COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

INSTRUCTORS MANUAL
PHYF121

Compiled By
Dr Zolman Hari
Mr Liaw Hock Sang

Table of Contents
Page
INTRODUCTION

EXPERIMENTS
1

Electric Fields and Potentials

Ohm's Law

RC Circuit

10

Wheatstone Bridge

12

Electromagnetism

14

Interactive Physics: Electrodynamics

17

LR Circuit

21

LRC Circuit

23

Thermal Expansion

26

10

Geometric Optics: Reflection and Refraction

28

INTRODUCTION
a) Instruction To Demonstrators
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Try the related experiment before the lab session begins.

The lab session (experiment and report) must be finished within 3 hours.
Make sure you can come 10 minutes before each lab session starts.
Report your attendance and any problem of every experiment that you conducted to the lab
assistant.
Report to the coordinator the name of the student, who does not attend the lab more than 3
times without MC or valid reason.
Take the student attendance for each lab session.
Return the report to students on each lab session so that they know their mistakes.
Collect the graded report at the end of every lab session, but return all the reports to students
so that they can get prepared for the common written test at the end of semester.

b) Instruction To Students
1. Attendance: Compulsory
a. The instructor / lab assistant will take the attendance for each lab session.
b. Attendance less than 80% - consider failed (Grade E)
c. 1 group (2-3 students) submitted 1 report only.
2. The students must study the manual before coming to the lab.
3. The students must finish the lab session (experiment and report) within 3 hours.
4. The students must follow the report writing format.
5. The instructor must explain Report writing format to the students.
6. Submit the lab report during lab session.
7. Explain marking scheme and rotating schedule.
8. Students mark will be deducted if they enter the lab late, for instance 10 marks for each 10
minutes.

c) Marking Scheme (Lab report)

1) Cover Sheet
2) Purpose
3) Equipment
4) Procedure
5) Data
6) Analysis
7) Discussion
8) Conclusion

5%
5%
5%
5%
10%
15%
10%
5%
Total: 60%

d) Laboratory Assessment Methods

Lab report (10 experiments)

70%

Common written test

30%

Total

100%

Experiment 1: Electric fields and potentials

Cover sheet:
Purpose:
To investigate the electric field lines and the equipotential surfaces around charged
conductors, and the relationship between them.
Equipment:
A sheet of carbon-impregnated paper with a configuration of conductors, power supply,
multimeter, corkboard, patch cord wire, alligator clips.
Procedure:
Data: (drawing)

Analysis and Discussion:

Answers to Questions
1. Look at the drawing you made. What can you say about the directions of the field lines
relative to the equipotentials?
The direction of the field lines is perpendicular to the equipotential lines.
Do your result approximately with theory?
Yes, the result is approximately with theory.
Think about how the magnitude of the electric field is related to the change of potential
with distance.
The change of potential between any two adjacent equipotential curves drawn in the
experimental result are constant, that is V 4V . At places where the magnitude of
electric field is greater, the separation of equipotential is less distance apart. In other
words, the magnitude of electric field is directly proportional to the change of
potential with distance:

V
r

2. Observe on the separation of the equipotentials. Are they same distance apart
everywhere? Why?

No, This is because the electric field E is not uniform. V E ds

If E is not uniform,

E ds Ed . Then separation d is constant.

3. Use the technique you have learnt to draw equipotential and electric field for the
following figures:
a)

b)
-

c)
-

+
+
+
+
+

Other Discussions

Conclusion:

Experiment 2: Ohms Law

Cover sheet:
Purpose :
Section A: To verify the expressions for the equivalent resistance for resistors connected in
parallel and in series.
Section B and C: To investigate the relationship between current and voltage for Ohmic and
non-Ohmic resistive elements.
Equipment:
3 resistors (220 , 330 , and 560 )
1 multimeter
1 breadboard
Science Workshop 750 Interface System
Voltage Sensor (CI-6503)
Data Studio Program (installed)
RLC Network (CI-6512) 10 Resistor, 100 Resistor, 0.22 A Bulb
Patch Cords
Procedure:
Data:
Section A
Table 1
Resistance
R1
R2
R3
resistors

