Environmental Engineering

CSE 29364

Prof. W. Chu, CEE

About this subject

Assessment weight : Examination 70% &

Coursework 30%
Laboratory work 30% (Lab. Group Report, 4 6 students in one group, should be submitted
within two weeks after the laboratory session
during the lecture)
Water/Waste Laboratory ZS1102

lab 1: Basic Water Quality parameters.

lab 2: Solids, Alkalinity and Hardness.
lab 3: BOD & COD.
2

Suggested References
Environmental Engineering, Peavy et. al.,

McGraw-Hill.
Wastewater Engineering Treatment and Reuse,
Metcalf and Eddy, McGraw-Hill.
Water Supply and Sewerage, McGhee,
McGraw-Hill.

Introduction of WATER
Pollution

Prof. W. Chu

WATER POLLUTANTS
Oxygen-Demanding Wastes
Pathogens
Nutrients
Salts
Thermal Pollution
Heavy Metals
Pesticides
Volatile Organic Compounds
5

Oxygen-Demanding Wastes
Dissolved oxygen (DO). The saturated value

of dissolved oxygen in water is on the order

of 8 to 15 mg/L, depending on temperature
and salinity. Minimum amounts required for a
healthy fish population may be as high as 5-8
mg/L for active species.
Oxygen-demanding wastes are substances
that oxidize in the receiving body of water,
reducing the amount of DO available.
6

Oxygen-Demanding Wastes
The chemical oxygen demand, or COD, is the

amount of oxygen needed to chemically

oxidize the wastes
The biochemical oxygen demand, or BOD, is
the amount of oxygen required by
microorganisms to biologically degrade the
wastes. BOD has traditionally been the most
important measure of the strength of organic
pollution. BOD reduction in a wastewater
treatment plant is a key indicator of process
performance.

Pathogens
Pathogens are disease-producing organisms

that grow and multiply within the host.

bacteria responsible for cholera, bacillary

dysentery, typhoid, and paratyphoid fever;
viruses responsible for infectious hepatitis and
poliomyelitis;
protozoa, which cause amebic dysentery and
giardiasis; and helminths, or parasitic worms,
which cause diseases such as
schistosomiasis and dracontiasis (guinea
worm).
9

Pathogens
The intestinal discharges of an infected

individual, a carrier, may contain billions of

these pathogens, which, if allowed to enter
the water supply, can cause epidemics of
immense proportions. Carriers may not even
necessarily exhibit symptoms of their disease,
which makes it even more important to
carefully protect all water supplies from any
human waste contamination.
10

Pathogens
Even developed countries such as the United

States, typhoid, for example, was killing

approximately 28,000 Americans each year.
In 1885, almost 90,000 people in Chicago
died of typhoid or cholera when untreated
sewage was drawn directly into the drinking
water supply during a severe storm.
Chlorination, which began in the United
States in 1908, that outbreaks of waterborne
diseases became rare.
11

Pathogens
The World Health Organization estimates that

approximately 80 percent of all sickness in

the world is attributable to inadequate water
or sanitation.
Contaminated water caused by poor

sanitation can lead to both waterborne and

water-contact diseases.

12

Pathogens
Waterborne diseases are those acquired by

ingestion of pathogens not only in drinking

water, but also from water that makes it into a
person's mouth from washing food and
hands. E.g. open wells or streams that are
easily polluted.
Giardiasis () caused by the Giardia
lamblia protozoa, which passed through the
feces of carriers pose an unusual threat to
surface water and municipal supply systems.
They are not easily destroyed by chlorination.

13

Pathogens

14

Pathogens
Water-contact diseases do not even require

that individuals ingest the water.

Schistosomiasis () affecting 200
million people and spread by free swimming
larva in the water, called cercaria. Thay
attach themselves to human skin, penetrate
it, and enter the bloodstream. Cercaria
mature in the liver into worms that lay masses
of eggs on the walls of the intestine.
15

Pathogens

16

Nutrients
Nutrients are chemicals, such as nitrogen,

phosphorus, carbon, sulfur, calcium,

potassium, iron, manganese, boron, and
cobalt, that are essential to the growth of
living things.
Excess nutrients stimulate the growth of
algae (algae bloom), the use of water for
drinking water supply, and as a viable habitat
for other living things can be adversely
affected.
17

Eutrophication accelerated results

with human input of nutrients to a lake

18

Nutrients
Bloom of algae which eventually die and

decompose, which removes oxygen from the

water and make DO insufficient to sustain
normal life forms.
Algae and decaying organic matter add color,
turbidity, odors, and objectionable tastes to
water. The process of nutrient enrichment,
called eutrophication, is especially important
in lakes.
19

Nutrients

20

10

Nutrients
The nutrient that is least available relative to

the plant's needs is called the limiting

nutrient. This suggests that algal growth can
be controlled by identifying and reducing the
supply of that particular nutrient.
Carbon is usually available from a number of
natural sources including alkalinity, dissolved
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, and
decaying organic matter, so it is not often the
limiting nutrient.
21

Nutrients
Usually either nitrogen or phosphorus

controls algal growth rates. In general,

seawater is most often limited by nitrogen,
while freshwater lakes are most often limited
by phosphorus.
Major sources of both nitrogen and
phosphorus include municipal wastewater
discharges, runoff from animal feedlots, and
chemical fertilizers.
22

11

Nutrients
Some bacteria and blue-green algae can

obtain nitrogen directly from the atmosphere.

These life forms are usually abundant in lakes
that have high rates of biological productivity,
making the control of nitrogen in such lakes
extremely difficult.
Acid rain can also contribute nitrogen to lakes.
The only unusual source of phosphorus is from
detergents. To limit the nearby use of
phosphate in detergents is critical.
23

Nutrients

24

12

Nutrients
Nitrogen in water (mostly nitrate, NO3-) can

be converted into nitrites (NO2-) by intestinal

bacteria of infants. Nitrites have a greater
affinity for hemoglobin in the bloodstream
than does oxygen, and results in blue baby
syndrome. In extreme cases the victim may
die from suffocation.

25

Salts
Dissolved solids, or salts, typically include

cations as sodium, calcium, magnesium, and

potassium, and anions such as chloride,
sulfate, and bicarbonate.
Total dissolved solids (TDS)

Fresh water < 1500 mg/L

Brackish water up to 5000 mgIL
Saline water > 5000 mg/L
Seawater contains 30,000-34,000 mg/L.
26

13

Salts
Drinking water has a recommended

maximum contaminant level for TDS of 500

mg/L.
Livestock can tolerate higher concentrations.
(U.S. Geological Survey)

poultry at 2860 mg/L

pigs at 4290 mg/L
beef cattle at 10,100 mg/L.

27

Salts
Of greater importance is the salt tolerance of

crops.

TDS > 500 mg/L, the need for careful water

management to maintain crop yields
TDS up to 1500 mg/L, can be tolerated by
most crops with little loss of yield
TDS > 2100 mg/L, unsuitable for irrigation
except for the most salt tolerant crops.

28

14

Thermal Pollution
A large steam-electric power plant requires

an enormous amount of cooling water. A

typical nuclear plant, for example, warms
about 40 m3/s of cooling water by 10C as it
passes through the plant's condenser. If that
heat is released into a local river or lake, the
resulting rise in temperature can dramatically
affect life in the vicinity of the thermal plume.

29

Thermal Pollution
As water temperature increases, more

oxygen is needed for aquatic life.

Metabolic rates increased by about a factor of

2 for each 10C rise in temperature. (More
oxygen consumption by organisms)
The available supplies of DO reduced (Waste
assimilation is quicker, and the amount of DO
that the water can hold decreases)

30

15

Heavy Metals
Heavy metal is metal with specific gravity

greater than about 4 or 5, or the term is

simply used to denote metals that are toxic.
Toxic metals includes aluminum, arsenic,
beryllium, bismuth, cadmium, chromium,
cobalt, copper, iron, lead, manganese,
mercury, nickel, selenium, strontium, thallium,
tin, titanium, and zinc. Some of these metals,
such as chromium and iron, are essential
nutrients in our diets, but in higher doses are
extremely toxic.

31

Heavy Metals
Metals may be inhaled, as is often the case

with lead, for example, and they may be

ingested (food and water).
Metals have a range of adverse impacts on
the body, including nervous system and
kidney damage, creation of mutations, and
induction of tumors.

32

16

Pesticides
Pesticide is used to cover a range of

chemicals that kill organisms that humans

consider undesirable.
Three groups: organochlorines (chlorinated
hydrocarbons), organophosphates, and
carbamates. Many of them are EDC
(Endocrine disrupting chemicals).

33

Pesticides
Endocrine disrupting chemicals that

interfere with endocrine (or hormone system)

in animals, including humans. These
disruptions can cause cancerous tumors,
birth defects, and other developmental
disorders like feminizing of males or
masculine effects on females, etc. Any
system in the body controlled by hormones,
can be derailed by EDCs.
34

17

Volatile Organic Compounds

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) are

among the most commonly found contaminants in groundwater. They are often
used as solvents in industrial processes and
a number of them are either known or
suspected carcinogens or mutagens.

35

Volatile Organic Compounds

Five toxic VOCs presence in water:
Vinyl chloride (chloroethylene): a carcinogen

used in the production of PVC resins.

Tetrachloroethylene: a solvent and a heat
transfer medium, used in the manufacture of
chlorofluorocarbons. It causes tumors in
animals.

36

18

Volatile Organic Compounds

Trichloroethylene (TCE): a solvent commonly

used to clean everything, a suspected

carcinogen and the most frequently found
contaminants in groundwater.
1,2-Dichloroethane: a metal degreaser cause
injury to the central nervous system, liver, and
kidneys.
Carbon tetrachloride: a common household
cleaning agent, very toxic if ingested
37

Population and Water Demand

Hong Kong has 6.98M people including

transients such as visitors and the armed forces.

The average daily consumption of fresh water

was 2.6M m3/d and average daily use of

seawater for flushing was 0.64M m3/d.

38

19

Types of Water Consumption

39

Water supply resources

The statistical data for water resources for the last 10 years indicate that nowadays
about more than 70% of raw fresh water is supplied from the East River (Dongjiang)
in Guangdong province

and only less than 30% of raw fresh water is supplied by local catchment sources.

40

20

Dongjiang water

41

Water supply system in Hong Kong

Plover
Cove
High
Island

42

21

Water quality requirements

Water contains a variety of chemical, physical, and biological

substances which are either dissolved or suspended in it.

Water also contains living organisms which react with its

physical and chemical elements. For these reasons, water must

often be treated before it is suitable for use.
Water quality requirements are established in accordance with

the intended use of the water.

Quality is usually judged as the degree to which water conforms

to physical, chemical, and biological standards set by the user.

43

Physical characteristics
Tastes, odour, colour, and turbidity are controlled in public water

supplied partly because they make drinking water inedible, but also
prohibit the use of water in beverages, food processing, and textile.
Tastes and odours are caused by the presence of volatile chemicals

and decomposing organic matter.

Colour in water is caused by minerals such as iron and manganese,

organic material, and coloured wastes from industries. Colour in

domestic water may stain fixtures and dull clothes.
Turbidity, as well as being aesthetically objectionable, is a health

concern because the particles involved could harbor pathogens. Water

with enough suspended clay particles (10 turbidity units) will be visually
turbid. Surface water sources may range in turbidity from 10 - 1,000
units; however, it is possible for very turbid rivers to have 10,000 units
of turbidity.
44

22

Chemical characteristics
The many chemical compounds dissolved in water may be of natural or

industrial origin and may be beneficial or harmful depending on their

composition and concentration.
For example, small amounts of iron and manganese may not just

cause colour; they can also be oxidized to form deposits of ferric

hydroxide and manganese oxide in water mains and industrial
equipment. These deposits reduce the capacity of pipes and are
expensive to remove.
Hard waters are generally considered to be those waters that require

considerable amounts of soap to produce foam and they also produce

scale in hot water pipes, heaters, and boilers.
Sulfates, chlorides, and nitrates of calcium and magnesium are not

removed by boiling. These salts cause noncarbonate hardness,

sometimes called permanent hardness.

