Essayandsummarybasedon

EdgarH.Schein(1999)ProcessConsultationRevisited.BuildingtheHelpingRelationship
AddisonWesleyPublishingInc.:Reading,MA

Process consultation : outline and essential concepts

Introduction
TheprocessconsultationviewhasbeenadvocatedbyScheinsincelate
60s(firstedition1969).Itbelongstoactivitiesoforganization
development(OD).ODisoneofpartoftheorganizationprocesseswhich
aimimprovingorganizationalandindividualeffectiveness.Themain
argumentofScheinforprocessconsultingistohelppeopleinorganizations
tohelpthemselves.AlthoughODitselfisaratheroutdatedconcept,many
approachestomakingchangestoanorganizationstillhaveaheritageto
OD(Huczynski&Buchanan,2007).
Processconsultation(PC)isoneoftheODtechniques,enlistedwith
sensitivitytraining(selfimprovement),surveyfeedback(introspection),
teambuilding(socializing),androlenegotiation(changingrolesand
perception;Huczynski&Buchanan,2007).Allofthemarequite
specializedinterventions,forinstanceincontrasttogridODwhichisa
comprehensiveinterventiontothecompanyculture.Scheinhimselfhas
alsobeeninvolvedwiththedevelopmentofsensitivitytrainingandalso
discussesthedifferencesbetweenPCandsensitivitytraining.Thelatteris
describedasadetachedactivitythatshouldmaketheparticipantsbetter
activelistenersintheirsocialrelationsthroughunderstandingfeelingsof
theothers,whereasDialogueinPCisfocusedonrevealingassumptions
andprejudicesinconsultantsownthinking.

Schein : Process Consulting Revisited / Lassi.Liikkanen@hiit.fi

ProcessConsultingapproach
BeforeputtingdialogueorotherPCmethodstotheirpropercontext,I
needtointroducetheconsultingframeworkusedinthebook.Schein
definesprocessconsultingasaconsultingmodeldistinctfromexpert
(informationpurchase)andpatientdoctormodels.Heacknowledgesthat
thedifferentmodelsdohavetheyvalueincertaincases,buthestillprefers
toembedtheminaPCframeworkinordertoavoidtheevidentpitfalls
associatedwiththesetwoexpertdrivenapproaches.PCisdescribedas
puttingthefocusontheclient.Byunderstandingthattheconsultantcan
onlyhelptheclientstosolvetheirproblemsconsultationbecomesamatterof
establishingasupportiverelationshipinwhichtheclientcomes
understandtheneedandopportunitiesforchange.
ThePCmodelcanalsobeunderstoodthroughthelistoftenmajor
principlesofthemodel,whichcanfurtherhelptounderstandthe
philosophicalstanceofthisapproach:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Alwaystrytobehelpful
Alwaysstayintouchwiththecurrentreality
Accessyourignorance
Allactsareinterventions
Clientownstheproblemandthesolution
Gowiththeflow
Timingiscrucial
Beconstructivelyopportunisticwithconfrontiveinterventions
Everythingisdata;yourownerrorsparticularly
Whenindoubt,sharetheproblem

Scheinscontributionisaclearlydeparturefromarationalist,orobjective,
consultingthinkingwhereonemightconceivetheconsultantasaguru
alwayscapableofutilizinganovelinsighttosuccessfullycrackproblems.
Thisisevidentinalmostallprinciples,particularlyin3,9and10.The

