Kyle Heinze

Chapter 8 Notes
What is learning?
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior due to
experience. Learning resulting from conditioning depends on
reinforcement. Reinforcement increases the probability that a
particular response will occur.
o Response: Any identifiable behavior.
Antecedents: Events that precede a response.
Consequences: Effects that follow a response.
o Acquisition: The period in conditioning during which a
response in reinforced.
In classical conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus begins to
elicit a response through association with another stimulus.
How does classical conditioning occur?
Classical conditioning, studied by Pavlov, occurs when a neutral
stimulus is associated with an unconditioned stimulus
o Classical Conditioning: A form of learning in which reflex
responses are associated with new stimuli.
o Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus that does not evoke a
response.
o Unconditioned Stimulus: A stimulus innately capable of
eliciting a response.
The US causes a reflex called the unconditioned response. If the
NS is consistently paired with the US, it becomes a conditioned
stimulus, capable of producing a response by itself. This response
is a conditioned (learned) response.
o Unconditioned Response: An innate reflex response
elicited by an unconditioned stimulus.
o Conditioned Stimulus: A stimulus that evokes a
response because it has been repeatedly paired with an
unconditioned stimulus.
o Conditioned Response: A learned response elicited by a
conditioned stimulus.
When the conditioned stimulus is followed by the unconditioned
stimulus, conditioning is reinforced (strengthened).
o Respondent Reinforcement: Reinforcement that occurs
when an unconditioned stimulus closely follows a
conditioned stimulus.

Higher order conditioning occurs when a well-learned

conditioned stimulus is used as if it were an unconditioned
stimulus, bringing about further learning.

Kyle Heinze

When the
is repeatedly presented alone, conditioning is
extinguished (weakened or inhibited). After extinction seems to
be complete, a rest period may lead to the temporary
reappearance of a conditioned response. This is called
spontaneous recovery.
o Extinction: The weakening of a conditioned response
through removal of reinforcement.
Through stimulus generalization, stimuli similar to the
conditioned stimulus will also produce a response. Generalization
gives way to stimulus discrimination when an organism learns
to respond to one stimulus, but not to similar stimuli.

Does conditioning affect emotions?

Conditioning applies to visceral or emotional responses as well as
simple reflexes. As a result, conditioned emotional responses
also occur.
How does operant conditioning occur?
Operant conditioning occurs when a voluntary action is
followed by a reinforcer. Reinforcement in operant conditioning
increases the frequency or probability of a response. This result
is based on the law of effect.
o Operant Reinforcer: Any event that reliably increases the
probability or frequency of responses it follows.
Operant Reinforcement works best when it is
response contingent. That is, it must be given only
after a desired response has occurred.
o Law of Effect: Responses that lead to desirable effects
are repeated; those that produce undesirable results are
not.
Complex operant responses can be taught by reinforcing
successive approximations to a final desired response. This is
called shaping. It is particularly useful in training animals.
o Shaping: Gradually molding responses to a final desired
pattern.
Successive Approximations: A series of steps or
ever-closer matches to a desired response.
If an operant response is not reinforced, it may extinguish
(disappear). But after extinction seems complete, it may
temporarily reappear (spontaneous recovery).
Are there different kinds of operant reinforcement?
In positive reinforcement, reward or pleasant event follows a
response. In negative reinforcement, responses that end
discomfort tend to be repeated.

Kyle Heinze

Primary reinforcers are natural, physiological based rewards.

Intracranial stimulation of pleasure centers in the brain can
also serve as a primary reinforcer.
o Intracranial Stimulation: Direct electrical stimulation
and activation of brain tissue.
Secondary reinforcers are learned. They typically gain their
reinforcing value by direct association with primary reinforcers.
Tokens and money gain their reinforcing value in this way.
o Social Reinforcer: Reinforcers, such as attention and
approval, provided by other people.
Programmed Instruction: Any learning format that
presents

How are we influenced by patterns of reward?