45

Biological characteristics
From the perspective of human use and consumption, the most

important biological organisms in water are pathogens, those

organisms capable of infecting, or of transmitting diseases to,
human.
These organisms are not native to aquatic systems and usually

require an animal host for growth and reproduction. They can,

however, be transported by natural water systems, thus
becoming a temporary member of the aquatic community.
Many species of pathogens are able to survive in water and

maintain their infectious capabilities for significant periods of

time. These water borne pathogens include species of bacteria,
viruses, protozoa, and parasitic worms.
46

23

Drinking water quality standard

HK mainly adopts WHO guidelines for

drinking water quality standard

Part A: Microbiological quality
Part B: Chemicals of health significance
Part C: Other parameters

47

Part A: Microbiological quality

48

24

Part B: Chemicals of health

significance

Organic
chlorine

Heavy
metals

49

Part B: Chemicals of health

significance

50

25

Part B: Chemicals of health

significance

51

Part C: Other parameters

52

26

Water conservation
Conservation remains integral to any water

management policy and in this context we have

been implementing a range of measures
including greater use of sea water for toilet
flushing across a range of buildings, the
replacement of aging water pipes to reduce
leakage and then continuous monitoring and
management of water pressure which also
helps us detect and reduce leakage.
53

Nature and Characteristics of

Wastewater
Definition of Wastewater
Every community produces both liquid & solid wastes.

The liquid portion-wastewater is essentially the water

supply of the community after it has been consumed
by variety of users.
Classification
Municipal wastewater,
Industrial wastewater,
Stormwater
54

27

Municipal Wastewater

The excreted waste from human is called sanitary sewage.

Wastewater from residential area is referred to as domestic sewage and

includes kitchen, bath, laundry, and floor drain wastes. These, together with the
liquid wastes from commercial and industrial establishments, are termed
municipal wastewater.

This wastewater is normally connected in a public sewer system and directed to

treatment facilities for safe disposal.

Quantities of municipal wastewater are commonly determined from water use.

Because water is consumed by humans, utilized in industrial products, used for
cooling, and required for activities such as lawn watering and street washing,
around 70 to 90 percent of the water supplied reaches the sewers.

However, the above assumption may not be always correct due to infiltration
(groundwater leakage into the sewer system through poor joints) or storm water,
which enters the sanitary sewer system through illicit connections (roof
downspouts and road catch basins) and inflow (through manhole openings).

55

Composition of municipal wastewater

56

28

Industrial Wastewater

Wastewater from industries include employees sanitary wastes, process wastes

from manufacturing, wash waters, and relatively uncontaminated water from
heating and cooling operations. The waters from processing are the major
concern. They vary widely with the type of industry. In some cases,
pretreatment to remove certain contaminants or equalization to reduce
hydraulic/organic shock-loads may be necessary before the wastewater can be
discharged into the public sewer system.

Wastes are specific for each industry and can range from strong (high BOD5)
biodegradable wastes like those from meat packing, through wastes such as
those from plating shops and textile mills, which may be inorganic and toxic and
require on-site physical-chemical treatment before discharge to the public sewer
system.

The volume or strength of industrial wastewater is often compared to that of

domestic sewage in terms of a population equivalent (PE) based on typical per
capita contribution. (assuming one unit equals to 54 g BOD per day)

57

Population equivalents of
wastewater from industries

58

29

Stormwater

The runoff from rainfall, snowmelt, and street washing is less contaminated than
municipal wastewater. It therefore receives little or no treatment before being
discharged into storm sewers (for direct disposal into receiving waters).

The quantity of stormwater which runs off from a municipality varies widely with the
time of year, the type of terrain, and the intensity and duration of the storms which
occur.

Runoff Coefficient: A fraction varies from about 0.2 (parks and lawns) to 1 (roofs and
paved areas). An overall average value for a municipality might range between 0.3 to
0.5 during fairly intense storms.

Stormwater runoff, particularly in cities, contains dust and other particulate from roads,
leaves from trees, grass cuttings from lawns and parks, and fallout from air pollution.

The concentration of these contaminants is highest when they are first flushed into
the sewer system during the early stages of runoff and then decreases as the rain
continues.
59

Effects of Pollutants
Water pollution occurs when the discharge of

wastes impairs water quality or disturbs the

natural ecological balance.
The contaminants which cause problems

include
pathogens
(disease
causing
organisms), organic matter, solids, nutrients,
toxic substances, colour, foam, heat, and
radioactive materials.
60

30

Organic matters
Biological decomposition of waste organic matter is a relatively slow

reaction, and gradually depleting the dissolved oxygen in a river as the

water flows downstream.
Oxygen is replaced by reaeration at the surface and photosynthetic activity

of green plants. The maximum oxygen deficit depends on the

interrelationship of biological oxygen utilization and reaeration.
Fishes and most aquatic life are stiffed by a lack of oxygen, and unpleasant

tastes and odours are produced if the content is sufficiently reduced.

61

Organic matters
Settleable organic solids can create sludge deposits that

decompose, causing high oxygen demand and intensified odour.

Floating solids are unsightly and obstruct passage of light vital

to plant growth. Thin films of oil can also reduce the rate of
reaeration.

62

31

Water pollution in Hong Kong

63

Inorganic Solids
Inert suspended solids, such as silt and mine

slurries, produce turbidity that reduces light

penetration and, therefore, interferes with
photosynthesis.
Solids that settle out of solution blanket the

bottom organisms in a river and hinder the

reproduction cycle of fishes.
64

32

Toxic substances
Acids, alkalis, and toxic chemicals adversely affect aquatic life

and impair recreational uses of water.

Sharp change of pH at the discharging point of a river or lake

eliminates less tolerant animal and plant species. It may also induce
considerable toxicity in water. For example, ammonia is much more
toxic in alkaline water (NH3) than acidic one (NH4+).
Heavy metals such as mercury are serious pollutants, since they

form stable compounds that persist in nature and are concentrated

in the food chain. The fishing industry has sustained economic
losses in recent years because unacceptable levels of mercury or
other heavy metals were discovered in fishes from contaminated
waters, resulting in government condemnation of the affected
catches.
65

Non-toxic salts

Buildup of salts from domestic wastes and waste brines can interfere with water
reuse by municipal, industries (manufacturing textiles, paper, and food
products), and agriculture for irrigation water. Salts like sodium chloride and
potassium sulfate pass through conventional water and waste-water treatment
plants unaffected.

Inorganic phosphorus and nitrogen salts induce the growth of algae and
aquatic weeds in surface waters. (Eutrophication)

The majority phosphates originate from fertilizer washed from agricultural land
and phosphate builders used in synthetic detergents. The latter source
contributes approximately 60 percent of the phosphorus in domestic waste, and
often the majority found in industrial wastes.

Ammonia nitrogen is extremely soluble and is readily transported by surface

runoff from cultivated farmland. In waste-water treatment, the nitrogen in
organic compounds is released as soluble inorganic nitrogen.

Removal of nitrogen and phosphorus in conventional biological waste

treatment is generally only 30 to 50 percent.
66

33

Non-aesthetic wastes
Foam-producing matter and colour, although often not harmful,

lead to an undesirable appearance to receiving water; they are

considered indicator of contamination.
Taste- and odour-producing compounds interfere with the

palatability of the water for drinking purposes. Their source may

be industrial origin, or may results from blooms of algae
encouraged by nutrient enrichment from waste disposal.
An

increase in water temperature often magnifies the

offensiveness of polluted water. Discharging heated water. such
as cooling water from power plants, accelerates dissolved oxygen
depleting, promotes the growth of blue-green algae, intensifies
tastes and odours, and may stress fish and other aquatic life.
67

Typical characteristics of sewage

Constituent
BOD
COD
SS
Nitrogen
- Total
- Organic
- Ammonia
- Nitrite
- Nitrate
Phosphorus
- Total
- Organic
- Inorganic
Alkalinity as CaCO3

Concentration (mg/L) related to wastewater strength

Strong
Medium
Weak
400
220
110
1000
500
250
350
220
100
85
35
50
0
0

40
15
25
0
0

20
8
12
0
0

15
5
10
150

8
3
5
100

4
1
3
50

68

34

Sewage Disposal in Hong Kong

Everyday, the people of Hong Kong produce some 2.2

million cubic metres of sewage, enough to fill up

1,200 Olympic-size swimming pools.
About 95% of the population are now served by the

public sewer system with over 98% of the sewage

produced being collected and treated from
preliminary
treatment (screening) plants to
secondary treatment (biological)
plants treating
sewage from residential, commercial and industrial
sources in the territory prior to disposal to the sea for
dilution and dispersion through submarine outfalls.
69

How much of Hong Kong's sewage is

treated, and to what levels?
Preliminary
Treatment

Primary
Treatment

Chemically
Enhanced
Primary
Treatment

Secondary
Treatment

Total

28.7%

0.4%

54.5%

16.4%

100%

70

35

Stonecutter Island ( ) - Chemically

Enhance Primary Sedimentation

71

Stonecutters Island Sewage

Treatment Works Site

72

36

Final Disposal of Treated Effluent

73

WATER &
WASTEWATER
TREATMENT
Prof. W. Chu

74

37

Aims of water treatment

Free from chemicals, microorganisms in amount in

order to prevent hazards in health

To make it acceptable such as odour and taste
To lower the content of Fe, Mn to prevent colouring of

cloth and damaging the pumping facilities

reasonably soft (Ca2+ and Mg2+)
75

A typical water treatment process

Raw water
Coagulation

Flocculation

Sedimentation

Filtration

Disinfection

Water Distribution System

76

38

WATER TREATMENT Coagulation and

Flocculation
Prof. W. Chu

77

Terms of coagulation and

flocculation
Coagulation refers to the process of destabilization

of the colloid particles by the addition of some

material to the water.
Flocculation refers to the collision and aggregation

of the destabilized particles into large flocs.

Flocculation describes only the transport step
involving the collision frequency and hydrodynamics
of floc formation after the particles have become
destabilized.

78

39

Coagulation and Flocculation

79

Settling velocity of particles

80

40

Particle size

1 = 0.0001 m
81

Colloidal stability

In most surface water, colloidal surfaces

are negatively charged. The negatively
charged colloid attracts a cloud of positive
ions around it due to electrostatic forces.

an inner layer including adsorbed ions

and a diffuse layer where the ions are
distributed due to electrical forces and
fluid motions.

The inner layer is called the Stern layer

and is about the thickness of a hydrated
ion from the surface. Within second
diffuse layer there is a shear plane which
represents the limit to which the counter
ions can be swept from the surface by
fluid motion.

The ions within the shear plane move with

the particle; those outside of it move
independently of the particle and are
subject to fluid and thermal motions.
82

41

Coagulation theory
Double-layer compression
Charge neutralization
Entrapment (Sweep coagulation)
Bridging

83

Double-layer Compression

Increase the ion strength to compress the thickness of the double layer
(e.g. 100 for 0.001 molar but 10 at 0.1 molar solutions). Rapid
coagulation occurs as Zeta potential is reduced to 20 mV. An example
of ionic layer compression occurs in nature when a turbid stream flows
into the ocean.

Since the ionic strength depends upon the square of the ionic charge, so
Na+ < Ca2+ < Al3+. In water treatment plants, chemical coagulation is
usually accomplished by the addition of trivalent metallic salts such as
Al2(SO4)3 or FeCl3.
84

42

Charge neutralization
Adsorption of specific ions on the surface of the particulate.

