Acta Mechanica 99, 7 5 - 9 3 (1993)

ACTA MECHANICA
9 Springer-Verlag 1993

Elastic-plastic analysis of cracked plates in plane stress:

an experimental study
P. S. Theocaris, Athens, Greece
(Received April 13, 1992)

Summary. An experimental method is presented for the complete solution of the elastic-plastic plane stress
problem of an edge-cracked plate obeying the Mises yield criterion and the Prandtl-Reuss incremental
stress-strain flow rule. The material of the plate is assumed as a strain-hardened one with different degrees of
hardening. The elastic and plastic components of strain were determined by using the method of birefringent
coatings cemented on the surface of the metallic specimens made of the material under study. Normal
incidence of circularly polarized light yielded the isoclinics and isochromatics of the coating which provided
the principal elastic strain differences and strain-directions at the interface. Evaluation of the stress intensity
factor at the crack tip, by using the Griffith-Irwin definition, gave the sum of principal stresses at the crack tip.
These data were sufficient to separate the components of strain at the coating-plate interface by using the
classical shear-difference method.
The stress components on the partially plastically deformed cracked plate were determined by using the
Prandt!-Reuss stress-strain relationships in a step-by-step process following the whole history of loading of
the plate. Thus, a radial distribution law for the equivalent stress ~ and strain in all directions of the plate was
established which gave the instantaneous position of the elastic-plastic boundary and its evolution during
loading, as well as the distribution of elastic and plastic components of stresses allover the plate.
Four cases were solved for various amounts of strain-hardening from a quasi perfectly plastic material to
an almost brittle strain hardened one. The values of the characteristic parameters defining each type of
material were established.
The results derived compare excellently with existing ones based either on experimental or numerical
solutions and since they are based on both the theory of elasticity and the incremental theory of plasticity
they constitute a sound basis for comparison. Moreover, the algorithm based on this hybrid method is fast
and stable requiring a minimum computer time, memory and data preparation.

Introduction

Failure behavior of cracked materials is significantly influenced by crack-tip plasticity which

directly modulates the near stress-field and, consequently, affects the results of the various
fracture criteria. In the past, it was c o m m o n l y assumed that fracture is a p h e n o m e n o n
independent of the general failure and solely connected with brittle materials. This m a y be true in
extreme cases of high brittleness, but most of everyday materials do not behave so. They fail by
brittle fracture after the development of plastically deformed enclaves, which could be very small
and insignificant in highly brittle materials.
Then, the correct application of any fracture criterion requires the a-priori correct evaluation
of the elastic-plastic stress field in the vicinity of the crack-tip. This has already been applied for
various elastic-plastic materials and modes of loading by using various analytical and numerical
methods [1] - [10]. Finally, the use of J-integral as a fracture criterion was discussed and proved
in [11] -[13].

76

R S. Theocaris

On the other hand, it is generally accepted that only experimental methods can accurately solve the problem of the spreading of the plastic enclaves around discontinuities of the
stress field and evaluate in a satisfactory manner the distribution of elastic and plastic
stress- and strain-components inside the field, as well as they define the exact instantaneous
position of the elastic-plastic boundary and its evolution during loading. It was shown that
the method of photoelastic coatings, combined with some auxiliary method, determining an
additional quantity necessary for the separation of the elastic and plastic components of
stresses and strains allover the field, can determine the progressive extension of the plastic
enclaves, which nucleate at regions of the highest elastic stress concentration and subsequently spread completely in the stress field. Since the axial stress and strain distribution in
the plastic range of metals and similar materials depends on the particular mechanical
properties of the material the use of the same material as a testing piece in the laboratory
becomes obligatory [14]-[16]. The method with its own variations was successfully used in
a series of studies for elastic-perfectly plastic materials or strain-hardening ones and for
different types of discontinuities, among which are classified holes, notches of different
re-entrant angles, etc. [17]- [20].
Another study was also undertaken to evaluate the possibilities of using the well known
Dugdale-Bareblatt model [21] in applications, which simplifies considerably the plastic analysis
of structures [21]-[24]. Although a modified version of this model was introduced in these
references, which yields a much higher approximation, it was shown that this model also is
incapable to give accurate distributions of stresses and strains in problems of contained
plasticity, where the elastic components of stresses are comparable in magnitude with their
counterparts of the plastic components.
This analysis was successfully used in experimental work [17] - [20], where the increments of
strains were directly experimentally measured, whereas in this paper the increments of strains
inside and outside the elastic-plastic boundaries are defined by using photoelastic data from
birefringent coating and by introducing a compliance technique for the elastic components of
stresses. Thus, these quantities take their elastic values at the first loading-step, where the first
plastic nuclei are defined according to the Griffith-Irwin assumption [1] and the elastic
components of stress. Then, stresses obey the Hooke and the Prandtl-Reuss laws for their elastic
and plastic parts respectively, in a manner similar to that described in [28] with distributions of
elastic stresses following power laws with decreasing negative exponents versus distance from the
crack tip, in complete analogy with the existing exact solution of an elastic plate containing an
internal or edge crack [29].

