NAME DUSHYANT

CLASS XIIth A
ROLL NO SUBJECT BIOLOGY
INVESTIGATORY
PROJECT
LAXMI
INTERNATIONAL
SCHOOL

Certificate

INDEX

S.
Topic
No
.
1. Acknowledgem
ent
2. Introduction
3. Presentation
4.
Conclusion
5. Bibliography

Page
No.
1
23
4-

ACHKNOWLEGEM
ENT
I would like to convey our sincere
gratitude to our Biology teacher
for letting us to do this project. I
would like to thank my friends for
helping me in this project and a
special thanks to Mrs. Chavvi
mam (Biology teacher) for
guiding throughout the project. I
sincerely have worked hard to
complete this project. I tried to
make this project as Good as
possible. Last but not least I
would like to thank my classmate
and parents for their valuable
suggestion about this project.

Submitted to: Mrs Chavvi

mam

INTRODUCTION
What are microbes?
What are microbes? A microorganism or
microbe is a microscopic organism that
comprises either a single cell (unicellular),
cell clusters, or multicellular relatively
complex organisms. The study of
microorganisms is called microbiology, a
subject that began with Anton van
Leeuwenhoek's discovery of microorganisms
in 1675, using a microscope of his own
design. Microorganisms are very diverse;
they include bacteria, fungi, algae, and

protozoa; microscopic plants (green algae);

and animals such as rotifers and planarians.
Some microbiologists also include viruses,
but others consider these as nonliving. Most
microorganisms are unicellular (singlecelled), but this is not universal, since some
multicellular organisms are microscopic,
while some unicellular protists and bacteria,
like Thiomargarita namibiensis, are
macroscopic and visible to the naked eye.
Microorganisms live in all parts of the
biosphere where there is liquid water,
including soil, hot springs, on the ocean
floor, high in the atmosphere and deep
inside rocks within the Earth's crust.
Microorganisms are critical to nutrient
recycling in ecosystems as they act as
decomposers. As some microorganisms can
fix nitrogen, they are a vital part of the
nitrogen cycle, and recent studies indicate
that airborne microbes may play a role in
precipitation and weather. Microbes are also
exploited by people in biotechnology, both in
traditional food and beverage preparation,
and in modern technologies based on

genetic engineering. However, pathogenic

microbes are harmful, since they invade and
grow within other organisms, causing
diseases that kill humans, other animals and
plants. But they have a lot of uses too. Lets
discuss about some of them.
A little description:
A little description Microorganisms are vital
to humans and the environment, as they
participate in the Earth's element cycles
such as the carbon cycle and nitrogen cycle,
as well as fulfilling other vital roles in
virtually all ecosystems, such as recycling
other organisms' dead remains and waste
products through decomposition. Microbes
also have an important place in most higherorder multicellular organisms as symbionts.
Many blame the failure of Biosphere 2 on an
improper balance of microbes.

PRESENTATION
Microbes are very important part of ecology
the main or general function of microbes to
or environmental well fare is to work as
decomposers. Microbes like bacteria and
fungi are also used in industrial production of
enzymes and proteins or some antibiotics.
Some fungi like yeast are also used in
making wine and other in dairy products.
The another useful function of microbe is to
study the action and mechanisms of genetic
disease as E.coli is many time taken as
model to study genetic diseases.

Uses in food:
Uses in food Microorganisms are used in brewing,
winemaking, baking, pickling and other foodmaking processes. They are also used to control
the fermentation process in the production of
cultured dairy products such as yogurt and
cheese. The cultures also provide flavour and
aroma, and inhibit undesirable organisms.
Fermentation in food processing typically is the
conversion of carbohydrates to alcohols and
carbon dioxide or organic acids using yeasts,
bacteria, or a combination thereof, under
anaerobic conditions. Fermentation in simple
terms is the chemical conversion of sugars into
ethanol. The science of fermentation is also
known as zymology, or zymurgy. Fermentation
usually implies that the action of microorganisms
is desirable, and the process is used to produce
alcoholic beverages such as wine, beer, and
cider. Fermentation is also employed in the
leavening of bread (CO 2 produced by yeast
activity), and for preservation techniques to
produce lactic acid in sour foods such as
sauerkraut, dry sausages, kimchi and yogurt, or
vinegar (acetic acid) for use in pickling foods.