85

Entrapment (Sweep coagulation)

Al3+ + 3H2O Al(OH)3 + 3H+
The last product formed in the hydrolysis, if alum is used, is

aluminum hydroxide, Al(OH)3 forms in amorphous, gelatinous

flocs that are heavier than water and settle by gravity.
Colloids may become entrapped in a floc. The solids remain

trapped within the settling floc and appear to be swept from the
water.
This procedure generates a large amount of wet aluminum or

iron sludges which must be de-watered and disposed.

86

43

Bridging
Synthetic polymers also may
be used instead of, or in
addition to, metallic salts.
These polymers may be linear
or branched and are highly
surface reactive.
Thus, several colloids may
become attached to one
polymer and several of the
polymer-colloid groups may
become enmeshed, resulting
in a settleable mass.
87

Coagulants
(1) Alum coagulants
- Al2(SO4)3.14H2O
- Sodium aluminate Na2Al2O4

(2) Iron coagulants

- Copperas (FeSO4.7H2O)
- Chlorinated copperas
- FeCl3
- Fe2(SO4)3

(3) Polymers

Polyaluminum chloride (PAC)

88

44

pH and alkalinity
Al2(SO4)3 + 6H2O 2Al(OH)3 + 6H+ + 3SO42 The formation of Al(OH)3 will produce acidity, which

should be neutralized by addition of alkalinity (e.g.

CaCO3)
1 mg/L of Al2(SO4)3 requires 0.5 mg/L of alkalinity.
For optimum operation, pH is required in the range of

5.0 - 6.0
89

Dosages

If a water contains insufficient alkalinity, the addition of a metallic coagulant may depress the
pH below the range in which the particular salt is effective. In such circumstances, an
alkaline salt must be added to increase the buffer capacity of the solution. The adequacy of
the alkalinity can be estimated from the following simplified equations for the commonly
used coagulants:

Alum (aluminum sulfate, the most commonly used)

Al2(SO4)318H2O + 3Ca(HCO3)2 2Al(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 18H2O + 6CO2
Ferric chloride
2FeCl3 + 3Ca(HCO3)2 2Fe(OH)3 + 3CaCl2 + 6CO2
Ferric sulfate
Fe2(SO4)3 + 3Ca(HCO3)2 2Fe(OH)3 + 3CaSO4 + 6CO2
Ferrous sulfate and lime
FeSO47H2O + Ca(OH)2 Fe(OH)2 + CaSO4 + 7H2O
Fe(OH)2 + O2 + 2H2O 4Fe(OH)3 (in the presence of O2)
90

45

Steps of coagulation-flocculation
process:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Add coagulating chemicals

A rapid agitative mixing to achieve uniform distribution of chemical for reaction.
(if mixing is not complete, only part of it reacted)
Chemical and physico-chemical charge occur leading to coagulation and
formation of microscopic particles.
A gentle agitation of the water to cause agglomeration of the microscopic matter
to form settleable floc. (if rapid mixing, the flocs will be broken down again)

91

Rapid mixing

92

46

Velocity gradient (G)

Design parameters for rapid-mix units are mixing time

t and velocity gradient G (of two fluid particles).

relative speed 1.0 m/s

10 s -1
distance
0.1 m

1/ 2

P
G=

G = velocity gradient, s-1

P = power input, W (N.m/s)
V = volume of mixing basin, m3
= viscosity, N.s/m2
93

Flocculation

Design parameter for flocculation is Gt, a dimensionless number.

Values of Gt form 104 to 105 are commonly used, with t ranging from
10 to 30 min.

Large G values with short times tend to produce small, dense flocs,
while low G values and long times produce larger, lighter flocs.

Since large, dense flocs are more easily removed in the settling basin,
it may be advantageous to vary the G values over the length of the
flocculation basin.

The small, dense flocs produced at high G values subsequently

combine into larger flocs at the lower G values. Reduction in G values
by a factor of 2 from the influent end to the effluent end of the
flocculator has been shown to be effective.
94

47

Typical design of a
Coagulation/Flocculation Process
Rapid-mixing tanks operate best at G values from 700 to 1000,

with detention times of approximately 2 min.

Flocullator has the values of Gt from 104 to 105 are commonly

used, with t ranging from 10 to 30 min.

95

Flocculation tank

96

48

WATER/WASTEWATER
TREATMENT Sedimentation
Prof. W. Chu

97

Sedimentation for Water and

Wastewater Treatment
Water Treatment: Sedimentation is used to

remove the chemical floc generated in

coagulation-flocculation process by gravity.
Its critical to lower the loading of the following
filtration process.
Wastewater Treatment: To remove large

objects and grit to protect from damage the

equipment; To remove 50-70% organic
suspend solids (SS) and 25-40% BOD from
the wastewater in order to reduce the load on
the secondary treatment
98

49

Types of Settling

Type 1. - Discrete settling (Unhindered settling)

Particles being settled keep their individuality, i.e., they do not
coalesce with other particles. Thus the physical properties of the
particles (size, shape, specific gravity) are unchanged during the
process. The settling of sand particles in grit chambers is a
typical example of discrete settling (e.g. sand grains).

Type 2. - Flocculent settling

Agglomeration of the settling particles is accompanied by
changes in density and settling velocity. The sedimentation
occurring in primary clarifiers is an example (e.g. most organic
materials and biological solids)

Type 3 - Zone settling (Hindered settling)

Particles from a lattice (or blanket) which settles as a mass
exhibiting a distinct interface with the liquid phase. Examples
include sedimentation of activated sludge in secondary clarifiers
and that of alum flocs in water treatment processes

Type 4 - Compression settling (Compaction)

Compaction occurs at bottom of the sedimentation tanks.

99

Ideal Settling Behaviour

(Type 1 - Discrete Settling)
Particle Settling Velocity

100

50

Settling equations
Driving force (Submerged
weight of the particle) can be
expressed as

Drag force on a particle is given

by:

vS2
FD C DA p
2

FG ( p ) gVp
FG = gravity driving force

FD = drag force

p = particle density
= fluid density

CD = dimensionless drag
coefficient

Vp = particle volume

Ap = projected area of particle

vs = settling velocity of particle

101

If FG = FD
Equating the above expressions after substituting for Ap = d2

and Vp = 1/6d3 and re-arranging, results in the following

expression for vs.
vS

4 (p ) gd
3 C D

In practice, it is found that drag coefficient CD is a function of the

Reynolds Number for spherical particles can be represented by

the following expressions ( =

For Re < 1,

For 1 < Re < 104,

For

104

< Re ,

CD
CD

24
Re

24
3
1 0. 34
Re Re 2
CD 0. 4

(Laminar region)
(Transition region)
(Turbulent region)

102

51

Drag coefficient CD

103

vS

Two special cases

Re < 1 (Laminar flow)

CD

24
Re

4 (p ) gd
3 C D

Re > 104 (Turbulent flow)

CD 0. 4

Stokes Law

vS

g p 2
d
18

vS 3. 33

(p )

gd

104

52

Ideal sedimentation tank

Long-rectangular Basin (Horizontal Flow)

105

Overall removal efficiency

v0

Q
A

Overflow Rate or
Surface loading rate

to

For particle with vs v0 100% removed

For particle with vs < v0 removed with a

fraction Fx

Fx

H L

v0 u

Q
WH

h vs t 0 vs
vs

H v0 t 0 v0 Q / A
f

F (1 f 0 )

f0

1 0
vs df
v0 0

t0 is the time of particle travel

Fx is fraction removed for particle size with vs

v0

1-f0 is fraction of particles with v > v0

F is the total mass fraction removed

f0

1
vs df
v0 0
106

53

Example: Settling column analysis of

type 1 suspension
A settling analysis is run on a type - 1 suspension. The column

is 2 m deep, and data are shown below:

Time min
Conc. mg/L

0
300

60
189

80
180

100
168

130
156

200
111

240
78

420
27

What will be the theoretical removal efficiency in a settling basin

with a loading rate of 25 m 3/m2-d (25 m/d)?

Solution
1. Calculate mass fraction remaining and corresponding settling
rates.
Time min
0
Conc. mg/L
300
Mass fraction
remaining
v0 x 102, m/min

60
189
0.63

80
180
0.60

100
168
0.56

130
156
0.52

200
111
0.37

240
78
0.26

420
27
0.09

189/300 = 0.63

3.3

2.5

2.0

1.55

1.0

0.83

0.48

2/60 x 102 = 3.3

107

Solution
3. Determine v0 = 25 m/d = 1.74 x 10-2 m/min
4. Determine f0 = 54 %
5. Determine xvs, by graphical integration.
6. Determine overall removal efficiency:
F = (1- f0) + (x vs)/v0
= (1 - 0.54) + 0.46/1.74 = 72 %
x (or f)

vs

0.06
0.06
0.1
0.1
0.1
0.06
0.06

1.50
1.22
1.00
0.85
0.70
0.48
0.16
xvs=

xvs
0.09
0.07
0.10
0.09
0.07
0.03
0.01
0.46
108

54

Settling Column Test for Flocculent

Sedimentation (Type 2)
Draw isoremoval lines
(like contour map)

109

Hindered Settling & Zone SettlingType 3

110

55

Batch analysis

111

Compression Settling (Type 4)

At very high particle concentrations, compression

settling occurs as the settled solids are compressed

under the weight of overlying solids, the void spaces
are gradually diminished, and water is squeezed out
of the matrix.
Compression settling is important in gravity

thickening processes. It is also particularly important

in activated sludge final settling tanks.

112

56

Sedimentation tanks
Long-Rectangular Basin

( Horizontal Flow)
Long-rectangular basins are
commonly used in treatment
plants processing large flows.
This type of basin is
hydraulically more stable, and
flow control through large
volumes is easier with this
configuration.

113

114

57

Design parameters for rectangular

horizontal flow tank

For Q in m3/d and OFR in m3/m2d,

Tank Surface Area (m2),

Tank Length (m), L =

Detention time (hour),

Forward velocity,

A = Q/OFR

where = L/W

24 H
Q/ A

Q
WH

115

Weir overflow rate

Weir loading rate = Q/length of weir
Weir loading rate range from 6 m 3/m.h for
light flocs to about 14 m3/m.h for heavier
discrete-particle suspensions are commonly
used.

116

58

Design Criteria of Sedimentation

Tank
Overflow rates recommended:
For primary settling followed by secondary treatment--32 to 48

m3/m2d at average flow, 80 to120 m 3/m2d at peak flow.

For primary settling with waste activated sludge--24 to 32
m3/m2d at average flow, 48 to 70 m 3/m2d at peak flow.
For coagulation/flocculation--20 to 33 m3/m2d at average flow
Recommended side water depth:
3 to 5 m for rectangular clarifiers, 3.6 m typical.
3 to 5 m for circular clarifiers, 4.5 m typical.

117

Design Criteria of Sedimentation

Tank
Hydraulic detention times recommended:
Primary settling followed by secondary treatment: range 1.5 to

2.5 hours, 2.0 hours typical.

Primary settling receiving waste activated sludge: range 1.5 to

2.5 hours, 2.0 hours typical.

For coagulation/flocculation : range 2.0 to 8.0 hours
Weir loading rates recommended:
Primary settling followed by activated sludge:125 to 500 m 3/md

at average flow, 250 m 3/md typical.

Primary settling receiving waste activated sludge:125 to 500
m3/md at average flow, 250 m 3/md typical.
For coagulation/flocculation floc:144 to 336 m 3/md
118

59

Design Criteria of Sedimentation

Tank
Linear Flow-through Velocity: In practice, the linear flow-through

velocity (scour velocity) has been limited to 1.2 to 1.5 m/min to

avoid re-suspension of settled solids.
Surface Geometry: To minimize scouring of settled solids,
surface geometry is another design variable that has been used
in attempting to control scouring of solids from high linear flowthrough velocities or wind. Although the length to width ratio of
rectangular tanks has historically been used as such a design
tool, it is not considered to be reliable. Common length-to-width
ratios employed for design range from 3:1 to 5:1.

