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Existentialism
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Existentialism(/zstnlzm/)[1]isatermappliedtotheworkofcertainlate19thand20thcentury
Europeanphilosopherswho,despiteprofounddoctrinaldifferences,[2][3][4]sharedthebeliefthatphilosophical
thinkingbeginswiththehumansubjectnotmerelythethinkingsubject,buttheacting,feeling,livinghuman
individual.[5]Whilethesupremevalueofexistentialistthoughtiscommonlyacknowledgedtobefreedom,its
primaryvirtueisauthenticity.[6]Intheviewoftheexistentialist,theindividual'sstartingpointischaracterizedby
whathasbeencalled"theexistentialattitude",orasenseofdisorientationandconfusioninthefaceofan
apparentlymeaninglessorabsurdworld.[7]Manyexistentialistshavealsoregardedtraditionalsystematicor
academicphilosophies,inbothstyleandcontent,astooabstractandremotefromconcretehuman
experience.[8][9]
SrenKierkegaardisgenerallyconsideredtohavebeenthefirstexistentialistphilosopher,[2][10][11]thoughhedid
notusethetermexistentialism.[12]Heproposedthateachindividualnotsocietyorreligionissolely
responsibleforgivingmeaningtolifeandlivingitpassionatelyandsincerely("authentically").[13][14]
ExistentialismbecamepopularintheyearsfollowingWorldWarII,andstronglyinfluencedmanydisciplines
besidesphilosophy,includingtheology,drama,art,literature,andpsychology.[15]

Fromlefttoright,toptobottom:
Kierkegaard,Dostoyevsky,Nietzsche,
Sartre

Contents
1 Definitionalissuesandbackground
2 Concepts
2.1 Existenceprecedesessence
2.2 TheAbsurd
2.3 Facticity
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2.4 Authenticity
2.5 TheOtherandtheLook
2.6 AngstandDread
2.7 Despair
3 Oppositiontopositivismandrationalism
4 Existentialismandreligion
5 Existentialismandnihilism
6 Etymology
7 History
7.1 19thcentury
7.1.1 KierkegaardandNietzsche
7.1.2 Dostoyevsky
7.2 Early20thcentury
7.3 AftertheSecondWorldWar
8 Influenceoutsidephilosophy
8.1 Art
8.1.1 Filmandtelevision
8.1.2 Literature
8.1.3 Theatre

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8.1.3 Theatre
8.2 Psychoanalysisandpsychotherapy
9 Criticisms
9.1 Generalcriticisms
9.2 Sartre'sphilosophy
10 Seealso
11 References
11.1 Furtherreading
11.2 Externallinks

Definitionalissuesandbackground
Therehasneverbeengeneralagreementonthedefinitionofexistentialism.Thetermisoftenseenasahistoricalconvenienceasitwasfirstappliedto
manyphilosophersinhindsight,longaftertheyhaddied.Infact,whileexistentialismisgenerallyconsideredtohaveoriginatedwithKierkegaard,the
firstprominentexistentialistphilosophertoadoptthetermasaselfdescriptionwasJeanPaulSartre.Sartrepositstheideathat"whatallexistentialists
haveincommonisthefundamentaldoctrinethatexistenceprecedesessence",asscholarFrederickCoplestonexplains.[16]Accordingtophilosopher
StevenCrowell,definingexistentialismhasbeenrelativelydifficult,andhearguesthatitisbetterunderstoodasageneralapproachusedtorejectcertain
systematicphilosophiesratherthanasasystematicphilosophyitself.[2]Sartrehimself,inalecturedeliveredin1945,describedexistentialismas"the
attempttodrawalltheconsequencesfromapositionofconsistentatheism."[17]
AlthoughmanyoutsideScandinaviaconsiderthetermexistentialismtohaveoriginatedfromKierkegaardhimself,itismorelikelythatKierkegaard
adoptedthisterm(oratleasttheterm"existential"asadescriptionofhisphilosophy)fromtheNorwegianpoetandliterarycriticJohanSebastian
CammermeyerWelhaven.[18]Thisassertioncomesfromtwosources.TheNorwegianphilosopherErikLundestadreferstotheDanishphilosopher

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FredrikChristianSibbern.Sibbernissupposedtohavehadtwoconversationsin1841,thefirstwithWelhavenandthesecondwithKierkegaard.Itisin
thefirstconversationthatitisbelievedthatWelhavencameupwith"awordthathesaidcoveredacertainthinking,whichhadacloseandpositive
attitudetolife,arelationshiphedescribedasexistential".[19]ThiswasthenbroughttoKierkegaardbySibbern.
ThesecondclaimcomesfromtheNorwegianhistorianRuneSlagstad,whoclaimstoprovethatKierkegaardhimselfsaidtheterm"existential"was
borrowedfromthepoet.HestronglybelievesthatitwasKierkegaardhimselfwhosaidthat"Hegeliansdonotstudyphilosophy'existentially'tousea
phrasebyWelhavenfromonetimewhenIspokewithhimaboutphilosophy".[20]Ontheotherhand,theNorwegianhistorianAnneLiseSeipiscritical
ofSlagstad,andbelievesthestatementinfactstemsfromtheNorwegianliteraryhistorianCathrinusBang.[21]
Therealsoexiststhebeliefthatmeaninglessnessandabsurditycreateabehaviorpatternthatisnotconsistentwiththatwhichisconsidered"normal".In
otherwords,existentialism"jarsyououtofyourhabits."Likewar,sexualdisease,andthelike,theindividualconsciousnessisparamounttothesocietal
impactonemayhaveanditisyourrealitythatdictatesyouractions,notanybodyelse's.

Concepts
Existenceprecedesessence
AcentralpropositionofExistentialismisthatexistenceprecedesessence,whichmeansthatthemostimportantconsiderationforindividualsisthatthey
areindividualsindependentlyactingandresponsible,consciousbeings("existence")ratherthanwhatlabels,roles,stereotypes,definitions,orother
preconceivedcategoriestheindividualsfit("essence").Theactuallifeoftheindividualsiswhatconstituteswhatcouldbecalledtheir"trueessence"
insteadoftherebeinganarbitrarilyattributedessenceothersusetodefinethem.Thus,humanbeings,throughtheirownconsciousness,createtheirown
valuesanddetermineameaningtotheirlife.[22]AlthoughitwasSartrewhoexplicitlycoinedthephrase,similarnotionscanbefoundinthethoughtof
existentialistphilosopherssuchasHeidegger,andKierkegaard:
"Thesubjectivethinkersform,theformofhiscommunication,ishisstyle.Hisformmustbejustasmanifoldasaretheoppositesthat
heholdstogether.Thesystematiceins,zwei,dreiisanabstractformthatalsomustinevitablyrunintotroublewheneveritistobe
appliedtotheconcrete.Tothesamedegreeasthesubjectivethinkerisconcrete,tothesamedegreehisformmustalsobeconcretely
dialectical.Butjustashehimselfisnotapoet,notanethicist,notadialectician,soalsohisformisnoneofthesedirectly.Hisform
mustfirstandlastberelatedtoexistence,andinthisregardhemusthaveathisdisposalthepoetic,theethical,thedialectical,the
religious.Subordinatecharacter,setting,etc.,whichbelongtothewellbalancedcharacteroftheestheticproduction,areinthemselves
breadththesubjectivethinkerhasonlyonesettingexistenceandhasnothingtodowithlocalitiesandsuchthings.Thesettingis
notthefairylandoftheimagination,wherepoetryproducesconsummation,noristhesettinglaidinEngland,andhistoricalaccuracyis
notaconcern.Thesettingisinwardnessinexistingasahumanbeingtheconcretionistherelationoftheexistencecategoriestoone
another.Historicalaccuracyandhistoricalactualityarebreadth."SrenKierkegaard(ConcludingPostscript,Hongp.357358)
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Itisoftenclaimedinthiscontextthatpeopledefinethemselves,whichisoftenperceivedasstatingthattheycanwishtobesomethinganything,abird,
forinstanceandthenbeit.Accordingtomostexistentialistphilosophers,however,thiswouldconstituteaninauthenticexistence.Instead,thephrase
shouldbetakentosaythatpeopleare(1)definedonlyinsofarastheyactand(2)thattheyareresponsiblefortheiractions.Forexample,someonewho
actscruellytowardsotherpeopleis,bythatact,definedasacruelperson.Furthermore,bythisactionofcruelty,suchpersonsarethemselves
responsiblefortheirnewidentity(cruelpersons).Thisisasopposedtotheirgenes,orhumannature,bearingtheblame.
AsSartrewritesinhisworkExistentialismisaHumanism:"...manfirstofallexists,encountershimself,surgesupintheworldanddefineshimself
afterwards."Ofcourse,themorepositive,therapeuticaspectofthisisalsoimplied:Apersoncanchoosetoactinadifferentway,andtobeagood
personinsteadofacruelperson.Hereitisalsoclearthatsincehumanscanchoosetobeeithercruelorgood,theyare,infact,neitherofthesethings
essentially.[23]