Uses in water treatment:

Uses in water treatment Specially-cultured
microbes are used in the biological treatment of
sewage and industrial waste effluent, a process
known as bioaugmentation. Bioaugmentation is
the introduction of a group of natural microbial
strains or a genetically engineered variant to
treat contaminated soil or water. Usually the
steps involve studying the indigenous varieties
present in the location to determine if
biostimulation is possible. If the indigenous
variety do not have the metabolic capability to
perform the remediation process, exogenous
varieties with such sophisticated pathways are
introduced. Bioaugmentation is commonly used
in municipal wastewater treatment to restart
activated sludge bioreactors. Most cultures
available contain a research based consortium of
Microbial cultures, containing all necessary
microorganisms ( B. licheniformis , B.

thurengensis , P. polymyxa , B.
sterothemophilus , Penicillium sp., Aspergillus
sp., Flavobacterium, Arthrobacter, Pseudomonas,
Streptomyces, Saccaromyces, Triphoderma,
etc.). Whereas activated sludge systems are
generally based on microorganisms like bacteria,
protozoa, nematodes, rotifers and fungi capable
to degrade bio degradable organic matter.

Uses in energy:

Uses in energy Microbes are used in

fermentation to produce ethanol, and in
biogas reactors to produce methane.
Scientists are researching the use of algae to
produce liquid fuels, and bacteria to convert
various forms of agricultural and urban
waste into usable fuels. Ethanol fermentation
, also referred to as alcoholic fermentation ,
is a biological process in which sugars such
as glucose, fructose, and sucrose are
converted into cellular energy and thereby
produce ethanol and carbon dioxide as
metabolic waste products. Because yeasts
perform this conversion in the absence of
oxygen, ethanol fermentation is classified as
anaerobic. Ethanol fermentation occurs in

the production of alcoholic beverages and

ethanol fuel, and in the rising of bread
dough. Cellulosic ethanol is a biofuel
produced from wood, grasses, or the nonedible parts of plants. It is a type of biofuel
produced from lignocellulose, a structural
material that comprises much of the mass of
plants. Lignocellulose is composed mainly of
cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin. Corn
stover, switchgrass, miscanthus, woodchips
and the by products of lawn and tree
maintenance are some of the more popular
cellulosic materials for ethanol production.
Production of ethanol from lignocellulose has
the advantage of abundant and diverse raw
material compared to sources like corn and
cane sugars, but requires a greater amount
of processing to make the sugar monomers
available to the microorganisms that are
typically used to produce ethanol by
fermentation.

Algae fuel is an alternative to fossil fuel that

uses algae as its source of natural deposits.
Several companies and government
agencies are funding efforts to reduce
capital and operating costs and make algae
fuel production commercially viable.
Harvested algae, like fossil fuel, release CO 2
when burnt but unlike fossil fuel the CO 2 is
taken out of the atmosphere by the growing
algae. High oil prices, competing demands
between foods and other biofuel sources,
and the world food crisis, have ignited
interest in algaculture (farming algae) for
making vegetable oil, biodiesel, bioethanol,
biogasoline, biomethanol, biobutanol and
other biofuels, using land that is not suitable
for agriculture.

Among algal fuels' attractive characteristics:

they can be grown with minimal impact on
fresh water resources, can be produced
using ocean and wastewater, and are
biodegradable and relatively harmless to the
environment if spilled. Algae cost more per
unit mass (as of 2010, food grade algae
costs ~$5000/tonne), due to high capital and
operating costs, yet are claimed to yield
between 10 and 100 times more fuel per unit
area than other second-generation biofuel
crops. One biofuels company has claimed
that algae can produce more oil in an area
the size of a two car garage than a football
field of soybeans, because almost the entire
algal organism can use sunlight to produce
lipids, or oil. The United States Department
of Energy estimates that if algae fuel

replaced all the petroleum fuel in the United

States, it would require 15,000 square miles
(39,000 km 2 ) which is only 0.42% of the
U.S. map, or about half of the land area of
Maine. This is less than 1 7 the area of corn
harvested in the United States in 2000.
However, these claims remain unrealized,
commercially. According to the head of the
Algal Biomass Organization algae fuel can
reach price parity with oil in 2018 if granted
production tax credits.
Use in production of chemicals,
enzymes etc. :
Use in production of chemicals, enzymes etc.
Many microbes are used for commercial and
industrial production of chemicals, enzymes
and other bioactive molecules. Examples of
organic acid produced include Acetic acid :
Produced by the bacterium Acetobacter aceti
and other acetic acid bacteria (AAB) Acetic
acid bacteria (AAB) are bacteria that derive
their energy from the oxidation of ethanol to
acetic acid during fermentation. They are
Gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped
bacteria. They are not to be confused with
the genus Acetobacterium , which are

anaerobic homoacetogenic facultative

autotrophs and can reduce carbon dioxide to
produce acetic acid, for example,
Acetobacterium woodii .

