resistance is greater than R1,lzoowm, RI,1soowm

Warrington

and Rz, respectively.

(26)

10

In (26)1

is expressed in amperes (A). Equations

(26) can be now included

(25) and

in (21), so the following

two new

equations follows:

g
u?

RI= (1080.4 +1350.5);

=
2

855.3+
I

(27)

4501.6

In the next

Fig. 9: Resistances obtained using Barrington

(27)

0.6

and

(28)

will

be

0.5

formula:

(29)

0.2
0.1 1
2(X)O

Comparison

will be provided by comparing

3mo

the values for a

4mo

5a30

I (A)

wide range of currents.

V. COMPARISON

and new formulae for L = 1 m.

0.7

if E. = 1200 V/m, whereas

formulae

compared with Warrington

Im

I (A)

if E. = 1500 V/m.

Section

ICKJO

(28)

In (27), constant 1080.4 follows

constant 1350.5 follows

0
100

I=

Fig. 10: Curves from Fig. 9for2kA<I<5kA-

BETWEEN

WARRINGTON

200

AND

------------------

R:RI,

...\...
/1

l!$XIV/m

NEW FORMULA
Three formulae:
new formulae
compared

the Warrington

(27) and (28),

by changing

the expressions

for

assumed arc length.

arc is analyzed

formula

derived

(29) and two

in this

paper,

the RMS values of arc current

arc resistances,

for

are
in

the in advance

I(XY

1(X)O

Here it is assumed that an 1 m long

(L = 1 m). The current

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RMS

values

are

786

lmoo
I (A)

Fig

11: Absolute relative errors.

VI. EXTENTION

OF ARC RESISTANCE

WITH THE ARC ELONGATION

As a matter of fact, arcs length
arc life. The elongation
magnetic

forces

is changing

during

of the long arc is determined

produced

by

convection of the plasma

atmospheric
effects (win~
medium

EQUATION

the

supply

speaking,

into the model (5) by multiplying

arc elongation
resistance.

Since

deterministic,
difficult

function
but

to model

elongation

elongation

effects

extremely

stochastic,

all

exactly.

effects

it
For

are

fimction

resistance formula,

is relatively

and in this form included

where Rao is the initial

arc ignition,
parameters

in the arc

h(t - ~)]

(30)

arc resistance, Ti is the inception

for modeling

elongation

functions

concluded

formula

of High Current Fault Arcs

IX. BIOGRAPHIES

can be used
Vladimir

V. Terzija was born in Donji Bara6i

(Bosnia
and Herzegovina)
in 1962. He
received his B.SC., M. SC. and Ph.D. degrees m
Eltirical
Power
Engineering
tiom
of
Electrical
Engineerin&
Department

results

it is

in 1988,
1988 he

joined University
of Belgrade, where he is
now an assistant prof=sor teaching coursee in

for arc resistance

Electric Power Quality, and Power System

Control. At present he is a Research Fellow at

calculation is not absolutely correct. Based on experimental

testing in FGH-Mannheim
(Germany), a new formula for
arc resistance is derived. Two independent procedures of
its development
are presented. New formula requires a
suitable selection of arc voltage
approaches for arc voltage gradient

TB-

in Long Gaps, IEEE Paper No. PE-186PRD.

University of Belgrade, Yugoslavia,

1993 and 1997, respectively.
In

of Warrington

that his well known

Netzwhutzeinrichtungen,

[12] Y. Goda at all, Arc Vottage Characteristics

of

effects of an arc, as well.

the investigation

approach to the arcing faults detection for

zweiseitiger
Einspeisung
mm Test v..
157/92 Univ. Kaiserslautem, July 1992,

VI. CONCLUSION
Through

Vol.

autoreclosure in transmission systems, IEEE Tram. on Power Dehvey,

Vol. 10, NO 4, October 1995, pp. 1793-1798.
[10] Z.M. Radojevic, V.V. Terzija, M.B. Djuri6, Multipmpose
Overhead
Lines Protection Algorithm,
IEE Proc.-Genm,Transm
Distrib., Vol. 146,
No.
5, PP.441-445, Sqrtembtx 1999.
[11] D. Ldnar& R. Simon, V. Terzija, Simulation
von Netzmodelkm mit

h(t) is Heaviside fimction and a and p are

defining
the
arc
elongation
dynamics.
some other elongation

of an open electric arc, Elektrk-heetvo,

Belfast, UK 6-8. Sep. 2000.

[9] M. Djuri6, V. Terzija, Anew

the

as follows:

R@(t)=
~ao(t)~+aefl@Ti)

Extinction
1960,

Belfast, w
6-8. Sep. 2000.
[8] V. Terzija, H.-J. Koglin, Long Arc In Free Air: Testing Modelling And
Parameter Estimation: Part 2, Proceedings of the UPEC 2000 Conference,

not

example,

[6] A.S. Maikapar,

4, pp. 64-69, April

[7] V. Terzija, H.-J. Koglin, Long Arc In Free Air: Testing Modelling And
Parameter Estimation: Pafi 1, Proceedings of the UPEC 2000 Conference,

it with a suitable selected

fi.mction L(t) can be selected in the form of an

exponential

Naturally,

effects.

can be involved

L(t). The same is valid for the arc

the

by Arc

[4] AP. Strom, Long 60-cycle Arc iu Air, Trans. Am. Inst. Elec. Eng, 65,
pp.113-117, 1946.
[5] T.E. Browne, Jr., The Electric Arc as a Circuit Element, Journal of
Electrochem. Sot. Vol. 102 No. 1, pp. 27-37, 1955,

etc.

the arc elongation

im 20-

Impedance, Electrical World, S@ember, 19, pp. 502-505, 1931.

[3] H. Ayrton, The Electric Arc, The Electrkkm, London, 1902.

the

air, the
i.e. the

Arc model (5) does not model the arc elongation

Generally

REFERENCES

[1] D. Oedin& R. Spech, Test einea Digitalen Distanz.schutzrelais

kV-Netz, etzArchiv 5, pp. 171-173, 1983.
[2] AR. Van C. Warrington, Rcactancc Relays Negligibly AtWtcd

the

by the

current,

and the surrounding

humidity,
pressure),

in which arc is initiate~

VIII.

MODEL

Institute of Power Entieering

University of
Saarkm~ granted by Alexander VO. Humboldt Fo-&lati~.
His area_s of
scientific intereat are power system protcciion and control, electrical power
quality and DSP applications in power systems.

gradient
value. Two
are presente~ so that
is compared

Hans-Jtirgen Koglin was born in 1937. He

received his Dipl.-Ing. degree in 1964 and his
Dr.-Ing. degree in 1972 from the Technical

by Warrington
formula. Obvious differences are observed.
Authors
are now expecting
the response of scientific

University Darnrstadt, Germany. From 1973

to 1983 he was a professor at the same

audience to the results presented.

university.
Saarland

two new formulae

are derived.

New formula

VII. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
estimation, reliability,

The

authors

gratefully

acknowledge

to Alexander

von

Humboldt Foundation for supporting this research and to

high power test laboratory FGH Mannheim
(Germany) for
providing

the authors with the laboratory

0-7803-6674-3/00/$10.00
0-7803-6672-7/01/$10.00
(C)(C)
2000
2001
IEEE
IEEE

data records.

787

Since 1983 he is a fill profeesor at

University
in
Saarbrocken,
Germany.
His main areas of scientific
interests are planing and operation of power
systems and specially optimal MV- and LVnetworks. visibility . of overbead lines. state
corrtiive
switching protection and fiel cells