TheAbsurd
ThenotionoftheAbsurdcontainstheideathatthereisnomeaningintheworldbeyondwhatmeaningwegiveit.Thismeaninglessnessalso
encompassestheamoralityor"unfairness"oftheworld.Thiscontrastswiththenotionthat"badthingsdon'thappentogoodpeople"totheworld,
metaphoricallyspeaking,thereisnosuchthingasagoodpersonorabadpersonwhathappenshappens,anditmayjustaswellhappentoa"good"
personastoa"bad"person.[24]
Becauseoftheworld'sabsurdity,atanypointintime,anythingcanhappentoanyone,andatragiceventcouldplummetsomeoneintodirect
confrontationwiththeAbsurd.ThenotionoftheAbsurdhasbeenprominentinliteraturethroughouthistory.ManyoftheliteraryworksofSren
Kierkegaard,SamuelBeckett,FranzKafka,FyodorDostoyevsky,EugneIonesco,LuigiPirandello,[25][26][27][28]JeanPaulSartre,JosephHellerand
AlbertCamuscontaindescriptionsofpeoplewhoencountertheabsurdityoftheworld.
ItisinrelationtotheconceptofthedevastatingawarenessofmeaninglessnessthatAlbertCamusclaimedthat"thereisonlyonetrulyserious
philosophicalproblem,andthatissuicide"inhisTheMythofSisyphus.Although"prescriptions"againstthepossiblydeleteriousconsequencesofthese
kindsofencountersvary,fromKierkegaard'sreligious"stage"toCamus'insistenceonperseveringinspiteofabsurdity,theconcernwithhelpingpeople
avoidlivingtheirlivesinwaysthatputthemintheperpetualdangerofhavingeverythingmeaningfulbreakdowniscommontomostexistentialist
philosophers.Thepossibilityofhavingeverythingmeaningfulbreakdownposesathreatofquietism,whichisinherentlyagainsttheexistentialist
philosophy.[29]Ithasbeensaidthatthepossibilityofsuicidemakesallhumansexistentialists.[30]

Facticity

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FacticityisaconceptdefinedbySartreinBeingandNothingnessastheinitself,ofwhichhumansareinthemodeofnotbeing.Thiscanbemoreeasily
understoodwhenconsideringitinrelationtothetemporaldimensionofpast:one'spastiswhatoneis,inthesensethatitcoconstitutesoneself.
However,tosaythatoneisonlyone'spastwouldbetoignoreasignificantpartofreality(thepresentandthefuture),whilesayingthatone'spastisonly
whatonewas,wouldentirelydetachitfromoneselfnow.Adenialofone'sownconcretepastconstitutesaninauthenticlifestyle,andthesamegoesfor
allotherkindsoffacticity(havingabodye.g.onethatdoesn'tallowapersontorunfasterthanthespeedofsoundidentity,values,etc.).[31]
Facticityisbothalimitationandaconditionoffreedom.Itisalimitationinthatalargepartofone'sfacticityconsistsofthingsonecouldn'thavechosen
(birthplace,etc.),butaconditioninthesensethatone'svaluesmostlikelydependonit.However,eventhoughone'sfacticityis"setinstone"(asbeing
past,forinstance),itcannotdetermineaperson:Thevalueascribedtoone'sfacticityisstillascribedtoitfreelybythatperson.Asanexample,consider
twomen,oneofwhomhasnomemoryofhispastandtheotherrememberseverything.Theyhavebothcommittedmanycrimes,butthefirstman,
knowingnothingaboutthis,leadsarathernormallifewhilethesecondman,feelingtrappedbyhisownpast,continuesalifeofcrime,blaminghisown
pastfor"trapping"himinthislife.Thereisnothingessentialabouthiscommittingcrimes,butheascribesthismeaningtohispast.
However,todisregardone'sfacticitywhen,inthecontinualprocessofselfmaking,oneprojectsoneselfintothefuture,thatwouldbetoputoneselfin
denialofoneself,andwouldthusbeinauthentic.Inotherwords,theoriginofone'sprojectionmuststillbeone'sfacticity,thoughinthemodeofnot
beingit(essentially).Anotheraspectoffacticityisthatitentailsangst,bothinthesensethatfreedom"produces"angstwhenlimitedbyfacticity,andin
thesensethatthelackofthepossibilityofhavingfacticityto"stepin"foronetotakeresponsibilityforsomethingonehasdonealsoproducesangst.
Anotheraspectofexistentialfreedomisthatonecanchangeone'svalues.Thus,oneisresponsibleforone'svalues,regardlessofsociety'svalues.The
focusonfreedominexistentialismisrelatedtothelimitsoftheresponsibilityonebearsasaresultofone'sfreedom:therelationshipbetweenfreedom
andresponsibilityisoneofinterdependency,andaclarificationoffreedomalsoclarifiesthatforwhichoneisresponsible.[32][33]

Authenticity
Manynotedexistentialistwritersconsiderthethemeofauthenticexistenceimportant.Authenticexistenceinvolvestheideathatonehasto"create
oneself"andthenliveinaccordancewiththisself.Whatismeantbyauthenticityisthatinacting,oneshouldactasoneself,notas"one"actsoras"one's
genes"oranyotheressencerequires.Theauthenticactisonethatisinaccordancewithone'sfreedom.Ofcourse,asaconditionoffreedomisfacticity,
thisincludesone'sfacticity,butnottothedegreethatthisfacticitycaninanywaydetermineone'schoices(inthesensethatonecouldthenblameone's
backgroundformakingthechoiceonemade).Theroleoffacticityinrelationtoauthenticityinvolveslettingone'sactualvaluescomeintoplaywhen
onemakesachoice(insteadof,likeKierkegaard'sAesthete,"choosing"randomly),sothatonealsotakesresponsibilityfortheactinsteadofchoosing
eitherorwithoutallowingtheoptionstohavedifferentvalues.[34]
Incontrasttothis,theinauthenticisthedenialtoliveinaccordancewithone'sfreedom.Thiscantakemanyforms,frompretendingchoicesare
meaninglessorrandom,throughconvincingoneselfthatsomeformofdeterminismistrue,toasortof"mimicry"whereoneactsas"oneshould."How
"one"shouldactisoftendeterminedbyanimageonehasofhowonesuchasoneself(say,abankmanager,liontamer,prostitute,etc.)acts.Thisimage
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usuallycorrespondstosomesortofsocialnorm,butthisdoesnotmeanthatallactinginaccordancewithsocialnormsisinauthentic:Themainpointis
theattitudeonetakestoone'sownfreedomandresponsibility,andtheextenttowhichoneactsinaccordancewiththisfreedom.