Butyric acid (butanoic acid): Produced by the

bacterium Clostridium butyricum.

Clostridium butyricum is a strictly anaerobic

endospore-forming Gram-positive butyric
acid producing bacillus subsisting by means
of fermentation using an intracellularly
accumulated amylopectin-like -polyglucan
(granulose) as a substrate. It is uncommonly
reported as a human pathogen and widely
used as a probiotic in Asia (particularly

Japan). C. butyricum is a soil inhabitant in

various parts of the world, has been cultured
from the stool of healthy children and adults,
and is common in soured milk and cheeses.
Lactic acid : Lactobacillus and others
commonly called as lactic acid bacteria (LAB)
The lactic acid bacteria (LAB) comprise a
clade of Gram-positive, low-GC, acidtolerant, generally non-sporulating, nonrespiring rod or cocci that are associated by
their common metabolic and physiological
characteristics.

These bacteria, usually found in

decomposing plants and lactic products,
produce lactic acid as the major metabolic
end-product of carbohydrate fermentation.
This trait has, throughout history, linked LAB
with food fermentations, as acidification
inhibits the growth of spoilage agents.

Proteinaceous bacteriocins are produced by

several LAB strains and provide an additional
hurdle for spoilage and pathogenic
microorganisms. Furthermore, lactic acid and
other metabolic products contribute to the
organoleptic and textural profile of a food
item. The industrial importance of the LAB is
further evinced by their generally recognized
as safe (GRAS) status, due to their
ubiquitous appearance in food and their
contribution to the healthy microflora of
human mucosal surfaces.
Citric acid : Produced by the fungus
Aspergillus niger Aspergillus niger is a
fungus and one of the most common species
of the genus Aspergillus . It causes a disease
called black mold on certain fruits and
vegetables such as grapes, onions, and
peanuts, and is a common contaminant of
food. It is ubiquitous in soil and is commonly
reported from indoor environments, where
its black colonies can be confused with those
of Stachybotrys (species of which have also
been called "black mould").

Microbes are used for preparation of

bioactive molecules and enzymes.
Streptokinase produced by the bacterium
Streptococcus and modified by genetic
engineering is used as a clot buster for
removing clots from the blood vessels of
patients who have undergone myocardial
infarctions leading to heart attack.
Cyclosporin A is a bioactive molecule used as
an immunosuppressive agent in organ
transplantation Stains produced by the yeast
Monascus purpureus is commercialised as
blood cholesterol lowering agents which acts
by competitively inhibiting the enzyme
responsible for synthesis of cholesterol.

Uses in science:
Uses in science Microbes are also essential
tools in biotechnology, biochemistry,
genetics, and molecular biology. The yeasts (
Saccharomyces cerevisiae ) and fission yeast
( Schizosaccharomyces pombe ) are
important model organisms in science, since
they are simple eukaryotes that can be
grown rapidly in large numbers and are
easily manipulated. They are particularly
valuable in genetics, genomics and
proteomics. Microbes can be harnessed for
uses such as creating steroids and treating
skin diseases. Scientists are also considering
using microbes for living fuel cells, and as a
solution for pollution.
Uses in warfare:
Uses in warfare In the Middle Ages, diseased
corpses were thrown into castles during
sieges using catapults or other siege
engines. Individuals near the corpses were
exposed to the deadly pathogen and were
likely to spread that pathogen to others.
Biological warfare (also known as germ
warfare ) is the use of biological toxins or
infectious agents such as bacteria, viruses,

and fungi with intent to kill or incapacitate

humans, animals or plants as an act of war.