119

Long-Rectangular Basin

120

60

Removal efficiency vs. surface loading

rate (Q/A) for primary settling tank

121

Example: Designing a longrectangular settling basin

A city must treat about 15,000 m3/d of water. Flocculating

particles are produced by coagulation, and a column analysis

indicates that an overflow rate of 30 m/d will produce
satisfactory removal at a depth of 3.0 m. Determine the size of
the required settling tank.

122

61

Solution:
1. Compute surface area (provide two tanks at 7500

m3/d each)

Q = OFR x A

7500 m3/d = A x 30 m/h

A = 7500/30 = 250 m2
2. Selecting a length-to-width ratio of 3/1, calculate

surface dimensions.

w x 3w = 250 m2

Width = 9.13, say 9 m

Length = 27.39, say 27 m

123

Solution:
3. Check retention time

volume

9 m x 27 m x 3.0 m

t = flow rate
1d
7500 m/d x

2.3h

24 h

4. Check horizontal velocity

u = Q/WH =

d
24h 11.6 m/h
9 m x 3.0 m

7500 m3 / d x

5. Check weir overflow rat.

7500

Weir overflow rate range from 6

m3/m.h for light flocs to about 14
m3/m.h for heavier discreteparticle suspensions are
commonly used.

m3 1d
1
m3
x
x
30.9
6m3 / m.h
d 24h 9m
hm

Total length of weir = 9 m x 5 = 45 m

124

62

Circular Basin ( Radial Flow)

125

A Circular Basin in STW

126

63

Features of circular tanks

Circular tanks have certain advantages

Sludge removal mechanisms are simpler and require less maintenance.

Excessive weir overflow should never be a problem because the entire

circumference is used for overflow.

Problems
It is essential that the weir plates be precisely level, since a very slight difference
in elevation will result in considerable short circuiting (direct channelling from
influent to effluent).

Uneven distribution and wind currents can also cause short circuiting. These
factor make flow control more difficult in circular basins than in long-rectangular
ones.

Because flow-control problem become more difficult to control as tanks size

increases, it is usually advisable to limit circular tank diameters to 30 m or less.

127

WATER TREATMENT
- Filtration

Prof. W. Chu

128

64

FILTRATION
Definition

Water filtration can be defined as a physical-chemical process for

separating suspended and colloidal impurities from water by
passage through a bed of granular material.
Use of filtration

In water treatment plants, filtration is most often used as:

- A polishing step to remove small flocs or precipitant particles not
removed in the settling of coagulated or softened waters.
- Protect granular activated carbon against fouling, and increase
carbon adsorption efficiencies by reducing the load of applied
organics.
-Be combined with biological denitrification by using the fine grains
of the filter bed as an attached growth medium.
129

Function of filtration in water treatment plants

1.

Remove particulate and colloidal matter not settleable after

either biological or chemical flocculation or both.

2.

Increase removal of suspended solids, turbidity, phosphorus,

BOD, COD, heavy metals, asbestos, bacteria, virus, and other
substances.

3.

Improve the efficiency and reduce the cost of disinfection

through removal of suspended matter and other interfering
substances.

4.

Assure continuous plant operation and consistent effluent

quality. Increase overall plant reliability by overcoming
common irregularities in biological and chemical treatment.
130

65

Slow sand filter

131

Particle size of filter media

Effective size: Size of the opening through

which 10% sand by weight will pass

Uniformity coefficient: Size of the opening
through which 60% of the sand by weight will
pass divided by the effective size D60/D10.
The smaller the coefficient, the more uniform
the grade of sand.

132

66

Typical data in a slow sand filter

effective size: 0.2 - 0.4 mm (0.3 mm)
uniformity coefficient: 1.7 - 3.0
Filtration rate: 2 - 5 m/d

133

Disadvantages of slow sand filters

Low sand filters have large space requirement and are capital-

intensive; additionally, they do not function well with highly turbid

water since the surface clogs quickly, requiring frequent
cleaning.
Cleaning was accomplished periodically (usually no more

frequently than once a month): draining the filters and

mechanically removing the top few centimeters of sand, along
with the accumulated solids and the biological mat.
Use of slow sand filters has declined because of their high

construction cost, large filter area needed, and unsuitability for

treating highly turbid and polluted waters requiring chemical
coagulation.
134

67

Rapid sand filter

135

Operation of a rapid sand filter

The most common type of device for treating municipal water supplies

is the rapid sand filter, which removes nonsettleable flocs and

impurities remaining after chemical coagulation and sedimentation of
the raw water.
The rapid sand filter utilizes a bed of silica sand ranging from 0.6 to

0.75 m in depth. Sizes may range from 0.35 to 1.0 mm or even larger,
but normally with sizes from 0.45 to 0.55 mm.
Common filtration rates in rapid sand filters range from 2.5 to 5.0 m/h.
An important feature of the rapid sand filter is that it is cleaned by

hydraulic backwashing which resulting in stratification of the medium.

By careful selection of media with regard to size and density, it is

possible, to approximate this reverse gradation. Dual-media filters do

this to some extent, and mixed-media filters essentially approximate
reverse gradation.
136

68

Filters with different arrangement of

media

D
137

Filtration
mechanism
(a) Straining
(b) Sedimentation
(c) Interception
(d) Adhesion
(e) Flocculation

138

69

Filtration efficiency affected by filter

media
Traditionally, silica sand has been the medium most commonly used in

granular-medium filters. Modern filter applications often make use of

anthracite coal and garnet sand in place of, or in combination with,
silica sand. the important properties of these materials are size, size
distribution, and density.
In general, filter efficiency increases with smaller grain size, lower

porosity, and greater bed depth.

Coarse to fine (down-flow) filters contain much more storage space for

materials removed from the water and permit the practical use of much
finer materials in the bottom of the bed.
Dual media, which should be considered merely an intermediate step in

the development of mixed media, is less resistant to breakthrough than

a rapid sand filter, while mixed media is more resistant than either.
139

Filtration efficiency affected by

water characteristics
Turbidity standards of 5,
50, and 500 NTU

The turbidity of the effluent from a properly operating filter

should be less than 0.5 NTU (Nephelometric Turbidity Units).

With proper pretreatment, filtered water should be essentially
free of color, iron, and manganese.
Large microorganisms, including algae, diatoms, and amoebic
system are readily removed from properly pretreated water by
filtration.
Filtration is employed for the removal of finely divided
suspended material carrying over from secondary clarification
or chemical precipitation units. Since PO4, COD, and BOD may
also present in suspended form, removal part of these
constituents by filtration is possible.
140

70

Filtration efficiency affected by

water characteristics
Temperature
Cold water is notably more difficult to the filter than warm water,

but usually there is no control over water temperature.

Filterability
Filterability, related to the nature, size and adhesive qualities of

the suspended and colloidal impurities in the water, is the most

important property.
By recording filter effluent turbidity, appropriated adjustments

can be made in chemical treatment of filter influent to obtain

optimum filterability in the plant filters.
Maximum filterability is generally more important than maximum

turbidity reduction to generate a reasonable water .

141

Filterability
Filterability index (F) =

HC
VC 0t

H = head loss through sand filter

C = average filtrate quality
C0 = input suspension quality
V = flow velocity approaching the top of the bed
t = duration of filter run
The filterability index is dimensionless and the value of C/Co is simply a ratio
relating input and filtrate water quality in some way (e.g. turbidity or suspended
solids level).
A lower value of F indicates a better filterability.

142

71

Filter media arrangement

Before backwash

After backwash
143

Dual-media filters
Dual-media filters are usually constructed of silica sand and anthracite coal.
Dual-media filters thus have the advantage of more efficiency in utilizing pore space
for storage. This results in longer filter runs and greater filtration rates because of
lower head losses.
A disadvantage of dual-media filters is that the filtered material (dirt) is held rather
loosely in the anthracite layer. Any sudden increase in hydraulic loading dislodges the
dirt and transports it to the surface of the sand layer, resulting in rapid blinding at this
level.

144

72

Mixed-media filters

145

A typical installation
Media

Fraction

Specific
gravity

Effective
size

Anthracite

60%

1.6

1.0 mm

Silica sand

30%

2.6

0.4 mm

Garnet sand

10%

4.2

0.15 mm

146

73

Dual-media filter

147

Filter operation
The two basic modes of operating granular-

medium filters are:

(1) constant head-variable flow and
(2) constant flow-variable head.
More recent design of larger filter plants

usually makes use of a combination of the

above modes of operation.
148

74

Filter operation

A constant flow is delivered to a bank of several filters through a common

header and is allowed to distribute itself according to the operating rate of each
individual filter.

The height of the water column is the same above all the filter units, with the
cleanest filter accepting the greatest flow.

When the flow rate though any one unit decreases to a predetermined level, that
filter is taken off-line and backwashed.

Removal of one filter results in an increase in flow to the remaining filters, with a
subsequent increase in head and flow rate through each filter.

When backwashing is completed, the newly cleaned filter is returned to service

and will accommodate a larger flow rate.

Water level will therefore drop slightly in all the filters, resulting in a decrease
flow through each filter.

149

WATER TREATMENT
- Disinfection

Prof. W. Chu

150

75

DISINFECTION
Disinfection is used in water treatment to reduce

pathogens (disease-producing microorganisms) to an

acceptable level.
Disinfection is not the same as sterilization.

Sterilization implies the destruction of all living

organisms. Drinking water need not be germ-free.
Three categories of human enteric pathogens are

normally of consequence: bacteria, viruses, and

amoebic cysts. Purposeful disinfection must be
capable of destroying all three.
151

Water disinfectants

They must destroy the kinds and numbers of pathogens that may be introduced
into water within a practicable period of time over an expected range in water
temperature.

They must meet possible fluctuations in composition, concentration, and

condition of the waters or wastewaters to be treated.

They must be neither toxic to humans and domestic animals nor unpalatable or
otherwise objectionable in required concentrations.

They must be dispensable at reasonable cost and safe and easy to store,
transport, handle, and apply.

Their strength or concentration in the treated water must be determined easily,

quickly, and (preferably) automatically.

They must persist within disinfected water in a sufficient concentration to provide

reasonable residual protection against its possible recontamination before used ,
or because this is not a normally attainable property, the disappearance of
residuals must be a warning that recontamination may have taken place.
152

76

Disinfection with Chlorine

Chlorination
The most common chlorine compounds used in wastewater

treatment plants are:

chlorine gas (Cl2) - Gas

calcium hypochlorite (Ca[OCl]2) - Powder

sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl) - Liquid
Calcium and sodium hypochlorite are most often used in very

small treatment plants, such as package plants, where simplicity

and safety are far more important than cost.
153

Chemistry of chlorination
When chlorine in the form of Cl2 gas is added to water, two

reactions take place: hydrolysis and ionization.

Hydrolysis may be defined as:

Cl2 (g) + H2O H+ + HOCl +Cl-

(Hypochlorous acid)

Ionization may be defined as:

HOCl H+ + OCl-

(Ka = 3 x 10-8)

(Hypochlorite ion)

The sum of HOCl and OCl- is called the free available chlorine

and is the primary disinfectant employed.

154

77

Hypochlorite salts
Reactions are as follows:

Ca(OCl)2 + 2H2O 2HOCl + Ca(OH)2

NaOCl + H2O HOCl + NaOH

(where HOCl OCl- + H+)
=

[ + ]
[]

and =

155

Dissociation of chlorine is pH
dependent
The relative distribution of these two
species is very important because the
killing efficiency of HOCl is about 40 to
80 times that of OCl-.
Thus, chlorine exists predominantly as
HOCl at pH levels between 4.0 and 6.0.
Below pH 1.0, depending on the chloride
concentration, the HOCl reverts back to
Cl2.
Above pH 7.52, hypochlorite ions (OCl-)
predominate. Hypochlorite ions exist
almost exclusively at levels of pH around
9 and above.

pKa = 7.52
156

78

Mechanism of chlorination
At low concentration, chlorine probably kills microorganisms by

penetrating the cell and reacting with the enzymes and

protoplasm.
At higher concentration, oxidation of the cell wall will destroy the

organism.
Hypochlorous acid (HOCl) is the more effective than the

hypochlorite ion (OCl-) by approximately two orders of

magnitude.