TheOtherandtheLook
TheOther(whenwrittenwithacapital"O")isaconceptmoreproperlybelongingtophenomenologyanditsaccountofintersubjectivity.However,the
concepthasseenwidespreaduseinexistentialistwritings,andtheconclusionsdrawnfromitdifferslightlyfromthephenomenologicalaccounts.The
experienceoftheOtheristheexperienceofanotherfreesubjectwhoinhabitsthesameworldasapersondoes.Initsmostbasicform,itisthis
experienceoftheOtherthatconstitutesintersubjectivityandobjectivity.Toclarify,whenoneexperiencessomeoneelse,andthisOtherperson
experiencestheworld(thesameworldthatapersonexperiences)onlyfrom"overthere"theworlditselfisconstitutedasobjectiveinthatitis
somethingthatis"there"asidenticalforbothofthesubjectsapersonexperiencestheotherpersonasexperiencingthesamethings.Thisexperienceof
theOther'slookiswhatistermedtheLook(sometimestheGaze).[35]
Whilethisexperience,initsbasicphenomenologicalsense,constitutestheworldasobjective,andoneselfasobjectivelyexistingsubjectivity(one
experiencesoneselfasseenintheOther'sLookinpreciselythesamewaythatoneexperiencestheOtherasseenbyhim,assubjectivity),in
existentialism,italsoactsasakindoflimitationoffreedom.ThisisbecausetheLooktendstoobjectifywhatitsees.Assuch,whenoneexperiences
oneselfintheLook,onedoesn'texperienceoneselfasnothing(nothing),butassomething.Sartre'sownexampleofamanpeepingatsomeonethrough
akeyholecanhelpclarifythis:atfirst,thismanisentirelycaughtupinthesituationheisinheisinaprereflexivestatewherehisentireconsciousness
isdirectedatwhatgoesonintheroom.Suddenly,hehearsacreakingfloorboardbehindhim,andhebecomesawareofhimselfasseenbytheOther.He
isthusfilledwithshameforheperceiveshimselfashewouldperceivesomeoneelsedoingwhathewasdoing,asaPeepingTom.TheLookisthenco
constitutiveofone'sfacticity.
AnothercharacteristicfeatureoftheLookisthatnoOtherreallyneedstohavebeenthere:Itisquitepossiblethatthecreakingfloorboardwasnothing
butthemovementofanoldhousetheLookisn'tsomekindofmysticaltelepathicexperienceoftheactualwaytheotherseesone(theremayalsohave
beensomeonethere,buthecouldhavenotnoticedthatthepersonwasthere).Itisonlyone'sperceptionofthewayanothermightperceivehim.

AngstandDread
"Existentialangst",sometimescalleddread,anxiety,oranguish,isatermthatiscommontomanyexistentialistthinkers.Itisgenerallyheldtobea
negativefeelingarisingfromtheexperienceofhumanfreedomandresponsibility.Thearchetypalexampleistheexperienceonehaswhenstandingona
cliffwhereonenotonlyfearsfallingoffit,butalsodreadsthepossibilityofthrowingoneselfoff.Inthisexperiencethat"nothingisholdingmeback",
onesensesthelackofanythingthatpredeterminesonetoeitherthrowoneselfoffortostandstill,andoneexperiencesone'sownfreedom.[24]

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Itcanalsobeseeninrelationtothepreviouspointhowangstisbeforenothing,andthisiswhatsetsitapartfromfearthathasanobject.Whileinthe
caseoffear,onecantakedefinitivemeasurestoremovetheobjectoffear,inthecaseofangst,nosuch"constructive"measuresarepossible.Theuseof
theword"nothing"inthiscontextrelatesbothtotheinherentinsecurityabouttheconsequencesofone'sactions,andtothefactthat,inexperiencing
freedomasangst,onealsorealizesthatoneisfullyresponsiblefortheseconsequences.Thereisnothinginpeople(genetically,forinstance)thatactsin
theirsteadthattheycanblameifsomethinggoeswrong.Therefore,noteverychoiceisperceivedashavingdreadfulpossibleconsequences(and,it
canbeclaimed,humanliveswouldbeunbearableifeverychoicefacilitateddread).However,thisdoesn'tchangethefactthatfreedomremainsa
conditionofeveryaction.

Despair
Despair,inexistentialism,isgenerallydefinedasalossofhope.[36]Morespecifically,itisalossofhopeinreactiontoabreakdowninoneormoreof
thedefiningqualitiesofone'sselforidentity.Ifapersonisinvestedinbeingaparticularthing,suchasabusdriveroranupstandingcitizen,andthen
findshisbeingthingcompromised,hewouldnormallybefoundinstateofdespairahopelessstate.Forexample,asingerwholosestheabilityto
singmaydespairifshehasnothingelsetofallbackonnothingtorelyonforheridentity.Shefindsherselfunabletobewhatdefinedherbeing.
Whatsetstheexistentialistnotionofdespairapartfromtheconventionaldefinitionisthatexistentialistdespairisastateoneisinevenwhenheisn't
overtlyindespair.Solongasaperson'sidentitydependsonqualitiesthatcancrumble,heisinperpetualdespairandasthereis,inSartreanterms,no
humanessencefoundinconventionalrealityonwhichtoconstitutetheindividual'ssenseofidentity,despairisauniversalhumancondition.As
KierkegaarddefinesitinEither/Or:"Leteachonelearnwhathecanbothofuscanlearnthatapersonsunhappinessneverliesinhislackofcontrol
overexternalconditions,sincethiswouldonlymakehimcompletelyunhappy."[37]InWorksofLove,hesaid:
WhentheGodforsakenworldlinessofearthlylifeshutsitselfincomplacency,theconfinedairdevelopspoison,themomentgetsstuck
andstandsstill,theprospectislost,aneedisfeltforarefreshing,enliveningbreezetocleansetheairanddispelthepoisonousvapors
lestwesuffocateinworldliness....Lovinglytohopeallthingsistheoppositeofdespairinglytohopenothingatall.Lovehopesall
thingsyetisneverputtoshame.Torelateoneselfexpectantlytothepossibilityofthegoodistohope.Torelateoneselfexpectantly
tothepossibilityofevilistofear.Bythedecisiontochoosehopeonedecidesinfinitelymorethanitseems,becauseitisaneternal
decision.p.246250

Oppositiontopositivismandrationalism
Existentialistsopposedefinitionsofhumanbeingsasprimarilyrational,and,therefore,opposepositivismandrationalism.Existentialismassertsthat
peopleactuallymakedecisionsbasedonsubjectivemeaningratherthanpurerationality.Therejectionofreasonasthesourceofmeaningisacommon
themeofexistentialistthought,asisthefocusonthefeelingsofanxietyanddreadthatwefeelinthefaceofourownradicalfreedomandourawareness
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ofdeath.Kierkegaardadvocatedrationalityasmeanstointeractwiththeobjectiveworld(e.g.inthenaturalsciences),butwhenitcomestoexistential
problems,reasonisinsufficient:"Humanreasonhasboundaries".[38]
LikeKierkegaard,Sartresawproblemswithrationality,callingitaformof"badfaith",anattemptbytheselftoimposestructureonaworldof
phenomena"theOther"thatisfundamentallyirrationalandrandom.AccordingtoSartre,rationalityandotherformsofbadfaithhinderpeoplefrom
findingmeaninginfreedom.Totrytosuppresstheirfeelingsofanxietyanddread,peopleconfinethemselveswithineverydayexperience,Sartreasserts,
therebyrelinquishingtheirfreedomandacquiescingtobeingpossessedinoneformoranotherby"theLook"of"theOther"(i.e.possessedbyanother
personoratleastone'sideaofthatotherperson).