Theoretical value
()
220
330
560

Experimental
value ()
217.7
327.4
555
1104

Three
in
series
Three resistors in
parallel
Two largest resistors
in parallel and the
smallest one in series

% Difference

106
425

Section B: Activity P48 Resistor

Table 2
No.
1
2
3

X (Current)
0.291
0.093
-0.198

10 ohm
Y (Voltage)
2.973
0.980
-2.027
Average Resistance

R = V/I

Table 3
No.
1
2
3

100 ohm
Y (Voltage)
2.973
0.980
-2.027
Average Resistance

X (Current)
0.030
9.884E-03
-0.020

R = V/I

Table 5
No.
1
2
3

Light bulb
Y (Voltage)
1.486
-1.182
-1.385

X (Current)
0.109
-0.070
-0.108

Analysis
Table 1
Resistance
R1
R2
R3
Three resistors in
series
Three resistors in
parallel
Two
largest
resistors in parallel
and the smallest
one in series

R = V/I

Theoretical value
()
220
330
560
1110

Experimental value
()
217.7
327.4
555
1104

% Difference

106.8

106

0.75

427.6

425

0.61

1.05
0.79
0.89
0.54

Table 2
No.
1
2
3

X (Current)
0.291
0.093
-0.198

10 ohm
Y (Voltage)
2.973
0.980
-2.027
Average Resistance

R = V/I
10.2
10.5
10.2
10.3

Table 3
No.
1
2
3

X (Current)
0.030
9.884E-03
-0.020

100 ohm
Y (Voltage)
2.973
0.980
-2.027
Average Resistance
7

R = V/I
99.1
99.2
101.35
99.9

Table 4
Ohmic Resistor
Experiment
10.3
99.9

Theory
10
100

% Difference
3.0
0.1

Table 5
No.
1
2
3

X (Current)
0.109
-0.070
-0.108

Light bulb
Y (Voltage)
1.486
-1.182
-1.385

Average resistance (ten-ohm resistor) = 10.3 volt/amp

Average resistance (100 ) = 99.9 volt/amp
Sample Calculation:
Three resistors in series :
R = R1 + R2 + R3 = 220 + 330 + 560 = 1110
Three resistors in parallel :
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

R eq R1 R 2 R 3 220 330 560

R eq 106. 8

Twp largest resistors in parallel and the smallest one in series :

1
1
1
1
1

R
R 2 R 3 330 560
R 207.6
R eq R R1 207.6 220 427.6

% Difference =

Theoretica l Value - Experimental Value

100%
Theoretica l Value

Discussion:
8

R = V/I
13.63
16.89
12.82

1. What is the relationship between current and voltage in a simple resistor? What is the
relationship between current and voltage in the filament of an incandescent light bulb?
In a simple resistor, the current is directly proportional to voltage. In the filament of an
incandescent light bulb, the relationship between current and voltage is not linear.
2. Compare the ratio of voltage and current from the Scope display to the resistance of the
resistor(s) used.
The ratio of voltage and current from the scope display is almost equivalent to the
resistance of the resistor(s) used.
3. Does each resistor you used have a constant resistance?
Yes, the 10 resistor and the 100 resistor have a constant resistance.
4. Does the light bulb filament have a constant resistance (constant ratio of voltage to
current? Why or why not?)
No, the light bulb filament does not have a constant resistance. This is because the
resistance of the filament will change as it heats up and cools down.
5. The slope of the graph for the light bulb is not symmetric. Why is the trace on the Scope
different when the filament is heating up compared to the trace when the filament is
cooling down?
For light bulb, the resistance of the filament will change as it heats up and cools down. As
a result, the voltage across the filament also changes. The graph of voltage versus current
might show a curve with a changing slope.

Conclusion:
1. The expressions for the equivalent resistance for resistors connected in parallel and in
series are verified, as stated in Section A (Data and Analysis).
For ohmic resistive elements, the current is proportional to voltage, but for non-ohmic
resistive elements, the relationship is not linear.
In this experiment, the simple 10 ohm and 100 ohm resistors are an ohmic resistive
elements. The bulb is non-ohmic resistive element.