Description of the method

The solution is based on the following principles, which are in agreement with either the Hooke
or the Prandtl-Reuss laws, concerning the elastic or plastic behavior of the material. Also, they
possess a, usually, obvious physical reasoning. These principles were applied to a thin plate
containing a central crack of length 2a and loaded uniaxially by a stress a~ at a direction
perpendicular to the crack-axis, under generalized plane-stress conditions. The material of the
plate obeys the equivalent stress-strain curve shown in Fig. lb, which for simplicity is assumed
bi-linear. For a low enough applied stress at infinity a~o, the resulting initial elastic-plastic
boundary, corresponding to the onset of yielding, is so small as to be the same when computed by
means of purely elastic or elastic-plastic considerations [1].

Elastic-plastic analysis of cracked plates

77

For this initial step, the stress-field is described by the well-known complex stressfunctions ~e(Z) and 7~e(z) [29]:
(Tm
~e(Zt =

(Too

2 (Z 2 -- a2) 1/2

(1)
(Too
~Ye(Z)

--

(Too

2 (z 2 - - a2) 1/2

-~ --.

These complex stress functions describe the elastic stress distribution for an infinite plate
containing a central transverse crack subjected to simple tension. In order to have the solution
for an edge crack, whose solution in a closed form does not exist, it is customary to use the
solution for an internal crack and to multiply the values of the stress intensity factor at the crack
tip, or the distribution of stress inside the stress field, by a convenient multiplication factor,
defined either experimentally or numerically [30], [31], which takes care of the influence of the
exact crack opening displacement at the intersection of the crack flanks with the free longitudinal
boundary at which the edge crack terminates.
The expressions for the stress functions ~e(Z) and ~Pe(Z)in relations (1) introduced into the
expressions for the components of stresses yield
(Tx = (Too[F1(r, O) - F2(r, 0)],
cry = (Too[Fl(r, O) + F2(r, 0)],

(2)

Zxy = a~F3(r, 0),

where the functions Fig = 1, 2, 3) are real functions of the polar coordinates referred to
a Cartesian frame with origin at the crack tip and Ox-axis the symmetry axis of the crack.
The Fi-functions are given by:
Fl(r, O) = Gl(r, O, 1/2)

rlr2 -112 cos

( 1)1
(Pl - - ~

(,~

2'

1
F2(r, O) = G2(r, O, 1/2) = rlr2 -1/2 sin O [ - s i n (qh/2) - r12r2 -1 sin (2~01 - 1.5qh)] + ~ ,

(3)

F3(r , O) = G3(r, O, 1/2) = rlr2 - l I e sin O [ - c o s (q~2/2) -t- r12r2 -1 cos (2~01 - 1.5q02)],

where the polar radii rl and r 2 and the polar angles qh and (/)2 are expressed by:
rI =

[(a + r cos O)2 + r 2 sin 2 O]a/2,

re =

[(r 2 Cos 20 + 2ar cos O)a

qol = arctan

@2 =

arctan

r sin 0
a + r cos

+ (r 2

0'

sin 20 + 2at sin 0)2] 1/2,

(4)

r e sin 20 + 2ar sin 0

r 2 cos 20 + 2ar cos O'

and the polar radii r and angles q~ are measured from the crack tip and in an anti-clockwise sense
from the Ox-axis.

78

E S. Theocaris

/
E: I'anlO /
d~:=(cl~_.g+d[:p)

r _____~.~B dt D"
Ib

.-d~ -,-

0
i+2

._>
V

p: plasticcur'ves

be

Pi

A' _
0'i+.3

- - - ~i5-

B'

i+2

O(cr.acktip)

distance x

Fig. 1. a The assumed radial distribution of # for successive increments of g b The piecewise linear
idealization of the equivalent stress-strain curve

In order to define the actual position of the elastic-plastic boundary the Mises yield criterion
was used which states that the equivalent or effective stress, ~, is expressed by:
(~2 = 0.x2 _~ 0.y2 __ 0.x0.y -F 377xZy = 0"0 2 ,

(5)

where 0.o is the yield stress of the material in simple tension at infinity. Introducing relations (2)
into the yield condition (5) we derive:

0.oo = 0.o{Fx2(r, O) + 3F22(r, 0) + 3F32(r, 0)} -1/2.