Biological weapons (often termed "bioweapons" or "bio-agents") are living

organisms or replicating entities (viruses)
that reproduce or replicate within their host
victims. Entomological (insect) warfare is
also considered a type of biological warfare.
Biological weapons may be employed in
various ways to gain a strategic or tactical
advantage over an adversary, either by
threats or by actual deployments. Like some
of the chemical weapons, biological weapons

may also be useful as area denial weapons.

These agents may be lethal or non-lethal,
and may be targeted against a single
individual, a group of people, or even an
entire population. They may be developed,
acquired, stockpiled or deployed by nation
states or by non-national groups. In the
latter case, or if a nation-state uses it
clandestinely, it may also be considered
bioterrorism.
Importance in human health:
Importance in human health Microorganisms
can form an endosymbiotic relationship with
other, larger organisms. For example, the
bacteria that live within the human digestive
system contribute to gut immunity,
synthesise vitamins such as folic acid and
biotin, and ferment complex indigestible
carbohydrates.

The human microbiome (or human

microbiota ) is the aggregate of
microorganisms that reside on the surface
and in deep layers of skin, in the saliva and
oral mucosa, in the conjunctiva, and in the
gastrointestinal tracts. They include bacteria,
fungi, and archaea. Some of these organisms
perform tasks that are useful for the human
host. However, the majority have no known
beneficial or harmful effect. Those that are
expected to be present, and that under
normal circumstances do not cause disease,
but instead participate in maintaining health,
are deemed members of the normal flora .
Though widely known as "microflora", this is,
in technical terms, a misnomer, since the
word root "flora" pertains to plants, and biota
refers to the total collection of organisms in

a particular ecosystem. Recently, the more

appropriate term "microbiota" is applied,
though its use has not eclipsed the
entrenched use and recognition of "flora"
with regard to bacteria and other
microorganisms. Both terms are being used
in different literature. Studies in 2009
questioned whether the decline in biota
(including microfauna) as a result of human
intervention might impede human health
Importance in ecology:
Importance in ecology Microbes are critical
to the processes of decomposition required
to cycle nitrogen and other elements back to
the natural world. Decomposition (or
rotting ) is the process by which organic
substances are broken down into simpler
forms of matter. The process is essential for
recycling the finite matter that occupies
physical space in the biome. Bodies of living
organisms begin to decompose shortly after
death. Although no two organisms
decompose in the same way, they all
undergo the same sequential stages of
decomposition.

The science which studies decomposition is

generally referred to as taphonomy from the
Greek word taphos , meaning tomb. One can
differentiate abiotic from biotic
decomposition (biodegradation). The former
means "degradation of a substance by
chemical or physical processes, eg
hydrolysis).

The latter one means "the metabolic

breakdown of materials into simpler
components by living organisms", typically
by microorganisms.
Hygiene:
Hygiene Hygiene is the avoidance of
infection or food spoiling by eliminating
microorganisms from the surroundings. As
microorganisms, in particular bacteria, are

found virtually everywhere, the levels of

harmful microorganisms can be reduced to
acceptable levels. However, in some cases, it
is required that an object or substance be
completely sterile, i.e. devoid of all living
entities and viruses. A good example of this
is a hypodermic needle. In food preparation
microorganisms are reduced by preservation
methods (such as the addition of vinegar),
clean utensils used in preparation, short
storage periods, or by cool temperatures. If
complete sterility is needed, the two most
common methods are irradiation and the use
of an autoclave, which resembles a pressure
cooker.
There are several methods for investigating
the level of hygiene in a sample of food,
drinking water, equipment, etc. Water
samples can be filtrated through an
extremely fine filter. This filter is then placed
in a nutrient medium. Microorganisms on the
filter then grow to form a visible colony.
Harmful microorganisms can be detected in
food by placing a sample in a nutrient broth
designed to enrich the organisms in
question. Various methods, such as selective

media or PCR, can then be used for

detection. The hygiene of hard surfaces,
such as cooking pots, can be tested by
touching them with a solid piece of nutrient
medium and then allowing the
microorganisms to grow on it. There are no
conditions where all microorganisms would
grow, and therefore often several different
methods are needed. For example, a food
sample might be analyzed on three different
nutrient mediums designed to indicate the
presence of "total" bacteria (conditions
where many, but not all, bacteria grow),
molds (conditions where the growth of
bacteria is prevented by, e.g., antibiotics)
and coliform bacteria (these indicate a
sewage contamination).