Exp 3: RC circuit
Cover sheet:
Purpose:
1. Explain the charging characteristics of a capacitor with ac voltage.
2. Appreciate how the oscilloscope can be used to monitor electrical characteristics and to
make electrical measurements.
3. Describe how an RC time constant may be measured from an oscilloscope trace.
Equipment:
Function generator (square wave), oscilloscope, three resistors (5 k, 10 k, and 20 k, or
resistance box), three capacitors (0.05 F, 0.1 F, and 0.2 F), Connecting wires, 2 sheets of
Cartesian graph paper, (Optional) unknown resistor wrapped in masking tape to conceal
value.
Procedure:
Data:
Table 1 (Purpose: To determine the effect of R on the time constant.)
Case 1
R1C1
Case 2
R2C1
Case 3
R3C1

R
()
560

C
( F )
0.1

220

0.1

1000

0.1

Divisions for
0.63 rise
5.4 (from
Oscilloscope)

Sweep
time/div
10s (from
Oscilloscope)

Exp. time
constant
5.4 X 10-5

Computed
RC
5.6 X 10-5

Percent
error

Slope of the versus R plot: [C1]

Percent difference between slope and C1: _________________
Table 2 (Purpose: To determine the effect of C on the time constant)
Case 1
R1C2
Case 2
R1C3

R
()
560

C
( F )
0.056

560

0.5

Divisions
for 0.63 rise

Sweep
time/div

Exp. time
constant

Slope of the versus C plot: [R1]

Percent difference between slope and R1: _____________________

10

Computed
RC

Percent
error

Analysis and Discussion:

Answers to Question:
1.
Based on experimental results, under what conditions are the charging times of
different RC circuits the same?
The answer based on your data.
2.
In the form V Vo 1 e t / , the = RC in the exponential must have units of time.
(Why?) Show that this is the case.
Rearrange the equation,

V Vo 1 e t /

V Vo
= Vo e-t/
V - Vo
= e-t/
Vo
- ln V - Vo = t
Vo

= t
Or students can use dimensional analysis to prove out (time constant) has the same
unit as t (time).
Therefore, (time constant) has the same unit as t (time).
3.

How could the value of an unknown capacitance be determined using the

experimental procedures? Show explicitly by assuming a value for an
experimentally determined time constant.
Refer to table 1; explain how you get the time constant from the procedure, after
plotting versus R graph, the slope of the graph is the unknown capacitance. It is
because = RC.

Conclusion:
1. Conclude the percent difference between unknown C1 and given C1
2. Conclude the percent difference between unknown R1 and given R1

11

EXP 4: Resistivity Measurement

Cover sheet:
Purpose:
To determine the resistivity of a piece of wire using the Wheatstone bridge
Equipment:
1 set Wheatstone bridge with sliding jockey
1 switch
1 piece 5 resistors
Power supply
50-80 cm Constantan SWG 26 wire
1 Micrometer screw gauge
Galvanometer
Procedure:
Data: [Measured values in blue; Calculated values in red]
Resistance for P: 5
a) Average measurement for l1 and l2
l1 measurement (cm)
a1
30.6

a2
30.5

b3
30.6

b4
30.7

Average l1
30.6

l2 measurement (cm)
b1
69.4

b2
69.5

a3
69.4

a4
69.3

Average l2
69.4

b) Wire length measurement

Length of wire X (x 0.05) cm

77.00

c) Diameter measurement
1
0.450

Wire Diameter (D 0.005) mm

2
3
0.450
0.450

12

Average Diameter, D
0.450

Analysis and Discussion:

Resistivity of wire X
RA
x
l
D 2
1P
l2
4x

(0.45 10 3 m) 2
30.6
5
4(77.0 10 2 m)
69.4

4.554 10 7 m

% difference

accepted value calculated value

100%
accepted value
4.47 10 7 4.554 10 7
100%
4.47 10 7

1.88%

Other Discussions

Conclusion:

13

EXP 5: Electromagnetism
Cover Sheet:
Purpose:
To get a clearer picture of what actually electromagnetism is all about and to relate what have
been taught in their lectures with this experiment.
Equipment:
Compass, solenoids, DC power supply, AC power supply (0-6 V), galvanometer, digital
multimeter, 2 bar magnets, spring, iron core, blank A4 papers, 2 retort stands, connecting
wires.
Procedure:
Data:
Part I: Constructing magnetic field lines produced by a permanent magnet and an
electromagnet.
Give marks to the sketch (i) using the bar magnet, and (ii) using the 400-turn solenoid
Part III:
Table 1
Number of Turns
Primary
Secondary
Coil
Coil
400
400

Input V

Output V

Core

Voltage Ratio

6.0 V

0.41 V

No
Core

0.07

Straightshaped
U-shaped
-shaped

0.09

400

400

6.0 V

0.52 V

400
400

400
400

6.0 V
6.0 V

3.64 V
8.86 V

Core configuration:

0.61
1.48

-shaped

Table 2
Number of Turns
Primary Coil Secondary Coil
400
400
200
400
200
800
400
800
400
200
800
200
800
400

Input V

Output V

Voltage Ratio

6.0 V
6.0 V
6.0 V
6.0 V
6.0 V
6.0 V
6.0 V

8.86
18.01
36.35
17.80
4.40
20.9
3.61

1.48
3.00
6.06
2.97
0.73
3.48
0.60

14

Analysis and Discussion

Answers to Questions in Part I
What can you deduce from these constructions?
From the field lines constructed, we can deduce that a current carrying solenoid acts as a
permanent magnet.
Answers to Questions in Part II
1. What can you deduce about the strength of the magnetic field with and without the core?
The field strength produced by a solenoid with core is higher compared to the one without
core.
2. Which solenoid produces higher field strength?
The solenoid with 800 turns produces higher field strength.
3. What will happen to the iron core when the power supply is turned on?
The iron core will be attracted into the solenoid.
4. What happens to the indicator of the galvanometer? Explain your observation using
Faradays and Lenzs law.
The indicator of the galvanometer deflects in one direction when the bar magnet is moved
upward, and deflects in the opposite direction when the bar magnet is moved downward.
These observations indicate that a current is induced in the solenoid. Changing the
direction of the magnets motion changes the direction of the current induced by that
motion.
5. What is the effect of the induced emf in the coil on the oscillation? Hint: compare its
oscillation without the solenoid.
The spring oscillates faster compare to the one without the solenoid.
6. Explain what you observe.
After a moment, the stationary magnet starts to oscillate at the same rate as the magnet in
the first solenoid. This is due to the induced current from the first solenoid, which has
been transferred to the second solenoid with the stationary magnet.
Answers to Questions in Part III
1. Which core configuration gives the maximum transfer of electromagnetic effect to the
secondary coil? Develop a theory to explain the differences between configurations.
The -shaped core configuration gives the maximum transfer of electromagnetic effect
to the secondary coil.
2. From your data in Table 2, for a primary having a constant number of turns, graph the
resulting output voltage versus the number of turns in the secondary. What type of
mathematical relationship exists between numbers of turns of wire and the resulting
output voltage? Is the data ideal? Why or why not?

15

18

Output Voltage

16
14
12
10
8
6
4
200

300

400

500

600

700

800

Number of turns (Secondary Coil)

The output voltage increased when the number of turns of wire increased. The data is
ideal. The relationship can be represented by the expression below:
3. Consider further improvements to your transformer. What additional changes might you
make to increase the transfer from one coil to the other?
Use the appropriate shape of the core, for example when using the "
" and " I " cores
together will accommodate a larger coil former and can produce a larger transformer. The
air gap in the middle of the coil can reduce electromagnetic interference.
Conclusion:

16

EXP 6: Interactive Physics: Electrodynamics

Cover Sheet:
Purpose:
To investigate the behavior of a charged particle in electric and magnetic fields
Equipment:
Computer, CD of Explorer 3.04 Electrodynamics, LOGAL Physics Software, Inc
Procedure:
The procedure of the experiment is no needed since the software has been installed, as
student version, in the computer prior to the laboratory session. The students only need to
insert the CD and click on appropriate shortcut to run the program.
Data, Analysis and Discussion:
Electric Field 1:
Introduction
Q: What happens to the particle?
The particle moves (accelerates) downwards.
Change Direction
Q: What do you think will happen if you change the field direction to UP?
When the field is directed upwards, the particle moves upwards.
Change Charge
Q: In which direction do you think the charged particle will move?
The charged particle moves upwards. (A negative charge moves in the opposite direction
to a positive charge in the same field.)
Q: What will happen if you now change the field direction to UP?
The charged particle moves downward.
Velocity and Energy
Q: What does the trace tell you about the velocity of a charged particle in a uniform electric
field?
The velocity of the charged particle increases with time (particle accelerating).
Q: How does the particle's kinetic energy change during the motion?
The KE increases as the particle moves in the field.
Motion
Q: How does an electric field affect the motion of a charged particle?
An electric field accelerates a charged particle.

17

Electric Field 2:
-1 N/C
Q: On the diagram, sketch your prediction of the path of the particle before running the
simulation.

Kinetic Energy
Q: How do you expect the kinetic energy of a moving charged particle to change:
(in the presence of an electric field?)
KE eventually increases in the presence of an electric field. If qv (conventional current) is
opposite in direction to the electric field, it will lose kinetic energy initially, slowing down
and stopping. Then it will begin to move in the direction of the electric field, picking up
kinetic energy.
(in the absence of an electric field?)
KE remains constant in the absence of an electric field.
Magnetic Field:
1.0 Tesla
Q: If the particle is positively charged and is initially at rest, predict how it behaves.
Students may expect the particle to move under the influence of the field. They may be
surprised to see that the particle remains stationary.
The Path
Q: Describe the path of the particle.
The particle moves in a counterclockwise circle.
Q: What happens to the kinetic energy?
The KE remains constant (unlike the situation with an electric field, where it increases).
(The program actually shows a small change over time, due to algorithm approximations.)
Electric and Magnetic Fields:
Introduction
Q: The particle is positively charged. If a small electric field acting vertically downwards is
applied while the simulation runs, predict what will happen to:
i) the path of the particle? Draw a sketch.
Student prediction.
ii) the kinetic energy of the particle?
Student prediction.

18

Electric Field Trials

Q: Your predictions:
i) the path of the particle? Draw a sketch.

ii) the kinetic energy of the particle?

The KE oscillates, but over time increases.
Q: Does the position of the particle when switching the electric field ON affect the general
shape of the final trace?
The general shape is not affected.
Magnetic Field Trials
Q: If you switch the magnetic field ON after a short time, predict what will happen to:
i) the path of the particle. Draw a sketch.

(The arrow shows the point where the magnetic field was switched on.)
ii) the kinetic energy of the particle?
When the electric field only is on, the KE increases monotonically. When the magnetic
field is switched on as well, the KE oscillates, but over time increases.
Q: Does the position of the particle when switching the magnetic field ON affect the general
shape of the final trace?
The general shape is not affected.
Q: From your results, summarize the effect on a charged object when there is a magnetic and
an electric field acting at right angles.
When both fields are present, a charged particle spirals at right angles to the direction of
the electric field, and the particle gains KE.

19

Additional Questions
The Mass Spectrometer
a) If FB = FE , show the trace of electron in Figure 1

x Bin

E x

Figure 1
a) If FB > FE , show the trace of electron in Figure 2

x Bin

E x

Figure 2

Conclusion:
(As refer back to the purpose of the experiment: The conclusion might be written as: The
behavior of charged particle in electric field can be understood with expression F = qE =
ma, and of that in magnetic fields with expression F = q v B = ma.)

20

EXP 7: LR circuit
Cover Sheet:
Purpose:
To study the behavior of an inductor as a time-dependent voltage is applied.
Equipment:
Science Workshop 750 Interface System
Voltage Sensor (CI-6503)
Data Studio Program (installed)
RLC Network (CI-6512) Inductor Coil, Iron Core, 10 Resistor
Patch Cords
Multimeter
LCR meter
Procedure:
Data: [Measured values in blue; Calculated values in red]
The measured inductance = 19.2 mH
Table 1
Item
Inductor resistance, RL
Resistor resistance, RR
Total resistance, R = RL + RR
Experimental time constant,
Theoretical time constant,