Existentialismandreligion
AnexistentialistreadingoftheBiblewoulddemandthatthereaderrecognizethatheisanexistingsubjectstudyingthewordsmoreasarecollectionof
events.Thisisincontrasttolookingatacollectionof"truths"thatareoutsideandunrelatedtothereader,butmaydevelopasenseofreality/God.Such
areaderisnotobligatedtofollowthecommandmentsasifanexternalagentisforcingthemuponhim,butasthoughtheyareinsidehimandguiding
himfrominside.ThisisthetaskKierkegaardtakesupwhenheasks:"Whohasthemoredifficulttask:theteacherwholecturesonearnestthingsa
meteor'sdistancefromeverydaylifeorthelearnerwhoshouldputittouse?"[39]

Existentialismandnihilism
Althoughnihilismandexistentialismaredistinctphilosophies,theyareoftenconfusedwithoneanother.AprimarycauseofconfusionisthatFriedrich
Nietzscheisanimportantphilosopherinbothfields,butalsotheexistentialistinsistenceontheinherentmeaninglessnessoftheworld.Existentialist
philosophersoftenstresstheimportanceofAngstassignifyingtheabsolutelackofanyobjectivegroundforaction,amovethatisoftenreducedtoa
moraloranexistentialnihilism.Apervasivethemeintheworksofexistentialistphilosophy,however,istopersistthroughencounterswiththeabsurd,
asseeninCamus'TheMythofSisyphus("OnemustimagineSisyphushappy"),[40]anditisonlyveryrarelythatexistentialistphilosophersdismiss
moralityorone'sselfcreatedmeaning:Kierkegaardregainedasortofmoralityinthereligious(althoughhewouldn'thimselfagreethatitwasethical
thereligioussuspendstheethical),andSartre'sfinalwordsinBeingandNothingnessare"Allthesequestions,whichreferustoapureandnotan
accessory(orimpure)reflection,canfindtheirreplyonlyontheethicalplane.Weshalldevotetothemafuturework."[41]

Etymology

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Theterm"existentialism"wascoinedbytheFrenchCatholicphilosopherGabrielMarcelinthemid1940s.[42][43][44]Atfirst,whenMarcelappliedthe
termtohimatacolloquiumin1945,JeanPaulSartrerejectedit.[45]Sartresubsequentlychangedhismindand,onOctober29,1945,publiclyadopted
theexistentialistlabelinalecturetotheClubMaintenantinParis.ThelecturewaspublishedasL'existentialismeestunhumanisme(Existentialismisa
Humanism),ashortbookthatdidmuchtopopularizeexistentialistthought.[46]
SomescholarsarguethatthetermshouldbeusedonlytorefertotheculturalmovementinEuropeinthe1940sand1950sassociatedwiththeworksof
thephilosophersJeanPaulSartre,SimonedeBeauvoir,MauriceMerleauPonty,andAlbertCamus.[2]OtherscholarsextendthetermtoKierkegaard,
andyetothersextenditasfarbackasSocrates.[47]However,thetermisoftenidentifiedwiththephilosophicalviewsofJeanPaulSartre.[2]

History
19thcentury
KierkegaardandNietzsche
SrenKierkegaardandFriedrichNietzscheweretwoofthefirstphilosophersconsideredfundamentaltotheexistentialistmovement,thoughneither
usedtheterm"existentialism"anditisunclearwhethertheywouldhavesupportedtheexistentialismofthe20thcentury.Theyfocusedonsubjective
humanexperienceratherthantheobjectivetruthsofmathematicsandscience,whichtheybelievedweretoodetachedorobservationaltotrulygetatthe
humanexperience.LikePascal,theywereinterestedinpeople'squietstrugglewiththeapparentmeaninglessnessoflifeandtheuseofdiversionto
escapefromboredom.UnlikePascal,KierkegaardandNietzschealsoconsideredtheroleofmakingfreechoices,particularlyregardingfundamental
valuesandbeliefs,andhowsuchchoiceschangethenatureandidentityofthechooser.[48]Kierkegaard'sknightoffaithandNietzsche'sbermenschare
representativeofpeoplewhoexhibitFreedom,inthattheydefinethenatureoftheirownexistence.Nietzsche'sidealizedindividualinventshisown
valuesandcreatestheverytermstheyexcelunder.Bycontrast,Kierkegaard,opposedtothelevelofabstractioninHegel,andnotnearlyashostile
(actuallywelcoming)toChristianityasNietzsche,arguesthroughapseudonymthattheobjectivecertaintyofreligioustruths(specificallyChristian)is
notonlyimpossible,butevenfoundedonlogicalparadoxes.Yethecontinuestoimplythataleapoffaithisapossiblemeansforanindividualtoreacha
higherstageofexistencethattranscendsandcontainsbothanaestheticandethicalvalueoflife.KierkegaardandNietzschewerealsoprecursorstoother
intellectualmovements,includingpostmodernism,andvariousstrandsofpsychology.However,Kierkegaardbelievedthatindividualsshouldlivein
accordancewiththeirthinking.
Dostoyevsky

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ThefirstimportantliteraryauthoralsoimportanttoexistentialismwastheRussianFyodorDostoyevsky.[49]Dostoyevsky'sNotesfromUnderground
portraysamanunabletofitintosocietyandunhappywiththeidentitieshecreatesforhimself.JeanPaulSartre,inhisbookonexistentialism
ExistentialismisaHumanism,quotedDostoyevsky'sTheBrothersKaramazovasanexampleofexistentialcrisis.SartreattributesIvanKaramazov's
claim,"IfGoddidnotexist,everythingwouldbepermitted"[50]toDostoyevskyhimself,thoughthisquotedoesnotappearinthenovel.[51]However,a
similarsentimentisexplicitlystatedwhenAlyoshavisitsDimitriinprison.DimitrimentionshisconversationswithRakitininwhichtheideathat
"Then,ifHedoesn'texist,maniskingoftheearth,oftheuniverse"allowingtheinferencecontainedinSartre'sattributiontoremainavalididea
contestedwithinthenovel.[52]OtherDostoyevskynovelscoveredissuesraisedinexistentialistphilosophywhilepresentingstorylinesdivergentfrom
secularexistentialism:forexample,inCrimeandPunishment,theprotagonistRaskolnikovexperiencesanexistentialcrisisandthenmovestowarda
ChristianOrthodoxworldviewsimilartothatadvocatedbyDostoyevskyhimself.