Microorganism kill by disinfectants is assumed to follow the CT

concept, that is, the product of disinfectant concentration (C)

and time (T) yields a constant. CT is widely used as a criteria for
disinfection.

157

Factors that affect disinfection

efficiency of chlorine
1. Form of chlorine
2. pH
3. Concentration
4. Contact time
5. Type of organism
6. Temperature

158

79

Chloramines
The reaction of chlorine with ammonia are of great significance

in water processes as follows:

NH3 + HOCl NH2Cl (monochloramine) + H2O
NH2Cl + HOCl NHCl2 (dichloramine) + H2O
NHCl + HOCl NCl3 (trichloramine) + H2O
Chlorine that exists in water in chemical combination with

ammonia or organic nitrogen compounds is defined as

combined available chlorine.
The proportion of monochloramine, dichloramine and

trichloramine formed depends on the molar ratio of chlorine to

ammonia and the pH of the water.
159

Combined residual chlorination

Combined available chlorine forms have lower oxidation potentials than

free available chlorine forms and, therefore, are less effective as

oxidants. Moreover, they are also less effective disinfectants. In facts,
about 25 times dosage is necessary to obtain equivalent bacterial kills
under the same conditions of pH, temperature and contact time.
The use of combined chlorine as disinfectant has been encouraged by

the evidence that free chlorine contributes to the production of THM

and that chloramines, being less reactive, are less likely to create these
compounds
Although combined chlorine residual is not a good disinfectant, it has

an advantage over free chlorine residual in that it is reduced more

slowly and, there, persist for a longer time in the distribution system.

160

80

Application of combined residual

chlorination
1.

If the water contains sufficient ammonia to produce with added

chlorine a combined available chlorine residual of the desired
magnitude, the application of chlorine alone suffices.

2.

If the water contains too little or no ammonia, the addition of

both chlorine and ammonia is required.

3.

If the water has existing free available chlorine residual, the

addition of ammonia will convert the residual into combined
available residual chlorine. A combined available chlorine
residual should contain little or no free available chlorine.

161

Free residual chlorination

If the water contains no ammonia (or other

nitrogenous materials), the application of

chlorine will yield free residual.
If the water does contain ammonia that

results in the formation of a combined

available chlorine residual, it must be
overcome by applying an excess of chlorine.
162

81

Breakpoint chlorination

163

Application of breakpoint chlorination

The main reason for adding enough chlorine to obtain

a free chlorine residual is that an effective disinfection

can be ensured.
The amount of chlorine that must be added to reach

a desired level of residual is called the chlorine

demand.
The point at which the concentration begins to

increase again is called the breakpoint, and the

dosage required to reach that point is called the
breakpoint dosage
164

82

Chlorine contact tank and chlorine

storage
Chlorine gas cylinder

165

Example: Estimation of required

chlorine residuals
Estimate the chlorine residual that must be

maintained to achieve a coliform count equal to or

less than 200/100 mL in an effluent from an
activated-sludge treatment facility, assuming that the
effluent contains a coliform count of 107/100 mL. The
specified contact time is 30 min.

What will be the required residual to meet the

specified effluent coliform count for a peak hourly

flowrate with a factor of 2.75?

166

83

Solution:

Determine the chlorine residual need to meet the effluent

discharge requirement:

Nt/N0 = (1 + 0.23 CT)-3

CT = 155.8 mg/L.min

For a value of equal to 30 min, C = 155.8/30 = 5.2 mg/L

Determine the residual for the peak hourly flowrate

Cp = 5.2 x 2.75 = 14.3 mg/L

(Collins, 1970)

167

Toxicity of chlorine residuals

Chlorination is one of the most commonly used methods for the

destruction of pathogenic and other harmful organisms that may

endanger human health.
Many organic compounds in wastewater may react with the

chlorine to form toxic compounds that can have long-term

adverse effects on the beneficial uses of the waters to which
they are discharged.
To minimize the effects of these potentially toxic chlorine

residuals on the environment, it has been found necessary to

dechlorinate wastewater treated with chlorine.

168

84

Dechlorination with sulfur dioxide

Sulfur dioxide gas successively removes free chlorine,

monochloramine, dichloramine, nitrogen trichloride, and poly-nchlor compounds.

Reactions with chlorine:

SO2 + H2O HSO3- + H+

HOCl + HSO3- Cl- + SO42- +2H+

(HSO3-: hydrogen sulfide)
2
SO2 + HOCl + H2O Cl + SO4 + 3H+
(SO42- : sulfate)
Reactions with chloramines:

SO2 + H2O HSO3- + H+

NH2Cl + HSO3- + H2O Cl- + SO42- + NH4+ + H+

SO2 + NH2Cl + 2H2O Cl- + SO42- + NH4+ + 2H+

169

Practice of using sulfur dioxide

1.0 mg/L of sulfur dioxide will be required for the dechlorination

of 1.0 mg/L of chlorine residue (expressed as Cl2).

Because the reactions of sulfur dioxide with chlorine and

chloramines are nearly instantaneous, contact time is not

usually a factor and contact chambers are not used, however,
rapid and positive mixing at the point of application is an
absolute requirement.
Excess sulfur dioxide dosages should be avoided not only

because of the chemical wastage but also because of the

oxygen demand exerted by the excess sulfur dioxide.

HSO3- + 0.5O2 SO42- + H+

170

85

Dechlorination with activated carbon

Carbon adsorption for dechlorination provides complete removal

of both combined and free residual chlorine.

Reactions with chlorine:
C + 2Cl2 + 2H2O 4HCl + CO2 (or 4H+ + 4Cl- + CO2)
Reactions with chloramines:
C + 2NH2Cl + 2H2O CO2 + 2NH4+ + 2Cl C + 4NHCl2 + 2H2O CO2 + 2N2 + 8H+ + 8Cl-

171

Practice of using activated carbon

Because granular carbon in column applications has

proved to be very effective and reliable, activated

carbon can be considered where dechlorination is
required.
However, this method is quite expensive. It is

expected that the primary application of activated

carbon for dechlorination will be in situations where
high levels of organic removal are also required.

172

86

Ozonation
Ozone is a pungent-smelling, unstable gas. It is a form of

oxygen in which three atoms of oxygen are combined to form

the molecule O3. Because of its instability, it is generated at the
point of use.

O3 + H2O HO3+ + OH (Hydroxyl Radical at high pH)

Ozone is an extremely reactive oxidant, and it is generally

believed that bacterial kill through ozonation occurs directly

because of cell wall disintegration (cell-lysis).
Ozone is widely used in drinking water treatment in Europe and

is continuing to gain popularity in the US. It is a powerful oxidant,

more powerful even than hypochlorous acid. It has been
reported to be more effective than chlorine in destroying viruses
173
and cysts.

CT values for 99.99% giardia cyst inactivation

Temperature (C)
Chlorine Dioxide
Ozone
Chloramines

0.5
81
4.5
3800

5
54
3
2200

10
40
2.5
1850

15
27
2
1500

20
21
1.5
1100

25
14
1
750

In addition to being a strong oxidant, ozone has the advantage of not

forming THMs or any of the chlorinated DBPs.
Ozone residuals can be acutely toxic to aquatic life forms.
However, because ozone dissipates rapidly, ozone residuals will normally
not be found by the time the effluent is discharged into the receiving water.

174

87

Application of ozone for disinfection

175

176

88

Ultraviolet Radiation
Ultraviolet (UV) light is in the range 200 to 390 nm.
For example: A mercury vapor arc lamp that emits UV at 254 nm

Ultraviolet light is a physical rather than a chemical disinfecting

agent.
Radiation with a wavelength of around 254 nm penetrates the

cell wall of the microorganism and is absorbed by cellular

materials including DNA and RNA, which either prevents
replication or causes death of the cell to occur.
Water must be relatively free from turbidity

177

Ultraviolet Radiation
For practical purposes, the inactivation of bacteria by UV

radiation can be described using first-order kinetics. (dC/dt = -kC)

Because ultraviolet light is not a chemical agent, no toxic

residuals are produced. At present, disinfection with ultraviolet

light is considered to have no adverse or beneficial
environmental impacts.
The depth of light penetration still limits the liquid film thickness

around each lamp to about 50 to 80 mm. Multiple lamps are

used to provide greater coverage.
Its major disadvantages are that it leaves no residual protection

for the distribution system and it is more expensive than

chlorination.

178

89

UV disinfection at Shek Wu Hui STW

179

Typical Water Treatment Plant in HK

180

90

Exercise 1. The chlorine residuals measured when various dosages of chlorine

were added to a wastewater are given below. Determine (a) the breakpoint dosage
and (b) the design dosage to obtain a residual of 0.75 mg/L free available chlorine.
Dosage, mg/L
Residual, mg/L

0.1
0.0

0.5
0.4

1.0
0.8

1.5
0.4

2.0
0.4

2.5
0.9

3.0
1.4

Solution: Breakpoint dosage = 1.75 mg/L;

Design dosage = 2.6 mg/L

181

Exercise 2. Determine the amount of activated carbon that

would be required per year to dechlorinate treated effluent

containing a chlorine residual of 5 mg/L (as Cl2) from a plant
with an average flowrate of 2500 L/d. What dosage of sulfur
dioxide would be required?
Solution:

C + 2Cl2 + 2H2O 4HCl + CO2

Carbon required per year = 5 mg/L /(2x71) x 12 x 2500 L/d x 365 x 1/10 6 mg/kg
= 0.385 kg/y
Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl
SO2 + HOCl + H2O Cl- + SO42- + 3H+
Cl2 + SO2 + 2H2O 2Cl- + SO42- + 4H+
SO2 dosage = 5 mg/L x (64/71) = 4.5 mg/L
182

91

BIOLOGICAL TREATMENT
(Secondary Treatment - mainly for WW)

Prof. W. Chu

183

Secondary Treatment Processes

Secondary treatment
(Biological treatment)
To remove 40 - 50% of the original
suspend solids and most of the
original dissolved organics and
inorganics in order to meet the
minimum standards for
discharge.

184

92

Microorganism in wastewater treatment

Various types of microorganisms are active in the

breakdown of organic matter and resulting a

stabilization of organic waste.
Aerobic organisms require oxygen for their

metabolic processes.
Anaerobic organisms function in the absence of

oxygen and obtain their energy from organic

compounds.
Facultative organisms can function aerobically in

the presence of oxygen or anaerobically in the

absence of oxygen.
The main types of microorganisms encountered in

wastewater treatment are bacteria, protozoa and

algae.
185

Mechanism of biological reaction

In aerobic biological treatment system the

reactions occurring are:

microorganism

cells + CO2 + H2O

Organics (BOD) + O2 + N + P

ism
Cells + O2 microorgan

CO2 + H2O + N + P

Microorganism
BOD
DO
pH 6-8
186

93

Food-to-microorganism ratio
F/M =

daily total mass of substrate applied

per unit biomass

The food-to-microorganism ratio is expressed as

the daily total mass of substrate applied per unit
biomass and is widely used as a measure of the
average process loading for biological treatment
systems.

187

Cell growth
dX
rg X
dt

max S
Ks S

rg = rate of bacterial growth (mass/volume.time)

= specific growth rate (time-1) 1st order
X = concentration of microorganism, (mass/volume)
S = substrate (mass/volume), e.g. BOD
Ks = half rate constant (mass/volume)

dX max SX

dt
Ks S
188

94

Cell yield
dX
dS
Y
dt
dt

where

dS
dt

= the rate of food utilization (mg/l)

Y = decimal fraction of food mass converted to

mg / L biomass
biomass ( mg / L food utilized )
189

Food utilization
dS
1 dX
SX

max
dt
Y dt
Y (k s S )
The factor Y varies depending on the metabolic

pathway used in the conversion process.