Value
5.65
10.20
15.85
1.1610-3 s

L
R

1.2110-3 s

Percentage error

4.13%

Analysis:
Sample Calculation
Time to reach half-maximum = 0.0 739 s 0.0725 s = 0.0014 s

L 19.2 mH

1.21 10 3 s
R 15.85

Percent difference

theoretical value measured value

100%
theoretical value

1.21 10 3 s 1.16 10 3 s
100%
1.21 10 3 s

4.13%

21

Discussion:
Answers to Questions
1. What is the relationship between the voltage across the inductor and the voltage across
the resistor in an inductor-resistor circuit?
As the voltage across the inductor increases, the voltage across the resistor decreases, or
vice versa. The sum of the voltages across the inductor and the resistor equals the
supplied voltage.
2. What is the relationship between the current through the inductor and the behavior of an
inductor in a DC circuit?
The current through the inductor does not increase instantly as the voltage changes
instantly from zero to maximum, but it increases exponentially according to the equation
t

( )
I I 0 (1 e ) .
The current in the circuit takes certain time to reach the maximum (saturation). This is
because the inductor creates a back-emf in response to the rise in current.

3. How does the inductive time constant found in this experiment compare to the theoretical
value given by = L/R?
Percent difference

theoretical value measured value

100%
theoretical value
1.21 10 3 s 2.02 10 3 s
100%
1.21 10 3 s

66.9%

4. Does Kirchhoffs Loop Rule hold at all times? Use the graphs to check it for at least three
different times: Does the sum of the voltages across the resistor and the inductor equal the
source voltage at any given time?
Yes. Yes, the sum of the voltages across the resistor and the inductor always equals the
source voltage at any given time.

Conclusion:

22

EXP 8: LRC circuit

Cover Sheet:
Purpose:
To study the electromagnetic resonance in an inductor-resistor-capacitor circuit
Equipment:
Science Workshop 750 Interface System
Voltage Sensor (CI-6503)
Data Studio Program (installed)
RLC Network (CI-6512) Inductor Coil, Iron Core, 10 Resistor, 100 F Capacitor
Patch Cords
Graph paper (optional)
LCR meter (optional) [5 marks]
Procedure:
Data: [Measured values in blue; Calculated values in red]
Table 1
Freq (Hz)
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
Table 2
Item
Inductance
Resistance
Capacitance

VR
0.170 V
0.374 V
0.612 V
0.850 V
1.088 V
1.327 V
1.497 V
1.599 V

Current
(VR / R)
0.017 A
0.037 A
0.060 A
0.083 A
0.107 A
0.130 A
0.147 A
0.157 A

Freq (Hz)

VR

90
100
110
120
130
140
150

1.599 V
1.531 V
1.429 V
1.327 V
1.224 V
1.122 V
1.054 V

Measured value
19.10 mH
10.18
99.9 F

Table 3
Resonant frequency (linear)
Resonant angular frequency
Theoretical resonant angular frequency
Percentage difference of angular frequency

23

86.6 Hz
544.12 rad/s
723.94 rad/s
24.8%

Current
(VR / R)
0.157 A
0.150 A
0.140 A
0.130 A
0.120 A
0.110 A
0.104 A

Analysis and Discussion:

Calculation:
Resonant angular frequency = res = 2vres = 2(86.6Hz) = 544.12 rad/s
Theoretical resonant angular frequency res

1
LC

1
(19.10 10

H )(99.9 10 6 F )

723.94 rad/s

Answers to Questions
1. The purpose of this activity is to study resonance in an inductor-resistor-capacitor circuit
(LRC circuit) by examining the current through the circuit as a function of the frequency
of the applied voltage. What will happen to the amplitude of the current in the LRC circuit
when the frequency of the applied voltage is at or near the resonant frequency of the
circuit?
The amplitude of the current in the LRC circuit increases when the frequency of the
applied voltage is near the resonant frequency of the circuit, and reaches maximum at
resonant frequency.
2. How does your measured value for resonant angular frequency compare to the theoretical
value for resonant angular frequency? Remember,
Percent difference

theoretical value actual value

100%
theoretical value

723.94 544.12
100%
723.94
25%

The measured value of resonant angular frequency is 25% less than the theoretical value
of resonant angular frequency.
3. Is the plot of current versus frequency symmetrical about the resonant frequency?
Explain.
From Table 1, the plot of current versus frequency is as shown in Figure 1.