Early20thcentury
Inthefirstdecadesofthe20thcentury,anumberofphilosophersandwritersexploredexistentialistideas.TheSpanishphilosopherMigueldeUnamuno
yJugo,inhis1913bookTheTragicSenseofLifeinMenandNations,emphasizedthelifeof"fleshandbone"asopposedtothatofabstractrationalism.
Unamunorejectedsystematicphilosophyinfavoroftheindividual'squestforfaith.Heretainedasenseofthetragic,evenabsurdnatureofthequest,
symbolizedbyhisenduringinterestinCervantes'fictionalcharacterDonQuixote.Anovelist,poetanddramatistaswellasphilosophyprofessoratthe
UniversityofSalamanca,Unamunowroteashortstoryaboutapriest'scrisisoffaith,SaintManueltheGood,Martyr,whichhasbeencollectedin
anthologiesofexistentialistfiction.AnotherSpanishthinker,OrtegayGasset,writingin1914,heldthathumanexistencemustalwaysbedefinedasthe
individualpersoncombinedwiththeconcretecircumstancesofhislife:"Yosoyyoymicircunstancia"("Iammyselfandmycircumstances").Sartre
likewisebelievedthathumanexistenceisnotanabstractmatter,butisalwayssituated("ensituation").
AlthoughMartinBuberwrotehismajorphilosophicalworksinGerman,andstudiedandtaughtattheUniversitiesofBerlinandFrankfurt,hestands
apartfromthemainstreamofGermanphilosophy.BornintoaJewishfamilyinViennain1878,hewasalsoascholarofJewishcultureandinvolvedat
varioustimesinZionismandHasidism.In1938,hemovedpermanentlytoJerusalem.HisbestknownphilosophicalworkwastheshortbookIand
Thou,publishedin1922.ForBuber,thefundamentalfactofhumanexistence,tooreadilyoverlookedbyscientificrationalismandabstractphilosophical
thought,is"manwithman",adialoguethattakesplaceinthesocalled"sphereofbetween"("dasZwischenmenschliche").[53]
TwoUkrainian/Russianthinkers,LevShestovandNikolaiBerdyaev,becamewellknownasexistentialistthinkersduringtheirpostRevolutionary
exilesinParis.Shestov,bornintoaUkrainianJewishfamilyinKiev,hadlaunchedanattackonrationalismandsystematizationinphilosophyasearly
as1905inhisbookofaphorismsAllThingsArePossible.
Berdyaev,alsofromKievbutwithabackgroundintheEasternOrthodoxChurch,drewaradicaldistinctionbetweentheworldofspiritandthe
everydayworldofobjects.Humanfreedom,forBerdyaev,isrootedintherealmofspirit,arealmindependentofscientificnotionsofcausation.Tothe
extenttheindividualhumanbeinglivesintheobjectiveworld,heisestrangedfromauthenticspiritualfreedom."Man"isnottobeinterpreted
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naturalistically,butasabeingcreatedinGod'simage,anoriginatoroffree,creativeacts.[54]Hepublishedamajorworkonthesethemes,TheDestinyof
Man,in1931.
GabrielMarcel,longbeforecoiningtheterm"existentialism",introducedimportantexistentialistthemestoaFrenchaudienceinhisearlyessay
"ExistenceandObjectivity"(1925)andinhisMetaphysicalJournal(1927).[55]Adramatistaswellasaphilosopher,Marcelfoundhisphilosophical
startingpointinaconditionofmetaphysicalalienation:thehumanindividualsearchingforharmonyinatransientlife.Harmony,forMarcel,wastobe
soughtthrough"secondaryreflection",a"dialogical"ratherthan"dialectical"approachtotheworld,characterizedby"wonderandastonishment"and
opentothe"presence"ofotherpeopleandofGodratherthanmerelyto"information"aboutthem.ForMarcel,suchpresenceimpliedmorethansimply
beingthere(asonethingmightbeinthepresenceofanotherthing)itconnoted"extravagant"availability,andthewillingnesstoputoneselfatthe
disposaloftheother.[56]
Marcelcontrastedsecondaryreflectionwithabstract,scientifictechnicalprimaryreflection,whichheassociatedwiththeactivityoftheabstract
Cartesianego.ForMarcel,philosophywasaconcreteactivityundertakenbyasensing,feelinghumanbeingincarnateembodiedinaconcrete
world.[55][57]AlthoughJeanPaulSartreadoptedtheterm"existentialism"forhisownphilosophyinthe1940s,Marcel'sthoughthasbeendescribedas
"almostdiametricallyopposed"tothatofSartre.[55]UnlikeSartre,MarcelwasaChristian,andbecameaCatholicconvertin1929.
InGermany,thepsychologistandphilosopherKarlJasperswholaterdescribedexistentialismasa"phantom"createdbythepublic[58]calledhis
ownthought,heavilyinfluencedbyKierkegaardandNietzsche,Existenzphilosophie.ForJaspers,"Existenzphilosophyisthewayofthoughtbymeans
ofwhichmanseekstobecomehimself...Thiswayofthoughtdoesnotcognizeobjects,butelucidatesandmakesactualthebeingofthethinker."[59]
Jaspers,aprofessorattheUniversityofHeidelberg,wasacquaintedwithMartinHeidegger,whoheldaprofessorshipatMarburgbeforeaccedingto
Husserl'schairatFreiburgin1928.Theyheldmanyphilosophicaldiscussions,butlaterbecameestrangedoverHeidegger'ssupportofNational
Socialism.TheysharedanadmirationforKierkegaard,[60]andinthe1930s,HeideggerlecturedextensivelyonNietzsche.Nevertheless,theextentto
whichHeideggershouldbeconsideredanexistentialistisdebatable.InBeingandTimehepresentedamethodofrootingphilosophicalexplanationsin
humanexistence(Dasein)tobeanalysedintermsofexistentialcategories(existentiale)andthishasledmanycommentatorstotreathimasan
importantfigureintheexistentialistmovement.

AftertheSecondWorldWar
FollowingtheSecondWorldWar,existentialismbecameawellknownandsignificantphilosophicalandculturalmovement,mainlythroughthepublic
prominenceoftwoFrenchwriters,JeanPaulSartreandAlbertCamus,whowrotebestsellingnovels,playsandwidelyreadjournalismaswellas
theoreticaltexts.[61]TheseyearsalsosawthegrowingreputationofHeidegger'sbookBeingandTimeoutsideGermany.

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Sartredealtwithexistentialistthemesinhis1938novelNauseaandtheshortstoriesinhis1939collectionTheWall,and
hadpublishedhistreatiseonexistentialism,BeingandNothingness,in1943,butitwasinthetwoyearsfollowingthe
liberationofParisfromtheGermanoccupyingforcesthatheandhiscloseassociatesCamus,SimonedeBeauvoir,
MauriceMerleauPonty,andothersbecameinternationallyfamousastheleadingfiguresofamovementknownas
existentialism.[62]Inaveryshortspaceoftime,CamusandSartreinparticularbecametheleadingpublicintellectualsof
postwarFrance,achievingbytheendof1945"afamethatreachedacrossallaudiences."[63]Camuswasaneditorofthe
mostpopularleftist(formerFrenchResistance)newspaperCombatSartrelaunchedhisjournalofleftistthought,Les
TempsModernes,andtwoweekslatergavethewidelyreportedlectureonexistentialismandsecularhumanismtoa
packedmeetingoftheClubMaintenant.Beauvoirwrotethat"notaweekpassedwithoutthenewspapersdiscussing
us"[64]existentialismbecame"thefirstmediacrazeofthepostwarera."[65]

FrenchphilosophersJean
PaulSartreandSimonede
Beauvoir

Bytheendof1947,Camus'earlierfictionandplayshadbeenreprinted,hisnewplayCaligulahadbeenperformedand
hisnovelThePlaguepublishedthefirsttwonovelsofSartre'sTheRoadstoFreedomtrilogyhadappeared,ashad
Beauvoir'snovelTheBloodofOthers.WorksbyCamusandSartrewerealreadyappearinginforeigneditions.The
Parisbasedexistentialistshadbecomefamous.[62]

SartrehadtraveledtoGermanyin1930tostudythephenomenologyofEdmundHusserlandMartinHeidegger,[66]and
heincludedcriticalcommentsontheirworkinhismajortreatiseBeingandNothingness.Heidegger'sthoughthadalso
becomeknowninFrenchphilosophicalcirclesthroughitsusebyAlexandreKojveinexplicatingHegelinaseriesof
lecturesgiveninParisinthe1930s.[67]ThelectureswerehighlyinfluentialmembersoftheaudienceincludednotonlySartreandMerleauPonty,but
RaymondQueneau,GeorgesBataille,LouisAlthusser,AndrBreton,andJacquesLacan.[68]AselectionfromHeidegger'sBeingandTimewas
publishedinFrenchin1938,andhisessaysbegantoappearinFrenchphilosophyjournals.
HeideggerreadSartre'sworkandwasinitiallyimpressed,commenting:"HereforthefirsttimeIencounteredanindependentthinkerwho,fromthe
foundationsup,hasexperiencedtheareaoutofwhichIthink.YourworkshowssuchanimmediatecomprehensionofmyphilosophyasIhavenever
beforeencountered."[69]Later,however,inresponsetoaquestionposedbyhisFrenchfollowerJeanBeaufret,[70]Heideggerdistancedhimselffrom
Sartre'spositionandexistentialismingeneralinhisLetteronHumanism.[71]Heidegger'sreputationcontinuedtogrowinFranceduringthe1950sand
1960s.Inthe1960s,SartreattemptedtoreconcileexistentialismandMarxisminhisworkCritiqueofDialecticalReason.Amajorthemethroughouthis
writingswasfreedomandresponsibility.
CamuswasafriendofSartre,untiltheirfallingout,andwroteseveralworkswithexistentialthemesincludingTheRebel,SummerinAlgiers,TheMyth
ofSisyphus,andTheStranger,thelatterbeing"consideredtowhatwouldhavebeenCamus'sirritationtheexemplaryexistentialistnovel."[72]
Camus,likemanyothers,rejectedtheexistentialistlabel,andconsideredhisworksconcernedwithfacingtheabsurd.Inthetitularbook,Camususesthe
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analogyoftheGreekmythofSisyphustodemonstratethefutilityofexistence.Inthemyth,Sisyphusiscondemnedfor
eternitytorollarockupahill,butwhenhereachesthesummit,therockwillrolltothebottomagain.Camusbelieves
thatthisexistenceispointlessbutthatSisyphusultimatelyfindsmeaningandpurposeinhistask,simplybycontinually
applyinghimselftoit.ThefirsthalfofthebookcontainsanextendedrebuttalofwhatCamustooktobeexistentialist
philosophyintheworksofKierkegaard,Shestov,Heidegger,andJaspers.
SimonedeBeauvoir,animportantexistentialistwhospentmuchofherlifeasSartre'spartner,wroteaboutfeministand
existentialistethicsinherworks,includingTheSecondSexandTheEthicsofAmbiguity.Althoughoftenoverlookeddue
toherrelationshipwithSartre,[73]deBeauvoirintegratedexistentialismwithotherformsofthinkingsuchasfeminism,
unheardofatthetime,resultinginalienationfromfellowwriterssuchasCamus.
PaulTillich,animportantexistentialisttheologianfollowingKierkegaardandKarlBarth,appliedexistentialistconcepts
toChristiantheology,andhelpedintroduceexistentialtheologytothegeneralpublic.HisseminalworkTheCourageto
BefollowsKierkegaard'sanalysisofanxietyandlife'sabsurdity,butputsforwardthethesisthatmodernhumansmust,
viaGod,achieveselfhoodinspiteoflife'sabsurdity.RudolfBultmannusedKierkegaard'sandHeidegger'sphilosophyof
existencetodemythologizeChristianitybyinterpretingChristianmythicalconceptsintoexistentialistconcepts.

