Spencer Leonardis

5-29-2015 (Late)
Homework 7
Math 118
Q1:
a. Let p be an odd prime and let a Z such that (a, p) = 1. Show that if a is a quadratic residue mod p,
then a is a quadratic residue modulo p n for any positive integer every n.
Proof. Hensels Lemma: Let f (x) be a polynomial with integer coefficients, p be a prime, and suppose a is
a solution of the congruence f (x) 0 mod p j such that f 0 (a) 6 0 mod p. Then there exists an integer t
(which is unique modulo p) such that a + tp j is a solution to the congruence f (x) 0 mod p j+1 .
Suppose a is quadratic residue modulo p. Then x2 a mod p = x2 a 0 (mod p). If we apply Hensels
Lemma to the polynomial x2 a 0 mod p, we can raise the powers of p inductively to p2 , p3 ,. . . , p n . In
particular, if we have a unique solution modulo p then we are guaranteed a solution modulo p n . So if a
is a quadratic residue modulo p2 , it is a quadratic residue p n for every n. In particular, if x2 a mod p k ,
one can find y such that (x + p k y)2 a mod p k+1 . i.e. (x + p k y)2 x2 + 2p k y mod p k+1 .
2
b. To handle the case when (a, p) 6= 1, solve problem 3.3.12. in the book: Consider the congruence
x2 a mod p with p a prime, 1, a = p b, (b, p) = 1. Prove that if then the congruence is
solvable, and that if < then the congruence is solvable if and only if is even and x2 b mod p is
solvable.
Proof. Same argument from (a) works here as well, we dont need to the overly complicated problem to
treat this case.
c. Using CRT and the first part of this problem, conclude that if m is odd and (a, m) = 1, then a is a
quadratic residue mod m if and only if a is a quadratic residue mod p for every prime p dividing m.

Proof. Suppose that a is a quadratic residue modulo m. Let m = p 1 1 p 2 2 p k k denote the prime

decomposition of m. By CRT, we have that Z/mZ

= Z/p 1 1 Z Z/p k k Z. Since x2 a mod m has a

1 2
2
solution, it must be the case that x a mod p 1 p 2 p k k has a solution as well. Hence the system of
congruences

x12 a mod p 1 1

x22 a mod p 2 2
..
.

x2k a mod p k k
is solvable. By applying Hensels Lemma (first part of problem), we can reduce the prime power case of
this system to the prime case, proving that a is a quadratic residue modulo m for every p dividing m. 2
d. Using CRT and the first two parts of this problem prove the following. Let m be odd and let a Z.
Prove that the congruence x2 a mod m has a solution if and only if for each prime p dividing m, one of
the following conditions holds, where p || m and p || a (this means that p is the largest power of p
dividing m and similarly for p and a):
- ;
- < , is even, and a/p is a quadratic residue mod p.

Proof. The first direction is clear: A solution modulo m is also a solution modulo p i i . For the other

direction, for each i let x i be such that x2i a (mod p i i ). By the Chinese Remainder Theorem, there is
i
an x such that x x i (mod p i ) for all i from 1 to t. This x is a solution of the congruence x2 a
(mod m). So now it is sufficient to prove the result for m = p , where p is prime. Let p be the largest
power of p that divides a. We need to show that the congruence has a solution if and only if one of the
two conditions of the post holds. The case is easy, since x = 0 is a solution. Suppose now that < .
Assume that x2 a (mod p ). and let p be the largest power of p that divides x. Then unless = /2,
1

x2 a cannot be divisible by p . So = 2 must be even. Let x = p/2 y. Then p y2 a (mod p ).