24

0.18
0.16
0.14

Current

0.12
0.10
0.08

Figure 1

0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

Frequency

From Figure 1, the plot of current versus frequency is symmetrical about the resonant
frequency.
4. At resonance, the reactance of the inductor and the capacitor cancel each other so that the
impedance (Z) is equal to just the resistance (R). Calculate the resistance of the circuit by
using the amplitude of the current at resonance in the equation R = V/I (where V is the
amplitude of the applied voltage). Is this resistance equal to 10 ohms? Why not?
In the LRC circuit, the impedance (Z) of the circuit is given by the expression below:
Z

X L XC 2 R2

At resonance, XC = XL, the reactances of the inductor and capacitor cancel each other.
Therefore, the impedance Z is equal to the total resistance R of the circuit:
Z R

V
I

With the amplitudes of the applied voltage V and current I, we get the total resistance R
equals 19.1 :
R

V
3V

19.1
I
0.157 A

The resistance R is not equal to 10 ohms because 10 ohms is just the resistance of the
resistor.
However, R is the total resistance of the circuit, which includes the resistances of the
resistor and inductor.

25

Conclusion:

26

EXP 9: Thermal Expansion

Cover Sheet:
Purpose:
To measure the coefficient of linear expansion for Copper and Steel.
Equipment:
Copper and steel tubes (with bracket)
Expansion base (consist of Dial gauge spring arm, Slotted bracket, Thumbscrew, Stainless
steel pin, Thermistor Lug, and Banana connectors)
Foam Insulator
Steam container
Latex tubes
Steam generator
Multimeter
Procedure:
Data:
Table 1
Lo (mm)

Data
Rrm () L (mm)

Rhot ()

Calculations
Trm (C) Thot (C) T (C)

Copper
Steel
Analysis and Discussions:
Note: Accepted values for the linear expansion coefficient:
Cu
= 17.6 10-6 C 1
steel = 11.4 10-6 C 1
Using the equation L Lo T , calculate linear expansion coefficient, , for copper and
steel.
After that,
Calculate the percentage different of Cu and steel by using the following equation,
experimental value theoretical value X 100% =
theoretical value
Answers to Questions
1. Look up the accepted values for the linear expansion coefficient for copper and steel.
Compare these values with your experimental values. What is the percentage difference in
each case? Is your experimental error consistently high or low?
Answer this question based on the percentage different that you calculate out.
If the percentage different is small, that is approximately 10%, therefore the experimental
error is consistently low.
27

2. On the basis of your answers in question 1, speculate on the possible sources of error in
your experiment. How might you improve the accuracy of the experiment?
The possible sources or error in this experiment are:
The uncertainty of the meter tape and the uncertainty of the dial gauge made the length
readings limited to certain significant figures.
Parallax error occurred during reading the values
Lost of heat from the tube to the surrounding, which cause the change temperature
inaccurate.
The temperature calculated using resistance-temperature conversion is only7 an
approximation because we are using linear regression method, that is the scale is assumed
to be divided equally
The unstable room temperature in the physic lab due to the air-condition could change the
initial temperature of the tube rapidly
The steel consists of mixture of carbon and iron. The percentage composition of steel may
be varying from sample to sample. Thus, the theoretical value of steel, which is 11 X
10-6 oC-1 might be an average value only and not a definite (universal) value. Therefore,
the percentage difference calculated was not accurate.
In order to improve the accuracy of the experiment, the following steps were suggested:
The experiment is to be conducted in a room with a stable (constant) room temperature.
Make sure the eye is perpendicular to the dial gauge or meter tape when taking the values.
Use a digital meter that can read the expansion of the length of the tube.
The whole tube should be insulated to prevent heat lost to surrounding.
Use a more accurate measuring device to measure the length of the tube.
3. From your result, can you calculate the coefficients of volume expansion for copper and
steel? (ie. V volVo T )
From the result, the coefficient of volume expansion () for copper and steel can be
calculated (approximate) by assuming that the tube expand in all dimensions.