FrenchAlgerian
philosopher,novelist,and
playwrightAlbertCamus

MauriceMerleauPonty,anexistentialphenomenologist,wasforatimeacompanionofSartre.HisunderstandingofHusserl'sphenomenologywasfar
greaterthanthatofMerleauPonty'sfellowexistentialists.IthasbeensaidthathisworkHumanismandTerrorgreatlyinfluencedSartre.However,in
lateryearstheyweretodisagreeirreparably,dividingmanyexistentialistssuchasdeBeauvoir,whosidedwithSartre.
ColinWilson,anEnglishwriter,publishedhisstudyTheOutsiderin1956,initiallytocriticalacclaim.Inthisbookandothers(e.g.Introductiontothe
NewExistentialism),heattemptedtoreinvigoratewhatheperceivedasapessimisticphilosophyandbringittoawideraudience.Hewasnot,however,
academicallytrained,andhisworkwasattackedbyprofessionalphilosophersforlackofrigorandcriticalstandards.[74]

Influenceoutsidephilosophy
Art
Filmandtelevision
TheFrenchdirectorJeanGenet's1950fantasyeroticfilmUnchantd'amourshowstwoinmatesinsolitarycellswhoseonlycontactisthroughaholein
theircellwall,whoarespiedonbytheprisonwarden.ReviewerJamesTraverscallsthefilma,"...visualpoemevokinghomosexualdesireand
existentialistsuffering,"which"...conveysthebleaknessofanexistenceinagodlessuniversewithpainfulbelievability"hecallsit"...probablythe
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mosteffectivefusionofexistentialistphilosophyandcinema."[75]
StanleyKubrick's1957antiwarfilmPathsofGlory"illustrates,andevenilluminates...existentialism"byexaminingthe"necessaryabsurdityofthe
humancondition"andthe"horrorofwar".[76]ThefilmtellsthestoryofafictionalWorldWarIFrencharmyregimentorderedtoattackanimpregnable
Germanstrongholdwhentheattackfails,threesoldiersarechosenatrandom,courtmartialedbya"kangaroocourt",andexecutedbyfiringsquad.The
filmexaminesexistentialistethics,suchastheissueofwhetherobjectivityispossibleandthe"problemofauthenticity".[76]
OrsonWelles'1962filmTheTrialbaseduponFranzKafka'sbookofthesamename(DerProcess)ischaracteristicofbothexistentialistandabsurdist
themesinitsdepictionofaman(JosephK.)arrestedforacrimeforwhichthechargesareneitherrevealedtohimnortothereader.
NeonGenesisEvangelion,commonlyreferredtoasEvangelionorEva,isaJapanesesciencefictionanimationseriescreatedbytheanimestudio
GainaxandwasbothdirectedandwrittenbyHideakiAnno.Existentialthemesofindividuality,consciousness,freedom,choice,andresponsibilityare
heavilyrelieduponthroughouttheentireseries,particularlythroughthephilosophiesofJeanPaulSartreandSrenKierkegaard.Episode16'stitle,"The
SicknessUntoDeath,And"(Shiniitaruyamai,soshite)isareferencetoKierkegaard'sbook,TheSicknessUntoDeath.
Onthelighterside,theBritishcomedytroupeMontyPythonhaveexploredexistentialistthemesthroughouttheirworks,frommanyofthesketchesin
theiroriginaltelevisionshow,MontyPython'sFlyingCircus,totheir1983filmMontyPython'sTheMeaningofLife.[77]
SomecontemporaryfilmsdealingwithexistentialistissuesincludeFightClub,IHuckabees,WakingLife,TheMatrix,OrdinaryPeople,andLifeina
Day.[78]Likewise,filmsthroughoutthe20thcenturysuchasTheSeventhSeal,Ikiru,TaxiDriver,ToyStory,GhostintheShell,HaroldandMaude,
HighNoon,EasyRider,OneFlewOvertheCuckoo'sNest,AClockworkOrange,GroundhogDay,ApocalypseNow,Badlands,andBladeRunneralso
haveexistentialistqualities.[79]
TheMatrixhasbeencomparedwithanothermovie,DarkCity[80]wheretheissuesofidentityandrealityareraised.InDarkCity,theinhabitantsofthe
cityaresituatedinaworldcontrolledbydemiurges,muchliketheprisonersinPlato'scave,inwhichprisonersseeaworldofshadowsreflectedontoa
cavewall,ratherthantheworldasitactuallyis.[81]
MusicianPopularFilmArtistJohnLennon'sGodmodelsexistentialistideals.Lennonsays,"Godisaconceptbywhichwemeasureourpain...Ijust
believeinme."
NotabledirectorsknownfortheirexistentialistfilmsincludeIngmarBergman,FranoisTruffaut,JeanLucGodard,MichelangeloAntonioni,Akira
Kurosawa,TerrenceMalick,StanleyKubrick,AndreiTarkovsky,HideakiAnno,WesAnderson,WoodyAllen,andChristopherNolan.[82]Charlie
Kaufman'sSynecdoche,NewYorkfocusesontheprotagonist'sdesiretofindexistentialmeaning.[83]Similarly,inKurosawa'sRedBeard,the
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protagonist'sexperiencesasaninterninaruralhealthclinicinJapanleadhimtoanexistentialcrisiswherebyhequestionshisreasonforbeing.This,in
turn,leadshimtoabetterunderstandingofhumanity.
RecentlyreleasedFrenchfilm,MoodIndigo(directedbyMichelGondry)embracedvariouselementsofexistentialism.
ThefilmTheShawshankRedemption,releasedin1994,depictslifeinaprisoninMaine,USAtoexploreseveralexistentialistconcepts.[84]
Literature
Existentialperspectivesarealsofoundinmodernliteraturetovaryingdegrees,especiallysincethe1920s.LouisFerdinandCline'sJourneytotheEnd
oftheNight(Voyageauboutdelanuit,1932)celebratedbybothSartreandBeauvoir,containedmanyofthethemesthatwouldbefoundinlater
existentialliterature,andisinsomeways,theprotoexistentialnovel.JeanPaulSartre's1938novelNausea[85]was"steepedinExistentialideas",andis
consideredanaccessiblewayofgraspinghisphilosophicalstance.[86]Between1900and1960,otherauthorssuchasAlbertCamus,FranzKafka,Rainer