Dividing through by p we get
y2 a/p (mod p ).
In particular, since 1, we have

y2 a/p (mod p),

and therefore a/p is a quadratic residue of p. Hence showing that a/p being a quadratic residue of p is
sufficient in the case < . The solution of the congruence y2 a/p (mod p) = y2 a/p 0 (mod p)
can be lifted to a solution modulo any power of p, in particular p by applying Hensels Lemma (as
proved in the first two parts of the problem). This completes the proof.
2
Q2:
3.3.14. Suppose that p is a prime, p 1 mod 4, and that a2 + b2 = p with a odd and positive. Show that

a
= 1.
p
2
2
a
p
a + b2
b
Proof. Using the laws of quadratic reciprocity, we obtain
=
=
=
= 1.
2
p
a
a
a

p
X
n(n + a)
. Show that s(0, p) = p 1. Show that
3.3.17. Let p be an odd prime, and put s(a, p) =
p
n=1
p
X
s(a, p) = 0. Show that if (a, p) = 1, then s(a, p) = s(1, p). Conclude that s(a, p) = 1 if (a, p) = 1.
n=1

Proof.

Q3:
p
p
p
a. Let Q d = {a + b d : a, b Q}. Show that every element of Q d has a multiplicative inverse. In
p
particular, Q d is a field.
p
p
p
Proof. Suppose Q d = = a + b d. To prove that Q d contains multiplicative inverses, observe
p
that for a non-square d and a b d 6= 0 one has
p
p
1
b
1
ab d
a

d.
=
p
p = 2
a + b d a b d a b 2 d a2 b 2 d
p
If a, b Q = a2 , b2 Q b2 d Q (since d Z) = a2 b2 d Q a2 ab2 d , a2 bb2 d Q. Thus 1 Q d . 2
b. A number C is called algebraic if is algebraic over Q. In particular, a C Q is algebraic if there
exists 0 6= f (x) Q[x] such that f () = 0. The minimal polynomial m(x) of an algebraic number C is
the monic polynomial of smallest
with coefficients in Q such that m() = 0. What is the minimal
p degree,

p
polynomial of = a + b d Q d ?
p
Proof. Let = a + b d. Then
p
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
a = b d
p( a) = b d 2a + a = b d m(x) = x 2xa + a b d
is the minimal polynomial of Q d .
2
c. Show that if a rational number a Q satisfies a monic polynomial with integer coefficients, then in
fact a Z.
p
Proof. Express a = q as a completely reduced rational in Q and assume to the contrary that
p

a 6 Z = q 6= 1. Observe that the rational number q Q, is a solution to qx p = 0, where qx p Z[x].

n
Thus every
a Q is algebraic. For an integer monic polynomial 0 = m(x) = x + + a 1 x + a 0 Z[x], one

has m

p
q

p n
p
+ + a1 q
q

+ a 0 = p n + + a 1 p + a 0 = 0 = p n 0 mod q. Since q 6= 1 = q has a

prime factor v = v | a n = v | a. Thus v is a factor of both p and q contradicting the assumption that
is completely reduced. 2

p
q

d. (Quite difficult and therefore optional.) An element C is called an algebraic integer if the
coefficients of its minimal polynomial f (x) lie in Z. Generalizing part 3c, show that if C satisfies a
monic polynomial with integer coefficients, then in fact is an algebraic integer. We wont need this, but
it is a very important fact.
Proof.
p
(
p
Z[ 2dp]
if d is even
e. Show that the set of algebraic integers in Q d is equal to the ring O d =
1+ d
Z[ 2 ] if d is odd.
p
p
2
2
Proof. Let = x + y d Q d . This is identical to 2x Z and x d y Z. The first condition means x
is half of an ordinary integer, so either x Z or x is half an odd number. If x Z then x2 Z, so d y2 Z.
Then y Z because d is squarefree. (If y has a prime factor in its denominator, the square of that prime
wouldnt be cancelled by d, and then d y2 6 Z.) Therefore has the necessary form, with a = x and b = y
if d 6 1 mod 4, or a = x y and b = 2y if d 1 mod 4, or a = x y and b = 2y if d 1 mod 4. If x is half
an odd number, write x = a/2 with a odd. Then N() = x2 d y2 = a2 /4 d y2 , so multiplying through by 4
implies a2 d(2y)2 4Z In particular, d(2y)2 Z. Because d is squarefree, 2y is in Z so either y is in Z or
is half an odd number. If y Z then a2 d(2y)2 = a2 4d y2 is odd.
it must be the case that
Therefore
p !
p
p
1+ d
a b
ab
y = b/2 with b an odd number, so = x + y d = +
+b
which has the necessary
d=
2 2
2
2
form because a b is divisible by 2