Typical values of Y for aerobic reactions are about

0.4 to 0.8 kg biomass per kg of BOD5, while

anaerobic reactions range from 0.08 to 0.2 kg
biomass per kg of BOD5.
190

95

Net sludge growth rate

dX max SX

dt
Ks S
In practice, the above equation is incomplete without considering

the reduction of biomass through endogenous respiration.

Endogenous decay is also taken to be first order in biomass
concentration.

dX max SX

kd X
dt
Ks S
kd = endogenous decay rate (time-1) 1st order

191

Sludge age
Sludge Age (SA)
(or Solids Retention Time (SRT) or Mean Cell

Residence Time (MCRT) )

C

X
dX dt

i.e. The time required to refresh the whole

volume of sludge in the reactor

192

96

Classification of treatment processes

Suspended-growth processes are the biological

treatment processes in which the

microorganisms responsible for the conversion of
the organic matter or other constituents in the
wastewater gases and cell tissue are suspended
within the liquid.
Attached-growth processes are the biological

treatment processes in which the

microorganisms responsible for the conversion of
the organic matter or other constituents in the
wastewater to gases and cell tissue are attached
to some inert medium such as rock, slag, or
specially designed ceramic or plastic materials.
Attached growth treatment processes are also
known as fixed-film processes.

193

Activated Sludge Process

Components:
a. Aeration tank (bio-reactor)
b. Aeration system
c. Final sedimentation tank (Solid-liquid separation)
e. Return activated sludge system
f. Excess activated sludge withdrawal system (to sludge
treatment/disposal)

194

97

Operational principle

Mixed liquor suspended solids

(MLSS)

In practice, wastewater flows continuously into an aeration tank where air is injected to mix the activated
sludge with the wastewater and to supply the oxygen needed for the organisms to break down the organics.

The mixture of activated sludge and wastewater in the aeration tank is called mixed liquor.

The mixed liquor flow from the aeration tank to a secondary classifier where the activated sludge is settled out.

Most of the settled sludge is returned to the aeration tank (and hence is called return sludge) to maintain a
proper population of microbes (F/M ratio) to permit rapid breakdown of the organics.

Because more activated sludge is produced than is desirable in the process, some of the return sludge is
wasted to the sludge handling system for treatment and disposal.
195

Operational principle

In conventional activated sludge systems, the wastewater is typically aerated for 6 to 8

hours in long, rectangular aeration basins.

About 8 m3 of air is provided for each m3 of wastewater treated. Sufficient air is provided
to keep the sludge in suspension. The air is injected near the bottom of the aeration tank
through diffusers or by surface aerators).

The volume of sludge returned to the aeration basin is typically 20 to 30 percent of the
wastewater flow.

The activated sludge process is controlled by wasting a portion of the microorganisms

each day in order to maintain the proper amount of bacteria to efficiently degrade the
BOD5.

A balance is then achieved between growth of new organisms and their removal by
wasting. If too much sludge is wasted, the concentration of bacteria in the mixed liquor
will become too low for effective treatment. If too little sludge is wasted, a large
concentration of bacteria will accumulate and, ultimately, overflow the secondary tank
and flow into the receiving water body.

196

98

Plug Flow

Influent

Effluent

Over
supplied

Oxygen supply

Under
supplied

BOD (Oxygen demand)

197

Complete Mixed

Influent

Effluent
BODe

BODi

Oxygen supply
BOD (Oxygen demand)

198

99

Main design parameters

Hydraulic Retention Time (HRT) and Aeration period

Aeration period is calculated in the same manner as detention time as below:

where (or t) = aeration period or detention time (time)

V = volume of aeration tank (volume)
Q = flow rate (volume/time)
=

BOD loading
BOD loading is usually expressed in terms of grams BOD applied per day per
cubic meter of liquid volume in the aeration tank

BOD loading =

(g/m3.d)

settled wastewater BOD per day

volume of aeration tank

199

Food-to-microorganism ratio (F/M)

The food-to-microorganism ratio is a way of expressing BOD

loading (or BOD removed in some text books) with regard to the
microbial mass in the system.

(or

(0 )
)

(d-1)

Where So = BOD in influent

S = BOD in effluent

F/M = food-to-microorganism ratio, grams of BOD

per day per gram of MLSS

Q = wastewater flow, cubic meters per day

BOD = applied BOD, grams per cubic meter

V = liquid volume of aeration tank, cubic meters

MLSS = mixed liquor suspended solids

200

100

Example:
The designed average daily flow of an extended aeration

package sewage treatment plant is 500 m 3/day with an average

influent BOD5 of 300 mg/L. The design F/M ratio is 0.1/d and the
operating MLSS is 3,000 mg/L. Determine the volume of
aeration tank and BOD loading of aeration tank.
Solution:
V=

QBOD
500 m 3 / d x 300 g/m 3

500m 3
( F / M ) MLSS
0.1 /d x 3000 g/m 3

3
3
BOD loading = QBOD = 500 m / d x 300 g / m 300 g / d / m3
3

500 m

201

Sludge age or mean cell residence time

Sludge age (c) =

MLSS x V
SS e x Q e + SS w x Q w

where c = sludge ate or mean cell residence time, days

SSe = suspended solids in wastewater effluent, mg/L

SSw = suspended solids in waste sludge, mg/L

Qe = quantity of wastewater effluent, m3/d

Qw = quantity of waste sludge, m3/d

202

101

Typical data of operational parameters

for activated sludge process
BOD
loading
(g/m3.d)
500-600

F/M
(1/d)

c
(d)

0.2-0.5

5-15

Aeration
period
(h)
6.0-7.5

Return sludge BOD

rates
removal
(%)
(%)
20-40
80-90

203

Kinetics in completely mixed with

recycle system

204

102

Mass Balance
Assumptions;
1. The influent and effluent biomass concentrations
are negligible compared to biomass at other
points in the system.
2. The influent food concentration S0 is immediately
diluted to the reactor concentration S
because of the complete-mix regime.
3. All reactions occur in the reactor; i.e., neither
biomass production nor food utilization occurs
in the clarifier.

205

(0 )
(1 + )

206

103

Aeration of activated sludge

An oxygen concentration of 1.5 to 2.5 mg/l is necessary to

maintain effective treatment, and reduction below this range can

cause problems.
A suitable design target value when using air at atmospheric

pressure as an oxygen source is 2 mg/l.

207

Mixing requirements
Although the obvious primary function of an aeration

device is to induce an oxygen transfer into the liquid,

other important functions in activated sludge systems
or aerated lagoon systems is to keep the waste solids
and biological flocs in suspension, and to provide for
mixing of the contents of the aeration tank, thus
blending the feed with the aeration mixture.
These other functions sometimes influent the layout

of the device, and sometimes are the critical feature

of the design.
208

104

Diffused air aeration

209

Air diffuser
Porous diffusers produce many bubbles of approximately 2.0 to 2.5 mm in

diameter and is more efficient with respect to oxygen transfer, because of

the large surface area per volume of air. However, head loss through the
small pores necessities greater compression of the air and thus greater
energy requirements.
non-porous diffuser (coarse bubble diffuser) inject fewer bubbles of a

larger (up to 25 mm diameter) size, which offer less maintenance and lower
head loss, but poorer oxygen transfer efficiencies.

210

105

Mechanical surface aerators

Floating surface aerator

211

Operating requirement of activated

sludge processes
Organic loading rate, as expressed by F/M ratio, is affected by

both the rates at which organic matter as measured by BOD is

added to the aeration tank, and the mass of MLVSS brought into
contact with that organic matter.
Both average and peak rates of loading are important to

consistent plant performance, so that care should be taken to

keep flow rates as uniform as possible and to ensure that
primary sedimentation tanks perform efficiently.

212

106

Some operational problems with

activated sludge processes

Sludge bulking usually results form the growth of filamentous forms of sludge
microorganisms and may be the consequence of either a deficiency in nutrient
concentration, especially nitrogen (high carbohydrate wastes), or a low DO
concentration in the aeration tanks. Poor effluent clarification and loss of sludge
solids in the effluent may result.

Normal Activated Sludge

with Low SVI

Filamentous Bulking
Activated Sludge with High SVI

213

Variation of activated sludge

processes
Extended Aeration
Short-term Aeration or High-rate Activated Sludge
Contact Stabilization Process
High-purity Oxygen Activated Sludge Systems
Sequencing Batch Reactor (SBR)
Intermittent Decanting Extended Aeration (IDEA)
Oxidation or Stabilization Ponds
214

107

Conventional activated sludge process

BOD
loading
(g/m3.d)
500-600

F/M
(1/d)

c
(d)

0.2-0.5

5-15

Aeration
period
(h)
6.0-7.5

Return sludge BOD

rates
removal
(%)
(%)
20-40
80-90

215

Modified activated sludge processes

216

108

Extended Aeration
Extended Aeration is a
completely mixed
process operated at a
long hydraulic
detention time and
high sludge age c.

Conventional

Extended aeration

Large flows

Small flows

HRT 6 8 h

HRT 18 36 h

F/M 0.2 0.4

F/M 0.04 0.15

Sludge age 5 15 d

Sludge age > 15 d

MLSS 1500 3000 mg/L

MLSS 3000 6000 mg/L

BOD removed 80 90%

BOD removed 85 95%

217

Application of Extended Aeration

The process is limited in application to small flow

where its inefficiency is outweighed by its stability

and simplicity of operation.
Many extended aeration plants are prefabricated

units (package plants) which require little more than

foundations and electrical and hydraulic connections.

In

selecting or specifying package plants the

engineer should give careful consideration to the
quality and capacity of pumps, motors, and blowers
(compressors) as well as the capacity of the system.

218

109

Oxidation Ditch

Low rate, suspended growth system

Can be operated intermittently or continuously.
Continuous operation requires secondary
clarifiers.
Loading rates = 0.16~0.24 kg BOD/m3day
Useful for small communities; but large space
required.

219

Short-term Aeration or High-rate

Activated Sludge
Short-term Aeration or High-rate Activated Sludge is

a pre-treatment process similar in application to a

roughing filter. (HRT = 1-2 h)
Retention times and sludge ages are low, which

leads to a poor quality effluent and relatively high

solids production.
This process has potential application as the first

stage of a two-stage process designed for biological

nitrification.
220

110

Comparison of 3 activated processes

Parameter

High rate

Conventional

Extended
aeration

F/M

High

Medium

Low

HRT

Short

Medium

Long

SRT

Short

Medium

Long

Reaction rate

High

Medium

Low

Effluent quality

Poor

Good

Better

221

Trickling Filter (TF)

Rotary distributor & underdrain system

- Influent wastewater is pumped up a vertical riser to a rotary distributor for spreading
uniformly over the filter surface.
- Rotary arms are driven by the wastewater flow out of the distributor nozzles.
- Underdrains carry away the effluent and permit circulation of air.
Stone-media trickling filter
- The most common media are crushed rock, slag or field stone (durable, insoluble, and
resistant to spalling)
- The size range for stone media is 75 - 125 mm diameter
- Bed depth range is 1.5 to 2 m
Plastic media
Plastic media have considerable advantages over traditional stone media
- The voidage is >90%
- The surface area per unit volume is 3 - 6 times higher

222

111

Operational principle

- The wastewater is sprayed over a bed of crushed rock

- Microbial films on the fixed media are produced.

- As the wastewater flows over the slime layer, organic

matter and dissolved oxygen are extracted, and
metabolic end products such as carbon dioxide are
released.

- Dissolved oxygen in the liquid is supplied by absorption

from the air in the voids surrounding the filter media.

- An important element in trickling filter operation is the

provision for return of a portion of the effluent to flow
through the filter. This practice is called recirculation.