MariaRilke,T.S.Eliot,HermanHesse,LuigiPirandello,[25][26][28][87][88][89]RalphEllison,[90][91][92][93]andJackKerouac,composedliteratureorpoetry
thatcontained,tovaryingdegrees,elementsofexistentialorprotoexistentialthought.Thephilosophy'sinfluenceevenreachedpulpliteratureshortly
aftertheturnofthe20thcentury,asseenintheexistentialdisparitywitnessedinMan'slackofcontrolofhisfateintheworksofH.P.Lovecraft.[94]
Sincethelate1960s,agreatdealofculturalactivityinliteraturecontainspostmodernistaswellasexistentialelements.BookssuchasDoAndroids
DreamofElectricSheep?(1968)(nowrepublishedasBladeRunner)byPhilipK.Dick,SlaughterhouseFivebyKurtVonnegut,andFightClubby
ChuckPalahniukalldistortthelinebetweenrealityandappearancewhilesimultaneouslyespousingexistentialthemes.Ideasfromsuchwritersas
FyodorDostoyevsky,MichelFoucault,FranzKafka,FriedrichNietzsche,SrenKierkegaard,HerbertMarcuse,GillesDeleuze,ArthurSchopenhauer,
andEduardvonHartmannpermeatetheworksofmodernnovelistssuchasChuckPalahniuk,CrispinGlover,AndrewHussie,DavidFosterWallace,
andCharlesBukowski,andoneoftenfindsintheirworksadelicatebalancebetweendistastefulnessandbeauty.
Theatre
JeanPaulSartrewroteNoExitin1944,anexistentialistplayoriginallypublishedinFrenchasHuisClos(meaningInCameraor"behindcloseddoors"),
whichisthesourceofthepopularquote,"Hellisotherpeople."(InFrench,"L'enfer,c'estlesautres").TheplaybeginswithaValetleadingamanintoa
roomthattheaudiencesoonrealizesisinhell.Eventuallyheisjoinedbytwowomen.Aftertheirentry,theValetleavesandthedoorisshutandlocked.
Allthreeexpecttobetortured,butnotorturerarrives.Instead,theyrealizetheyaretheretotortureeachother,whichtheydoeffectivelybyprobingeach
other'ssins,desires,andunpleasantmemories.
ExistentialistthemesaredisplayedintheTheatreoftheAbsurd,notablyinSamuelBeckett'sWaitingforGodot,inwhichtwomendivertthemselves
whiletheywaitexpectantlyforsomeone(orsomething)namedGodotwhoneverarrives.TheyclaimGodotisanacquaintance,butinfact,hardlyknow
him,admittingtheywouldnotrecognizehimiftheysawhim.SamuelBeckett,onceaskedwhoorwhatGodotis,replied,"IfIknew,Iwouldhavesaid
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sointheplay."Tooccupythemselves,themeneat,sleep,talk,argue,sing,playgames,exercise,swaphats,andcontemplatesuicideanything"tohold
theterriblesilenceatbay".[95]Theplay"exploitsseveralarchetypalformsandsituations,allofwhichlendthemselvestobothcomedyandpathos."[96]
Theplayalsoillustratesanattitudetowardhumanexperienceonearth:thepoignancy,oppression,camaraderie,hope,corruption,andbewildermentof
humanexperiencethatcanbereconciledonlyinthemindandartoftheabsurdist.Theplayexaminesquestionssuchasdeath,themeaningofhuman
existenceandtheplaceofGodinhumanexistence.
TomStoppard'sRosencrantz&GuildensternAreDeadisanabsurdisttragicomedyfirststagedattheEdinburghFestivalFringein1966.[97]Theplay
expandsupontheexploitsoftwominorcharactersfromShakespeare'sHamlet.ComparisonshavealsobeendrawntoSamuelBeckett'sWaitingFor
Godot,forthepresenceoftwocentralcharacterswhoappearalmostastwohalvesofasinglecharacter.Manyplotfeaturesaresimilaraswell:the
characterspasstimebyplayingQuestions,impersonatingothercharacters,andinterruptingeachotherorremainingsilentforlongperiodsoftime.The
twocharactersareportrayedastwoclownsorfoolsinaworldbeyondtheirunderstanding.Theystumblethroughphilosophicalargumentswhilenot
realizingtheimplications,andmuseontheirrationalityandrandomnessoftheworld.
JeanAnouilh'sAntigonealsopresentsargumentsfoundedonexistentialistideas.[98]ItisatragedyinspiredbyGreekmythologyandtheplayofthesame
name(Antigone,bySophocles)fromthe5thcenturyBC.InEnglish,itisoftendistinguishedfromitsantecedentbybeingpronouncedinitsoriginal
Frenchform,approximately"AnteGN."TheplaywasfirstperformedinParison6February1944,duringtheNazioccupationofFrance.Produced
underNazicensorship,theplayispurposefullyambiguouswithregardstotherejectionofauthority(representedbyAntigone)andtheacceptanceofit
(representedbyCreon).TheparallelstotheFrenchResistanceandtheNazioccupationhavebeendrawn.Antigonerejectslifeasdesperately
meaninglessbutwithoutaffirmativelychoosinganobledeath.Thecruxoftheplayisthelengthydialogueconcerningthenatureofpower,fate,and
choice,duringwhichAntigonesaysthatsheis,"...disgustedwith[the]...promiseofahumdrumhappiness."Shestatesthatshewouldratherdiethanlive
amediocreexistence.
CriticMartinEsslininhisbookTheatreoftheAbsurdpointedouthowmanycontemporaryplaywrightssuchasSamuelBeckett,EugneIonesco,Jean
Genet,andArthurAdamovwoveintotheirplaystheexistentialistbeliefthatweareabsurdbeingslooseinauniverseemptyofrealmeaning.Esslin
notedthatmanyoftheseplaywrightsdemonstratedthephilosophybetterthandidtheplaysbySartreandCamus.Thoughmostofsuchplaywrights,
subsequentlylabeled"Absurdist"(basedonEsslin'sbook),deniedaffiliationswithexistentialismandwereoftenstaunchlyantiphilosophical(for
exampleIonescooftenclaimedheidentifiedmorewith'PataphysicsorwithSurrealismthanwithexistentialism),theplaywrightsareoftenlinkedto
existentialismbasedonEsslin'sobservation.[99]