Delay of reinforcement greatly reduces its effectiveness, but long
chains of responses may be built up so that a single reinforcer
maintains many responses.
o Response Chaining: The assembly of separate responses
into a series of actions that lead to reinforcement.
Superstitious behaviors often become part of response chains
because they appear to be associated with reinforcement.
o Superstitious Behavior: A behavior repeated because it
seems to produce reinforcement, even though it is actually
unnecessary.
Reward or reinforcement may be given continuously (after every
response) or on a schedule of partial reinforcement. Partial
reinforcement produces greater resistance to extinction.
o Continuous Reinforcement: A reinforcer follows every
correct response. This is fine for the lab, but it has little to
do with the real world. Most of our responses are more
inconsistently rewarded. In daily life, learning is usually
based on partial reinforcement.
Partial Reinforcement: A pattern in which only a
portion of all responses will be reinforced.
Partial Reinforcement Effect: Responses
acquired with partial reinforcement are more
resistant to extinction.
o Schedule of Reinforcement: A rule or plan for
determining which responses will be reinforced.
The four most basic schedules of reinforcement are fixed ratio,
variable ratio, fixed interval, and variable interval. Each produces
a distinct pattern of responding.

Kyle Heinze
o Fixed Ratio Schedule: A set number of correct responses
must be made to get a reinforcer. For example, a reinforcer
is given for every four correct responses.
o Variable Ratio Schedule: A varied number of correct
responses must be made to get a reinforcer. For example, a
reinforcer is given after three to seven correct responses;
the actual number changes randomly.
o Fixed Interval Schedule: A reinforcer is given only when
a correct response is made after a set amount of time has
passed since the last reinforced response. Responses made
during the time intervals are not reinforced.
o Variable Interval Schedule: A reinforcer is given for the
first correct response made after a varied amount of time
has passed since the last reinforced response. Responses
made during the time interval are not reinforced.
Stimuli that precede a reinforced response tend to control the
response on future occasions (stimulus control). Two aspects of
stimulus control are generalization and discrimination.
In generalization, an operant response tends to occur when
stimuli similar to those preceding reinforcement are present.
In discrimination, responses are given in the presence of
discriminative stimuli associated with reinforcement (S+) and
withheld in the presence of stimuli associated with
nonreinforcement (S-).
What does punishment do to behavior?
Punishment decreases responding. Punishment occurs when a
response is followed by the onset of an aversive event or by the
removal of a positive event (response cost).
o Punisher: Any event that decreases the probability or
frequency of responses it follows.
Punishment is most effective when it is immediate, consistent,
and intense.
o Positive Punishment: Something is added. Example: A
child swears and is spanked.
o Negative Punishment: Something is taken away.
Example: A child steals and is grounded.
What is cognitive learning?
Cognitive learning involves higher mental processes, such as
understanding, knowledge, knowing, or anticipating.
o Cognitive Maps: Internal images or other mental
representations of an area (maze, city, campus, and so
forth) that underlie an ability to choose alternative paths to
the same goal.

Kyle Heinze

In latent learning, learning remains hidden or unseen until a

reward or incentive for performance is offered.
Discovery learning emphasizes insight and understanding, in
contrast to rote learning.

Does learning occur by imitation?

Much human learning is achieved through observation, or
modeling. Observational learning is influenced by the
personal characteristics of the model and the success or failure
of the models behavior. Studies have shown that aggression is
readily learned and released by modeling.
How does conditioning apply to practical problems?
Operant principles can be readily applied to manage behavior in
everyday settings. When managing ones own behavior, selfreinforcement,
self-recording,
feedback,
and
behavioral
contracting are all helpful.

Four strategies that can help change bad habits are reinforcing
alternative responses, promoting extinction, breaking response
chains, and avoiding antecedent cues.

How does biology influence learning?

Many animals are born with innate behavior patterns far more
complex than reflexes. These are organized into fixed action
patterns (FAPs), which are stereotyped, species-specific
behaviors.
o Innate Behavior: Inborn, unlearned behavior.
Learning in animals is limited at times by various biological
constraints and species-typical behaviors.
o Biological Constraints: Biological limits on what an
animal or person can easily learn.