a b
2

Z. Hence the set of algebraic integers is the ring O d .

f. Let I be an ideal of O d . Show that I = { x : x I } is also an ideal of O d .

Proof. Clearly 0 I. Note that for , I = + I, so for every , I, one has + = + I. Since
for every I we have I, it follows that for every I, one has I. Hence I is an additive
subgroup of O d . What is left to show is that I is closed under multiplication by ring elements of O d .
Observe that for a O d and for x I one has ax I. Thus ax = ax I. Thus I is closed under
multiplication by elements of O d , and combined with the fact that (I, +) O d , we conclude that I is an
ideal.
2
g. Let N(I) be the greatest common divisor in Z of N(x) for all x I. Since N(x) I I for x I, it is clear
that (N(I)) I I. Hence to prove that (N(I)) = I I, we have to prove the reverse inclusion. Thus, let
, I; we will prove that (N(I)) as follows: (i). First, prove that the polynomial
f (x) = x2 ( + )x +
has coefficients in Z and that is a root.
Proof (i). Let , I. Clearly 1 Z. We need to show that + and
p are in Z. Observe that
and are both in Z because multiplying by the conjugate removes d in the middle terms. Thus
Z. For the other element,pwe make an explicit calculation (the cancellation
is less obvious). If
p
is an element of the form a 1 + b 1 d and is anpelement of p
the form a 2 +p
b 2 d we have
p that
+ = (a 1 + b 1 d)(a
d) + (a 1 b 1 d)(a 2 + b 2 pd)
p 2 b2 p
p
= a1 a2 a1 b2 d + b1 a2 d b1 b2 d +a1 a2 +a1 b2 d b1 a2 d b1 b2 d
= a1 a2 b1 b2 d + a1 a2 b1 b2 d
Since a 1 , a 2 , b 1 , b 2 , d Z it follows
that
h p i a 1 a 2 b 1 b 2 d + a 1 a 2 b 1 b 2 d = + Z also. The same
argument works for the ring Z

1+ d
2

. Hence f (x) Z[x]. Now observe that

f () = ()2 ( + )() + = ()2 ()2 + = 0.

Hence is a root.
(ii). Second, using the fact that N(I) divides the integers N( + ), N(), and N(), prove that N(I)
divides the coefficient of x in f (x), and that N(I)2 divides the constant coefficient.

Proof (ii). Since N(I) is the greatest common divisor in Z of N(x) for all x I, it follows that N(I) divides
N( + ) = + + + , N() = , and N() = . Thus N(I) | + . Since N(I) | N() and
N(I) | N(), it follows that N(I)2 | N()N() = . Thus N(I) divides the coefficient of x in f (x) and
N(I)2 divides the constant coefficient.
2
1
f (x N(I)) is a monic polynomial in Z[x], and note that
(iii). Conclude that the polynomial g(x) =
N(I)2

the element
is a root.
N(I)

1
Proof (iii). We have that g(x) is integer monic since
Z and since f (x) Z[x]. Clearly g
= 0.
N(I)
N(I)2
(iv). Now consider two cases: either is rational and thus an integer by part 3c. Otherwise g(x) is the

minimal polynomial of
, and hence this number is an algebraic integer. Therefore it lies in O d by
N(I)
part 3e.

O d , so (N(I)) as desired. Thus I I O d , and combined with the fact that

In either case,
N(I)
I I O d , we conclude I I = O d .
2