Settled sewage + O2

Bacteria

CO2 + New bacterial cells

223

Recirculation

Recirculation is practiced in trickling filter for the following reasons:

- To increase contact efficiency by bringing the waste into contact more than once with active
biological material.
- To dampen variations in loading over a 24-hour period. The recirculated flow neutralize the
strength of the incoming wastewater. Thus, recirculation dilutes strong influent and
supplements weak influent.
- To raise the DO of the influent
- To improve distribution over the surface (due to higher flow), thus reducing the tendency to
clog and also reduce filter files.
- To prevent the biological slimes from drying out and drying during night time periods when
flows may be too low to keep the filter wet continuously.

224

112

Operational parameters
BOD loading = Settled wastewater BOD/Volume of filter media

BOD loading =

Settled wastewater BOD

Volume of filter media

Where BOD loading = g/m3.d

Settled BOD = raw wastewater BOD remaining after primary

Volume of media = volume of stone in the filters, m 3

The ratio of the returned flow to the incoming flow is called the

recirculation ratio.

R = QR

Q
where

R = recirculation ratio

225

Typical Loading for Trickling Filters

BOD loading
(g/m3.d)
Hydraulic loading (m3/m2.d)
Recirculation ratio (R)

High Rate
500 - 1500

Two Stage
700 - 1100

10 - 30
0.5 - 3.0

10 - 30
0.5 - 4.0

226

113

Trickling filters in STW

227

Bio-tower (i.e. Deep TF)

228

114

Nature of bio-towers
Bio-towers have several advantages over classical trickling filters:
The porosity and nature of the packing allow greater loading

rates and virtually eliminate plugging problems.

Increased ventilation minimizes odour problems under most

operating conditions.
The compact nature of the reactor allows for economical

housing.
Disadvantages include a relatively high pumping cost necessitated
by the large recycle requirement and the head loss through the
deep bed.
229

Design of bio-towers
The most commonly used formula was proposed by Eckenfelder

and is of the form:

kD

Se
e Q
S0

A n

where Se = effluent substrate concentration, BOD5, mg/L

So = influent substrate concentration, BOD5, mg/L
D = depth of the medium, m
Q/A = hydraulic loading rate, m3/m2.min
k = treatability constant relating to the wastewater and
the medium characteristics, min-1
n = coefficient relating to the medium characteristics

The values of the treatability constant k range from 0.01 to 0.1.

Average values for municipal wastewater on modular plastic media are
around 0.06 at 20C. (design based on critical condition: e.g. Winter)

kT = k20(1.035)T-20
230

115

Biotower/biofilter with recirculation

Most systems apply recirculation, the equation for a

recirculation system must be modified as follows:

+
( )

+
( )

Sa = the BOD5 of the mixture of raw and recycled mixture

applied to the medium

R = ratio of the recycled flow to the influent flow.

(Q+Qr)/A = hydraulic loading rate, m 3/m2.min

231

Bio-tower applications

232

116

Rotating Biological Contactors (RBC)

Structure and operation of RBC
- A rotating biological contactor (RBC) is constructed of bundles of plastic packing
attached radially to a shaft, forming a cylinder of media.
- The shaft is placed over a contour-bottomed tank
- The media are submerged approximately 40 %
- During submergence, wastewater can enter the voids in the packing
- When rotated out of the tank, the liquid trickles out of the voids between the surfaces
and is replaced by air.
- Altering exposure to organics in the wastewater and oxygen in the air.
- Excess biofilm drops from the media is carried out in the effluent for sedimentation

233

Typical design data for RBC

The spacing between sheets in the media used is 19 mm for BOD removal and
12 mm for nitrification

The disks are 3.7 m in diameter and operate at 40 percent submergence

The operating speed is 1.5 rpm

The peripheral velocity is 17.4 m/min for a 3.66-m diameter cylinder

Typical recommendations for domestic wastewater treatment to produce an

effluent of <30 mg/L of BOD and <30 mg/L of SS are:

Average organic loading is 7.5 g/m 2.d of soluble BOD or 15 g/m2.d of total BOD

Maximum loading on the first stage is 30 g/m 2.d of soluble BOD or 60 g/m2.d of
total BOD

A temperature correction for additional RBC surface area of 15 % for each 2.8C
below a design wastewater temperature of 13C
234

117

A rotating biological contact unit

235

Advantage and disadvantage of RBC

The process appears to be suitable for the treatment of municipal

wastewater; it has a large surface area for biofilm growth. This large
amount of biomass permits shorter contact time, maintains a secondary
treatment standards.
Recirculating effluent through the reactor is not necessary.
The sloughed biomass is relatively dense and settles well in the

secondary clarifier. Other advantages include low power requirement

and simple operating procedures.
Disadvantage of the system include a lack of documented operating

experience, high capital cost, high shaft loading, and sensitivity to

temperature.
Covers must be provided to protect the media form damage by the

elements and from excessive algal growths. Adequate housing also

helps to minimize temperature problem in colder climates.
236

118

SLUDGE TREATMENT

Prof. W. Chu

237

Where are sludges generated?

238

119

Screenings
Screenings include all

types of organic and

inorganic materials
large enough to be
removed on bar racks.
The organic content

varies, depending on
the nature of the system
and the season of the
year.
239

Grit
Grit is usually made up of the heavier

inorganic solids that settle

relatively high velocities.

with

The sand, broken glass, nuts, bolts,

and other dense material that is

collected in the grit chamber is not
true sludge in the sense that it is not
fluid.
However, it still requires
disposal.
Because grit can be drained of water

easily and is relatively stable to

biological activity, it is generally
trucked directly to a landfill without
further treatment.
240

120

Scum/grease
Scum consists of the floatable materials skimmed

from the surface of primary and secondary settling

tanks and from grit chambers and chlorine contact
tanks, if so equipped.
Scum may contain grease, vegetable and mineral

oils, animal fats, wax, soaps, food waste, vegetable

and fruit skin, hair, paper and cotton, cigarette tips,
plastic materials, condom, grit particles, and similar
material.
The specific gravity of scum is less than 1.0 and

usually around 0.95.

241

Primary sludge
Sludge from the bottom of the primary clarifiers

is usually gray, containing from 3 to 8 percent

solids (1 percent solids = 10,000 mg/L) and is
approximately 70% organic.
This sludge rapidly becomes anaerobic and is

highly odorous.

242

121

Secondary sludge
Activated sludge generally has brown flocculent appearance. If

the colour is dark, the sludge may be approaching a septic

condition. If the colour is lighter than usual, there may have been
under aeration with a tendency for the solids to settle slowly.
Sludge in good condition has an inoffensive earthy odour. The

sludge tends to become septic rapidly and then has a

disagreeable odour of decomposition. Activated sludge will
digest readily alone or when mixed with primary sludge.

243

Secondary sludge
Humus sludge from trickling filters is brownish, flocculent, and

relatively inoffensive than fresh. It generally undergoes

decomposition more slowly than other undigested sludges.
When trickling-filter sludge contains many worms, if may
become inoffensive quickly and digests readily.
The secondary sludges are about 90% organic and the solids

content depends on the source.

Wasted activated sludge is typically 0.5 to 2% solids, while

trickling filter sludge contains 2 to 5% solids.

In some cases, secondary sludges contain large quantities of

chemical precipitates because the aeration tank is used as the

reaction basin for the addition of chemicals to remove
phosphorus.
244

122

Concentrations of different sludges

Source
Primary sludge, without thickening
Waste activated sludge
Waste trickling filter sludge
Digested sludge
Dewatered sludge

Typical concentration, %
2-7
0.5-1.5
1-5
4-10
12-50

Solid content of 1% = 10,000 mg/L

245

Sludge Treatment
Raw sludges are in liquid form and water content needs to be removed
as much as possible.
If sludges contain high fraction of organic contents, it is not biologically
stable.
Thickening

Separation of as much water as possible by gravity or floatation

Stabilization

Conversion of organic solids to more inert forms by digestion, (so

that they do not create odor or cause oxygen demand)
Conditioning
Treatment with heat or chemicals so that water can be more easily
removed
De-watering
Separation of as much water as possible by vacuum, pressure or
246
drying

123

Gravity thickening
Gravity thickening is a simple and inexpensive process that has been

used widely on primary sludges for many years. It is essentially a

sedimentation process similar to that which occurs in all settling
tanks.
Purely primary sludge can be thickened from 1-3% to 10% solids.

247

Thickening Flotation
Flotation involves separation of

solids from the water phase by

attaching the solids to fine air
bubbles to decrease the density
of the particles so that they float
instead of sinking. The rising
solids are called the "float". The
float is skimmed off the surface
and further processed in the
sludge train.

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124

Dissolved-air flotation (DAF) system

In dissolved-air flotation (DAF) systems, air is dissolved in the wastewater under a

pressure of several atmospheres, followed by release of the pressure to the
atmospheric level.

In small pressure systems, the entire flow may be pressurized by means of a pump to
275 to 350 kPa with compressed air added at the pump suction. The entire flow is
held in a retention tank under pressure for several minutes to allow time for the air to
dissolve.

In the larger units, a portion of the DAF effluent (15 to 120%) is recycled.

249

Comparison of Flotation with Gravity

Sedimentation
Capital costs are lower for flotation units than for gravity sedimentation.

For the case of activated sludge, allowable overflow rates for flotation
are about double the values for gravity sedimentation, these resulting in
lower capital costs, because the rose velocity of activated sludge by
flotation exceeds the settling velocity by sedimentation.
On the other hand, operating costs are usually higher mainly owing to

the cost of power for air compression.

Higher effluent quality is obtained from flotation units, where solids

removal of the order of 95% or higher are common. Flotation yield can
be considerably improved by addition of coagulants. The most common
coagulants utilized are alum, ferric chloride, and polyelectrolytes.
The current trend is toward using gravity thickening for the primary

sludges and flotation thickening for activated sludges, and then

blending the thickened sludges for further processing.

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125

Sludge Treatment: Thickening

Gravity thickening

Flotation

Especially effective on
activated sludge
Increases solids
content from 0.5 - 1%
to 3-6%

Primary
Sludge

Secondary
Sludge

Best with primary

sludge
Increases solids
content from 1-3% to
10%

Gravity Thickening
Further processing
Flotation
251

Sludge Stabilization (Digestion)

Aims:
inhibit, reduce, or eliminate the potential for
putrefaction
reduce pathogens, and
eliminate offensive odours,
Principal methods:
aerobic digestion;
anaerobic digestion, and
composting.
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126

Aerobic Digestion
Aerobic digestion may be used to treat
(1) waste-activated sludge only,
(2) mixtures of waste-activated sludge or trickling-filter sludge and

primary sludge, or
(3) waste sludge from extended aeration plant.
Aerobic digestion has been used primarily in plants of a size less than

0.2 m3/s, but in recent years the process has been employed in larger
wastewater-treatment plants with capacities up to 2 m 3/s.

253

Aerobic reaction

Aerobic digestion is similar to the

activated-sludge process. As the supply of
available substrate (food) is depleted, the
microorganisms begin to consume their
own protoplasm to obtain energy for cell
maintenance reactions.

Cell tissue is oxidized aerobically to carbon

dioxide, water, and ammonia. In actuality,
only about 75 to 80 percent of the cell
tissue can be oxidized; the remaining 2025 percent is composed of components
and organic compounds that are not
biodegradable.

The ammonia is subsequently oxidized to

nitrate
as
digestion
proceeds.
Nonbiodegradable
volatile suspended
solids will remain in final product from
aerobic digestion.

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127

Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion involves the decomposition of organic and

inorganic matter in the absence of molecular oxygen.

In the anaerobic digestion process, the organic material in

mixture of primary settled and biological sludges is converted

biologically, under anaerobic conditions, to a variety of products
including methane (CH4) and carbondioxide (CO2).
The process is carried out in an airtight reactor. Sludge,

introduced continuously or intermittently, is retained in the

reactor for varying periods of time.
The stabilized sludge, withdrawn from the reactor, is reduced in

organic and pathogen content.