Psychoanalysisandpsychotherapy
Amajoroffshootofexistentialismasaphilosophyisexistentialistpsychologyandpsychoanalysis,whichfirstcrystallizedintheworkofOttoRank,
Freud'sclosestassociatefor20years.WithoutawarenessofthewritingsofRank,LudwigBinswangerwasinfluencedbyFreud,EdmundHusserl,
Heidegger,andSartre.AlaterfigurewasViktorFrankl,whobrieflymetFreudandstudiedwithJungasayoungman.[100]Hislogotherapycanbe
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regardedasaformofexistentialisttherapy.Theexistentialistswouldalsoinfluencesocialpsychology,antipositivistmicrosociology,symbolic
interactionism,andpoststructuralism,withtheworkofthinkerssuchasGeorgSimmel[101]andMichelFoucault.Foucaultwasagreatreaderof
Kierkegaardeventhoughhealmostneverrefersthisauthor,whononethelesshadforhimanimportanceassecretasitwasdecisive.[102]
AnearlycontributortoexistentialistpsychologyintheUnitedStateswasRolloMay,whowasstronglyinfluencedbyKierkegaardandOttoRank.One
ofthemostprolificwritersontechniquesandtheoryofexistentialistpsychologyintheUSAisIrvinD.Yalom.Yalomstatesthat
AsidefromtheirreactionagainstFreud'smechanistic,deterministicmodelofthemindandtheirassumptionofaphenomenological
approachintherapy,theexistentialistanalystshavelittleincommonandhaveneverbeenregardedasacohesiveideologicalschool.These
thinkerswhoincludeLudwigBinswanger,MedardBoss,EugneMinkowski,V.E.Gebsattel,RolandKuhn,G.Caruso,F.T.Buytendijk,
G.BallyandVictorFranklwerealmostentirelyunknowntotheAmericanpsychotherapeuticcommunityuntilRolloMay'shighly
influential1985bookExistenceandespeciallyhisintroductoryessayintroducedtheirworkintothiscountry.[103]
AmorerecentcontributortothedevelopmentofaEuropeanversionofexistentialistpsychotherapyistheBritishbasedEmmyvanDeurzen.
Anxiety'simportanceinexistentialismmakesitapopulartopicinpsychotherapy.Therapistsoftenofferexistentialistphilosophyasanexplanationfor
anxiety.Theassertionisthatanxietyismanifestedofanindividual'scompletefreedomtodecide,andcompleteresponsibilityfortheoutcomeofsuch
decisions.Psychotherapistsusinganexistentialistapproachbelievethatapatientcanharnesshisanxietyanduseitconstructively.Insteadofsuppressing
anxiety,patientsareadvisedtouseitasgroundsforchange.Byembracinganxietyasinevitable,apersoncanuseittoachievehisfullpotentialinlife.
Humanisticpsychologyalsohadmajorimpetusfromexistentialistpsychologyandsharesmanyofthefundamentaltenets.Terrormanagementtheory,
basedonthewritingsofErnestBeckerandOttoRank,isadevelopingareaofstudywithintheacademicstudyofpsychology.Itlooksatwhat
researchersclaimareimplicitemotionalreactionsofpeopleconfrontedwiththeknowledgethattheywilleventuallydie.
Also,GerdB.Achenbachhasrefreshedthesocratictraditionwithhisownblendofphilosophicalcounseling.SodidMichelWeberwithhis
ChromatiquesCenterinBelgium.

Criticisms
Generalcriticisms
WalterKaufmanncriticized'theprofoundlyunsoundmethodsandthedangerouscontemptforreasonthathavebeensoprominentinexistentialism.'[104]

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Logicalpositivistphilosophers,suchasRudolfCarnapandA.J.Ayer,assertthatexistentialistsareoftenconfusedabouttheverb"tobe"intheir
analysesof"being".[105]Specifically,theyarguethattheverbistransitiveandprefixedtoapredicate(e.g.,anappleisred)(withoutapredicate,the
wordismeaningless),andthatexistentialistsfrequentlymisusetheterminthismanner.
ColinWilsonhasstatedinhisbookTheAngryYearsthatexistentialismhascreatedmanyofitsowndifficulties:"wecanseehowthisquestionof
freedomofthewillhasbeenvitiatedbypostromanticphilosophy,withitsinbuilttendencytolazinessandboredom,wecanalsoseehowitcameabout
thatexistentialismfounditselfinaholeofitsowndigging,andhowthephilosophicaldevelopmentssincethenhaveamountedtowalkingincircles
roundthathole.[106]

Sartre'sphilosophy
ManycriticsargueSartre'sphilosophyiscontradictory.Specifically,theyarguethatSartremakesmetaphysicalargumentsdespitehisclaimingthathis
philosophicalviewsignoremetaphysics.HerbertMarcusecriticizedBeingandNothingness(1943)byJeanPaulSartreforprojectinganxietyand
meaninglessnessontothenatureofexistenceitself:"InsofarasExistentialismisaphilosophicaldoctrine,itremainsanidealisticdoctrine:ithypostatizes
specifichistoricalconditionsofhumanexistenceintoontologicalandmetaphysicalcharacteristics.Existentialismthusbecomespartoftheveryideology
whichitattacks,anditsradicalismisillusory".[107]
InLetteronHumanism,HeideggercriticizedSartre'sexistentialism:
Existentialismsaysexistenceprecedesessence.Inthisstatementheistakingexistentiaandessentiaaccordingtotheirmetaphysical
meaning,which,fromPlato'stimeon,hassaidthatessentiaprecedesexistentia.Sartrereversesthisstatement.Butthereversalofa
metaphysicalstatementremainsametaphysicalstatement.Withit,hestayswithmetaphysics,inoblivionofthetruthofBeing.[108]

Seealso
Abandonment(existentialism)
Absurdism
Atheistexistentialism
Christianexistentialism
Disenchantment
Existentiell
Listofexistentialists
Meaning(existential)
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Phenomenology

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Furtherreading
Appignanesi,RichardOscarZarate(2001).IntroducingExistentialism.Cambridge,UK:Icon.ISBN1840462663.
Appignanesi,Richard(2006).IntroducingExistentialism(3rded.).Thriplow,Cambridge:IconBooks(UK),TotemBooks(USA).ISBN1840467177.
Cooper,DavidE.(1999).Existentialism:AReconstruction(2nded.).Oxford,UK:Blackwell.ISBN0631213228.
Deurzen,Emmyvan(2010).EverydayMysteries:aHandbookofExistentialPsychotherapy(2nded.).London:Routledge.ISBN9780415376433.
Fallico,ArthuroB.(1962).Art&Existentialism.EnglewoodCliffs,N.J.:PrenticeHall.
Kierkegaard,Sren(1855).AttackUponChristendom.
Kierkegaard,Sren(1843).TheConceptofAnxiety.
Kierkegaard,Sren(1846).ConcludingUnscientificPostscript.
Kierkegaard,Sren(1843).Either/Or.
Kierkegaard,Sren(1843).FearandTrembling.
Kierkegaard,Sren(1849).TheSicknessUntoDeath.
Kierkegaard,Sren(1847).WorksofLove.
Luper,Steven(ed.)(2000).Existing:AnIntroductiontoExistentialThought.MountainView,California:Mayfield.ISBN0767405870.
Marino,Gordon(ed.)(2004).BasicWritingsofExistentialism.NewYork:ModernLibrary.ISBN0375759891.
MerleauPonty,M.(1962).PhenomenologyofPerception[ColinSmith].NewYork:RoutledgeandKeganPaul.
Rose,Eugene(Fr.Seraphim)(1994).Nihilism:TheRootoftheRevolutionoftheModernAge.SaintHermanPress(1September1994).ISBN0938635158.
Sartre,JeanPaul(1943).BeingandNothingness.
Sartre,JeanPaul(1945).ExistentialismandHumanism.
Stewart,Jon(ed.)(2011).KierkegaardandExistentialism.Farnham,England:Ashgate.ISBN9781409426417.
Solomon,RobertC.(ed.)(2005).Existentialism(2nded.).NewYork:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN0195174631.
Wartenberg,ThomasE.Existentialism:ABeginner'sGuide.

Externallinks
Existentialism(https://www.dmoz.org/Society/Philosophy/Continental_Philosophy/Existentialism/)atDMOZ
Existentialism(http://www.iep.utm.edu/existent)entryintheInternetEncyclopediaofPhilosophy
Existentialism(http://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p00547h8)onInOurTimeattheBBC.(listennow
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/console/p00547h8/In_Our_Time_Existentialism))
FriesianinterpretationofExistentialism(http://www.friesian.com/existent.htm)
Existentialism(http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/existentialism)entrybyStevenCrowellintheStanfordEncyclopediaofPhilosophy
"ExistentialismisaHumanism",alecturegivenbyJeanPaulSartre(http://www.marxists.org/reference/archive/sartre/works/exist/sartre.htm)
TheExistentialPrimer(http://www.tameri.com/csw/exist/)
Buddhists,ExistentialistsandSituationists:WakingupinWakingLife(http://publish.uwo.ca/~dmann/waking_essay.htm)
Journalsandarticles
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StirringsStill(http://www.stirringsstill.org):TheInternationalJournalofExistentialLiterature
ExistentialAnalysis(http://www.existentialanalysis.co.uk)publishedbyTheSocietyforExistentialAnalysis
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&oldid=697880048"
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