Conclusion:

28

EXP 10: Geometrical Optics: Reflection and Refraction

Purpose:
To investigate the law of reflection and the law of refraction, and to observe total internal
reflection and color dispersion
Equipment:
PASCO Introductory Optics System
Procedure:
Data:
Table 1: Reflection
Angle of incidence,
1 ()
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0

Angle of reflection,
1 ()
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0

Table 2: Refraction
Angle of incidence,
1 ()
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0

Angle of refraction,
2()
0.0
6.0
13.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
39.0
41.0

Table 3: Total Internal Reflection and Dispersion

Angle of incidence, Angle of refraction, Angle of reflection,
1 ()
2 ()
1 ()
0.0
0.0
0.0
10.0
15.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
20.0
30.0
48.0
30.0
40.0
73.0
40.0
42.0
90.0
42.0
50.0
50.0
60.0
60.0
70.0
70.0
29

80.0

80.0

The largest angle in which all the components of the refracted rays can still be seen is at
the angle of incidence of 42o.
The angle of refraction for red component is 80o , and blue component is 84o.

Analysis and Discussion:

Answers to Questions in Procedure
Is there a reflected ray?
Yes
Note any dispersion your observed, and at which angle you can first notice it. Does it increase
with increasing angle?
The first dispersion observed is at the incident angle of 20 o. The dispersion increases with
increasing angle of incidence.
Observe what happen to the reflected ray. What happens as the refracted ray approaches 90
degrees?
The reflected ray is brighter as the angle of incidence increases. When the refracted ray
approaches 90o, the angle of incidence is known as critical angle.
What happens if you increase the angle of incidence past the point where the angle of
refraction is 90 degrees?
The ray is totally reflected and no refracted ray is observed. This phenomenon is called the
total internal reflection.
Analysis and Discussion:
1. Do the data of part I verify the law of reflection as stated in equation (1)?
Yes. The angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence. So the law of reflection is
verified.
2. Using the data of part II, plot a graph of sin 1 versus sin 2. From the graph, obtain the
index of refraction of the acrylic material of which the lens is made. Is Snells law
verified? What criterion do you use to determine this?
The plot of sin 1 versus sin 2 is shown in Figure 1 below.
Table 2
Angle of incidence,
1 ()
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0

Angle of refraction,
2()
0.0
6.0
13.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
39.0
41.0
30

sin 1

sin 2

0.0000
0.174
0.342
0.500
0.643
0.766
0.866
0.940
0.985

0.000
0.105
0.225
0.342
0.423
0.500
0.574
0.629
0.656

0.8

Sin Theta 1

0.6

0.4

Figure 1

0.2

0.0

0.0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1.0

Sin Theta 2
n1 sin 1 n 2 sin 2
n2
sin 2
n1
sin 1 n 2 sin 2

sin 1

since n1 n air 1.00 .

Therefore,
The index of refraction of acrylic material,
n2 = slope of the graph
=

0.985 0
1.50
0.656 0

[2 marks]

The percent error as compared to the literature value, 1.4917, is

Percent error

1.4917 1.50
1.4917

100% 0.66%

Thus, the Snells law is verified.

The criterion used to determine the index of refraction of the material is n2 = slope of the
graph.
3. From the data of part III, calculate the index of refraction for red light and for blue light.
How do these two values compare with the value you obtained from the data in part II?
Does the critical angle you observed experimentally agree with the theoretical value?
Given nair = 1.00
From Part III,
Red
Blue
n1 sin 1 n2 sin 2
n sin 2
n1 2
sin 1
(1.00) sin(80 o )
sin(42 o )
1.472

n1 sin 1 n2 sin 2
n sin 2
n1 2
sin 1

(1.00) sin(84 o )
sin(42 o )
1.486

31

From Part II,

The index of refraction = slope of the graph =

0.985 0
1.50
0.656 0

Percent difference between the refractive indexes obtained in Part II and Part III is about
2 % for the red light, and 1 % for the blue light.
Yes, the critical angle observed experimentally agrees with the literature value:
n sin 2
sin 1 2
n1

(1.00) sin(90 o )
1.4917
0.6704

Critical angle, 1 42.1o

Conclusion:

32