255

Reaction Mechanisms
(1) Hydrolysis Process
conversion of insoluble high
molecular compounds (lignin,
carbohydrates, fats) to lower
molecular compounds;
(2) Acidogenesis Process

conversion of soluble lower

molecular components of fatty
acids, amino acids and sugars
(monosaccharides) to lower
molecular intermediate products
(volatile
acids,
alcohol,
ammonia, H2 and CO2), and
(3) Methanogenesis Process

conversion of volatile acids &

intermediate products to final
product of methane and CO2.
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128

Solids and Hydraulic Retention Times

Anaerobic digester sizing is based on providing sufficient

residence time in well-mixed reactors to allow significant

desctruction of volatile suspended solids (VSS) to occur.
Sizing criteria that have been used are (1) solids retention time

(SRT), the average time, the solids are held in the digestion
process, and (2) the hydraulic retention time (HRT), the average
time, the liquid is held in the digestion process.
For digestion systems without recycle SRT = HRT.
There is a minimum SRT for each reaction. If the SRT is less

than the minimum SRT, bacteria cannot grow rapidly enough

and the degestions process will fail eventually.
257

Temperature
Most anaerobic digestion systems are designed to operate in

the mesophilic temerature range between 30 and 38C.

Other systems are designed for operation in the thermophilic

temperature range of 50 and 57C.

While

selection of the design operating temperature is

important, maintaining a stable operating temperature is more
important because the bacteria, especially the methane formers,
are sensitive to temperature changes.

Generally, temperature changes greater than 1C/d affect

process performance, and thus changes less than 0.5C are

recommended.
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129

Single-stage digestion (Standard Rate)

Standard-rate process does not employ sludge

mixing, but rather the digester contents are allowed
to stratify into zones.

Sludge feeding and withdrawal are intermittent

rather than continuous.

Retention time ranges between 30 and 60 days for

heated digesters.

Organic loading rate is between 0.48 and 1.6 kg

total volatile solids per m3 of digester volume per
day.

Major disadvantage of the standard-rate process is

the large tank volume required because of long
retention times, low loading rates, and thick scum
layer formation.

Systems of this type are generally used only at

treatment plants having a capacity of 0.04 m 3/s or
less.

259

Two-stage digestion

The high-rate system evolved as a result of continuing efforts to improve the

standard-rate unit, In this process, two digesters operating in series separate
the functions of fermentation and solids/liquid separation.

Retention time: 10-15 d;

Organic loading rate: 1.6-2.2 kg/m3.d
260

130

Two-stage digesters

261

Gas production
Total gas production is usually estimated from the percentage of

volatile solids reduction.

Typical values vary from 0.75 to 1.12 m3/kg of volatile solids

destroyed.
Gas production can fluctuate over a wide range, depending on

the volatile solids content of the sludge feed and the biological
activity in the digester.
Excessive gas production rates sometime occur during startup

and may cause foaming and escape of foam and gas from
around the edges of floating digester covers.

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131

Gas use
Methane gas at standard temperature and pressure (20C and 1 atm) has a

low heating value of 35,800 kJ/m3. Because digester gas is only 65 percent
methane, the lower heating value of digester gas is approximately 22,400
kJ/m3.
In larger plants, digester gas may be used as fuel for boiler and internal-

combustion engines which are, in turn, used for pumping wastewater,

operating blowers, and generating electricity.
Hot water from heating boilers or from engine jackets and exhaust heat boilers

may be used for sludge heating and for building heating, or gas-fired sludgeheating boilers may be used.

Because digester gas contains hydrogen sulfide, nitrogen, particulates, and

water vapor, the gas frequently has to be cleaned in dry or wet scrubbers
before it is used in internal-combustion engines.
263

Sludge Conditioning (Pretreatment of dewatering)

Chemical conditioning

One of the most commonly used is the addition of coagulants such as

ferric chloride, lime, or organic polymers. Ash from incinerated
sludge has also found used as a conditioning agent.
In recent years, organic polymers have become increasingly popular for

sludge conditioning. Polymers are easy to handle, require little storage

space, and are very effective. The conditioning chemicals are injected
into the sludge just before the dewatering process and are mixed with
the sludge.

264

132

Heat treatment
Another conditioning approach is to heat the sludge at high

temperatures (175 to 230C) and pressures (1,000 to 2,000

kPa).
Under these conditions, much like those of a pressure cooker,

water that is bound up in the solids is released, improving the

dewatering characteristics of the sludge.
Heat treatment has the advantage of producing a sludge that

dewaters better than chemically conditioned sludge.

The process has the disadvantages of relatively complex

operation and maintenance and the creation of highly polluted

cooking liquors that when recycled to the treatment plant impose
a significant added treatment burden.
265

Sludge dewatering
Sludge drying beds
Vacuum filtration
Filter press
Centrifugation

266

133

Sludge drying bed

1). Pump 0.20 to 0.30 m of stabilized liquid sludge onto the drying bed surface.
2). Add chemical conditioners continuously, if conditioners are used, by
injection into the sludge as it is pumped onto the bed.
3). When the bed is filled to the desired level. allow the sludge to dry to the
desired final solids concentration. (2-3 months)
4). Remove the dewatered sludge either mechanically or manually.
5). Repeat the cycle.

267

Sludge drying beds

268

134

Vacuum filtration
Vacuum

filtration is a mechanical
sludge dewatering process whereby a
liquid slurry is pumped to a small
holding tank where a rotating drum
filter collects solids through a vacuum
pressure differential.

The major components of the vacuum

system are the sludge pumping system,

sludge conditioning system, vacuum
filter,
dewatered
sludge
hopper/conveyor, utility water system,
filtrate handling system and solids
storage area.

269

Vacuum filtration
The vacuum filter can be applied to digested sludge

to produce a sludge cake dry enough (15 to 30%)

solids to handle and dispose of by burial in a landfill
or by application to the land as a relatively dry
fertilizer.
If the sludge is to be incinerated, it is not stabilized.

In this case, the vacuum filter is applied to the raw

sludge to dewater it. The sludge cake is then fed to
the furnace to be incinerated.
270

135

Continuous belt filter press (CBFP)

271

Belt filter press

272

136

Plate filter press

A filter comprises a set of vertical,

juxtaposed recessed plates, presses
against each other by hydraulic jacks
at one end of the set.

Orifices feed the sludge to be filtered

under pressure in the filtration
chamber. They are usually placed in
the center of the plates allowing a
proper distribution of flow, right
pressure and better drainage of
sludge within the chamber.

Solids sludge gradually accumulates

in the filtration chamber until the final
compacted cake is formed.

The filtrate is collected at the back of

the filtration support and carried away
by
internal
ducts.
273

Plate filter presses

274

137

Centrifugation
Centrifugation is another mechanical

means
of
dewatering
sludge.
Centrifuges typically increases the
solids concentration of sludge to
approximately 22 to 30%.
The separation of a liquid-solids slurry

during a centrifugal process is similar to

the separating process in a gravity
thickener.
For the purpose of wastewater sludge

dewatering, the sludge is chemically

treated to increase particle size. Once
the sludge is thoroughly mixed and
correct polymerization is achieved, it is
fed into the centrifuge where the water,
or centrate, is separate from the sludge
through the creation of centrifugal force.

275

Dried sludge storage

Before dewatering

After dewatering
276

138

Sludge from chemical precipitation

Sludge from chemical precipitation with metal salts is usually

dark in colour, though its surface may be red if it contains much

iron.
Lime sludge is grayish-brown. The odour of chemical sludge

may be objectionable, but is not as objectionable as the odour of

primary sludge.
While chemical sludge is somewhat slimy, the hydrate of iron or

aluminum in it makes it gelatinous.

If the sludge is left in the tank, it undergoes decomposition

similar to primary sludge but at a lower rate.

Substantial quantities of gas may be given off and the sludge

density increased by long residence times in storage.

277

Waste Management

Prof. W. Chu

278

139

Waste Management
Waste management is the collection,

transport, processing or disposal, managing

and monitoring of waste materials.
Waste management usually relates to
materials produced by human activity, and
the process is generally undertaken to reduce
their effect on health, the environment or
aesthetics.
Waste management is different from resource
recovery which focuses on delaying the rate
of consumption of natural resources.

279

Flow of materials

280

140

Types of solid waste

Municipal solid waste (Household Waste):

household waste, construction and demolition

debris, sanitation residue, and waste from
streets.
Hazardous wastes (Industrial wastes): may
contain toxic substances.
Hospital waste (Biomedical waste): generated
during the diagnosis, treatment, or
immunization of people/animals.
281

Methods of disposal
Landfill
Incineration
Recycling
Sustainability
Resource recovery
Waste reduction

282

141

Landfill
Disposal of waste in a landfill remains a

common practice in most countries.

Poorly designed/managed landfills can create
a number of adverse environmental impacts
such as wind-blown litter, attraction of vermin,
and generation of liquid leachate.
Landfill gas (mostly methane and carbon
dioxide) is produced as organic waste breaks
down anaerobically. This gas can create odor
problems and is a greenhouse gas.

283

Landfill Design
Use clay or plastic lining material to contain

leachate, and use perforated pipes to collect

and the leachate for further treatment.
Deposited waste is normally compacted to
increase its density and stability, and covered
to prevent attracting vermin (rats).
Landfill gas extraction systems is required by
pumping it out and flared off or burnt in a gas
engine to generate electricity.
284

142

Landfill Design

285

Incineration
Incineration is a disposal method in which

solid organic wastes are converted into heat,

gas, steam and ash.
This method reduces the volumes of solid
waste to 20 to 30 percent of the original
volume.
It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and
gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical
method of disposing of hazardous waste
materials (such as biological medical waste).
286

143

Incineration
Incineration is common in countries where

land is more scarce.

Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste
(EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn
waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat,
steam or electricity.
Particular concern has focused on some very
persistent organics such as dioxins, furans,
PAHs which may be created which may have
serious environmental consequences.
287

Incineration

288

144

Recycling
Recycling is to collect and reuse of waste

materials such as empty beverage

containers.
The materials from which the items are made
can be reprocessed into new products.
They need to be collected separately from
general waste using dedicated bins and
collection vehicles.
It requires the owner of the waste to separate
it into various different bins prior to its
collection.

289

Recycling
The common recycled products include

aluminium (beverage cans), copper (wire),

steel, food, aerosol cans, polyethylene/PET
bottles, glass bottles, papers/boxes.
PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS are also recyclable.
These items are usually composed of a single
material, making them relatively easy to
recycle into new products.
The recycling of complex products (electronic
equipment, computers) is more difficult.
290

145

Recycling (resin identification code)

291

Sustainability
The management of waste is a key

component in a business' ability to maintain

ISO14001 accreditation.
Companies are encouraged to improve their
environmental efficiencies by eliminating
waste through resource recovery practices
(sustainability-related activities). E.g.
recycling materials such as glass, food
scraps, paper and cardboard, plastic bottles
and metal.
292

146

Resource recovery
Resource recovery (as opposed to waste

management) uses LCA (life cycle analysis)

to optimize the waste management.
E.g. for mixed MSW (Municipal Solid Waste),
following paths are recommended:

non-organic MSW: source separation

collection reuse and recycling
organic MSW: source separation collection
compost/fertilizer production of the organic
material via anaerobic digestion
293

Resource recovery
The waste generation is linked to the life-cycle of products and
materials. (cradle-to-grave)

294

147

Waste reduction
reuse of second-hand products
repaire broken items instead of buying new
design products to be refillable or reusable

(plastic shopping bags)

avoid disposable products (cup, plate..),
design products use less material to achieve
the same purpose

295

Waste management concepts

"3 Rs" reduce, reuse and recycle - to extract

the maximum practical benefits from products

and to generate the minimum amount of
waste.
Polluter pays principle - waste generator pay
for the appropriate disposal of the
unrecoverable material.

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148