Schein : Process Consulting Revisited / Lassi.Liikkanen@hiit.fi

consultantcanerrbutthisriskshouldbeminimizediftheprinciplesofPC
areadheredtoastheyareaimedtoworkingtowardstherightsolution
steadily.PCremindsresistancewithoutviolence,aconsultantmaydothe
jobbestbyjustbysuspendingallreaction(avoiddoctorsprescription)
andlettingtheclientselfreflectonthequestion.Thispathcanbeachieved
byfollowingdifferentmethodsofinquiry.
AlreadymentionedDialogueisoneformofinquiryessentialtoPC,
associatedwithdiagnosticinquirylevelofcarryingoutinquiry.Dialogueis
concernedwithlisteningtoandunderstandingyourself(inrelationto
others)beforetryingtounderstandwhatothersmean.Scheinalso
introducestwootherformsofinquiry,pureandconfrontiveinquiry.Each
levelhasitscharacteristiclevelofconsultantinterveningthroughhisor
herownopinions,frompure(minimal)toconfrontive(considerable).
Diagnosticfallsbetweenthesetwo,beingalevelatwhichtheconsultant
canpresentneutralquestions,incontrasttomakingsuggestion
(confrontive)orlettingtheclientdothetalking(pure).
Socialpsychologyofsocialrelationshipsandinteraction
Beyondadmittingthataconsultantcanonlydeliversubjectivetruths,the
mainmessagefromthebookisthatinordertocreatethisrelationship,
youneedtounderstandhowtherelationshipswork.Forthisend,Schein
introducesamixtureoforganizationalandsocialtheory,eachreflectedon
differentaspectofPC.Inthisessay,Iwillconsiderfewoftheessential
frameworksthatScheinusesalthoughtheyarenotoriginallyhisideas;he
hasjustincludedthemasimportantcomponentsofPC.Inoverall,his
booksgoesthroughavarietyoftopicsandintroducesnumerousconcept
todescribe,forinstance,differenttypesofconsultationclients,group

Schein : Process Consulting Revisited / Lassi.Liikkanen@hiit.fi

problemsolvingprocess,essentialsoffacetofacecommunicationandthe
outlineofgroupformation.
Beforegoingtothedetails,itmustbeacknowledgedthattheauthor
stressesthatthingsareneverassimpleastheymightlookatthefirstsight.
Thisisbecauseourperceptionoftheworld,peopleandrelationshipsare
alwaysbiasedandourknowledgeisinadequate.Scheinusesconceptsfrom
manyschoolsofpsychology,includingpsychodynamicandGestalt,to
illustratethispointbutthemainargumentisacceptablefromany
humanistperspective.Peoplearenotidenticalandthustheyperceive,
understandandbehavedifferentlythanothers.Thereareseveralconcepts
inthetextwhichfurtherillustratethisfactoflife.IwillconsiderOJRI
cycleandtheJohariwindowhereasexamplesofhowourperceptionand
thoughtisalwayscompromised.
Perception
ORJIcycledescribingthepsychological(intrapsychic)processofhow
webecomeawareofsocialeventsinourenvironment.Foraconsultant,it
isimportanttohaveawarenessofwhywereacttoandmakeinferences
fromtheenvironmentinthewaywedo.Thecycleisillustratedbelow:

O Observation

R Emotional
reaction

I Interpretation

J Judgment

Normally biased process

Exaggerated process

Schein : Process Consulting Revisited / Lassi.Liikkanen@hiit.fi

Scheindescribeseachphaseoftheperceptionactioncyclethrough
idealisticandrealisticterms.Idealisticreferstoarationalaccountofhow
wemaythinkthingscouldworkwhereasrealisticdescribesthe
psychologicalrealitywhichisfarfromidealorobjective.Thedisparityof
therealityfromtheidealcreatessocalledtraps,whichmayleadthe
consultanttotakeawrongwayofaction.
Themodelbeginsfromobservation.Intherealisticaccount,
prejudgments,expectations,defensesorfalseattributionscaneasilylead
toperceptionsthatwronginthefirstplace.Thesebiasesderivefromour
culturalbackgroundwhichcontainsmanyunspokenassumption,
personaldefensivefiltersandexpectationsderivedfrompastexperiences.
Thismightalsodescribedbycontemporarypsychologicalterms,referring
totopdowninfluencesonperceptionincontrasttobottomupsignal
processing.
Emotionalreactionsarenecessarilysubjectiveandshouldbetalkedas
inappropriateemotionalreactions.Thiscanbeduetomisperceptionofa
situation(IthinkIsawcrosstheredlight)orlearnedoverreactionto
realdata(carsareusuallyparkedhereillegally).Sincereactionsare
quitederivativeofobservation,Scheinrecommendsthatobserverhimor
herselfwiththehelpofotherstounderstandhowoneperceivesthe
environment.Torecognizeownreactiontendenciescanhelptorelieve
them.
Judgmentsmaybaseonfaultylogicorfalsedata.Perfectlogicisnot
helpfulifthepremises,basedonobservations,arefaulty.Cultural
assumptionsareabigpartinjudgmentsandtheyshouldberecognized.
Communication
Theseprerequisitesofintervening,orconsulting,presentonlyapartofthe

Schein : Process Consulting Revisited / Lassi.Liikkanen@hiit.fi

wholeprocess.Asnoted,theyareintrapsychicalwhereasthecoreofthe
practiceisinterpsychicalprocessandcommunication.Similartrapsor
challengesincommunicationcanbedescribedwithtermsofTheJohari
Window(Luft,1961).Thewindowmodelisdepictedinthefigurebelow:

Known to self
Hidden self
Unknown
to
others

Unknown
self

Open self

Blind self

Known
to
others

Unknown to
self

ThemainthesisembeddedintheJohariWindowisthatcommunication
involvesmuchmorethantheprimarychannelandmessage.Whatwesay,
maynotbewhatwemean.Orwemaybeintentionallysayingsomething
thatcontradictswhatwereallythink.Thiswouldbedifferencebetween
hiddenandopenself,partsthatareknowntous.However,theeffectiveness
ofcommunicationalsodependsonourblindself,whichcommonlyis
communicatedthroughnonverbalcuesbutalsotonesofvoice,styleof
expressionandsoforth.Thispartofusiswhatbecomesknowntoothers.
Assaid,weremainblindtosomepartsthatothersdoperceive,butthe
JohariwindowalsoembedsaFreudianassumptionthattherearepartsof
unknownselfthatremainunknownforeveryone.Inmyview,thesemight
mapidorsubconsciousprocessoperatinginourmind,althoughIremain
skepticwhethertheyreallyhavearoleplayinthecommunicationscheme.

Schein : Process Consulting Revisited / Lassi.Liikkanen@hiit.fi

Interpersonalprocess:feedback
AsfinalexampleofSchein,Ihavepickedadetailedaccountofone
interpersonalprocess.Thisisfeedback,aneverydaymechanismthatis
elegantlyanalyzedbytheauthor.Feedbackisamandatorypartofthe
consultationprocess,asitprovidesananswertothefundamentalOD
question,howarewedoing?.Generally,twomaintypesoffeedbackare
identified:genericandspecificfeedback.Inallcircumstances,thespecific
feedbackshouldbepreferred,becauseitprovidestherecipientbest
opportunitiesfordevelopment.Bothcanbefurtheranalyzedaccordingto
theirvalence,positive,negativeorneutral.Examplesofdifferenttypesof
feedbackareillustratedinthefollowingtable:
\Type
Valence\
Positive

Generic
(disposition/trait)
Youreawesome,
great!

Neutral

Thisislikewhatyou
Irecommendyou
usuallydo,keepitup. previewyourreport
alwaystwicebefore
submission.

Negative

Youdonthavewhat
ittakes,youalways
messitup

Specific
(behavioral)
Yesterday,theending
ofthepresentationwas
magnificent!

Yourtalkhadafartoo
longintroduction,you
shouldhave
consideredthe
audience.

Tofurtherimprovefeedback,thefollowingrulesaresuggested:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Clear,agreedgoals
Descriptionandappreciation
Concreteandspecific
Constructivemotives,
Includenegativefeedbackwhennecessary
Giverprovidespersonalfeelings
TimingBothpartiespsychologicallyready,

Schein : Process Consulting Revisited / Lassi.Liikkanen@hiit.fi

Concludingwords
PCputsalotofrequirementsfortheconsultant.InScheinsview,good
consultingrelationsrequireappropriatepersonalityandpersonrelations.
Thehelpingrelationshipisapsychologicalcontractbetweentwoormore
people,requiringthecommitmentfromallparties.Huczynski&
Buchanan(2007)state:
ODconsultantrequiresarangeofskillsandknowledge,
concernwiththeprocess,particularlywithsocialand
interpersonalskillssuchascommunicating,negotiatingand
influencingandconflictresolution
Readingsomecriticismbetweenthelines,Itooremainskepticonwhether
thehelpingattitudeandwealthofinterpersonalrequiredbyPCcanbe
acquiredwiththetextandexercisesprovidedbySchein.Althoughthe
authoractuallytakesuptheissueonhisfinalremarks,inrealityitis
unknownhowmuchhashisowntacitknowhoworgiftednessininter
personalintelligencehelpedhimtosucceed,pastthedirectionofthethen
principlesofPC(asScheinwantsthereadertobelieve).However,Iam
convincedthatPCthinkingshouldgenerallybeahealthyattitudefor
preventingtheneedforsimilarconsultationtoariseinorganizations.As
such,thebookprovidesplentyofinsightsfromsociologyandsocial
psychology,whichmayopenupveryperspectivesintounderstanding
socialrelationsandactivityineveryunit.

Schein : Process Consulting Revisited / Lassi.Liikkanen@hiit.fi