(6)

By putting into Eq. (6) a reasonably small value of r, derived by applying Irwin's proposition [1],
for 0 = 0 ~ we can compute a first value of 0.~. For 0 # 0 ~ and for constant 0% we can compute
numerically the corresponding values of the initial radii of the elastic-plastic boundary for 0 =t= 0.
Referring to Fig. 1 all the points of the elastic-plastic boundary are represented by the point A of
the equivalent stress-strain curve.
An increase of the equivalent stress #, caused by an infinitesimal respective increment of
0.~ beyond its initial value results in an increment dg of the equivalent strain g consisting of an
elastic part dg, andaplasticonedgv[32].Thecomponentsdg~anddgpofthestrainincrementobey
either the Hooke, or the Prandtl-Reuss laws respectively, the same being true for each one of the
stress- and strain-components.
Following the analysis developed in [17]-[20] for the homogeneous isotropic elasticplastic and plastically incompressible material obeying the Prandtl-Reuss flow rule under
plane-stress conditions, we write directly the expressions for the respective increments of

Elastic-plastic analysis of cracked plates

79

stress:
31

~-1+ v dcr~ = de~ + ~

1+ v
v
E dcry = dey + ~
l+v

dz~y = ~ dTxy

(dex + dey + de~)

2cr~ 3 cry d2,

(de~ + dey + de~)

2cry -- a=~
~
d2,

(7)

"Cxyd2,

where the non-negative scalar factor of proportionality, d2, is given for a strain-hardening
material by [32]:
3 d~p
d:~- 2 ~

(8)

The stress-strain relationship hypothesis for the elastic components of the strain increments
takes the form [32]:

dex: _ dey: _ dTxy,, _ dg~

(9)

The plastic components of the strain increments obey the Prandtl-Reuss law [32]:

dex,p

dey,p

3 a~.

dyxy,p
-

crx

cry

d2

(10)

gxy

where ax', cry' are the deviatoric components of stresses. From Fig. 1 it is valid that:

dge = ~ dg,

dgp =

1-

dg.

(11)

Taking into consideration the plastic incompressibility assumption

d~x,e + dey,, + dez,e -

1 -

2v

(dax + day),

(12)

Eqs. (7) take the final form:

dcrx m

--

V 2

day - 1 ~ 122 dg:,y + v &x + 3[(v - 1) ay + (1 - 2v) a~]

dzxy- 2(1+v)

dy~y- ~ zxy

(13)

In this set of equations ax, cry,and %y are known from the previous loading-step and dex, d~;y, dTxy ,
are obtained by the respective summing of Eqs. (9) and (10), which are functions of dG, dgp, and
which in turn are also functions of the independent variable dg.

80

R S. Theocaris

If one restricts himself to a step starting from the Cro-yield stress by putting 6 = cro (point A in
Fig. lb), Eqs (13) take the simple form:
H

dg

dax = ~- a~ --'Co

H
dg
H
dg
d~ x = ~ - O'y --,~30 d'cxy = ~ Zxy ~-'eo

(14)

The non-negative value of d2 in Eq. (8) implies that any increase of dgp, and therefore of dg, results
in higher values of ~. It means that, after the first increment dg, the point (r, 0) (marked as rg in
Fig. la) lies inside the elastic-plastic region which, now, extends up to the point r~+ 1 in the same
figure. The new value #i+ ~ of the equivalent stress at the point r~, after the addition of dg, is
computed from the expression of the Mises yield condition given in Eq. (3) by adding the stress
increments (Eq. 14), to the previous values of the stresses. The new value for the radius r~+ 1 of the
elastic-plastic boundary at a given 0-direction will be computed as follows.
It has been well established that, while the stress distribution inside an elastic field presents
m a x i m u m or minimum components of stresses only along the boundaries of the stress field, the
same is not valid for the plastic or the elasto-plastic stress field. It has been proved experimentally
and numerically [33] that inside the plastic enclaves the one Cartesian component of stress
parallel to the loading direction of the plate, even for an elastic-perfectly plastic material, presents
a m a x i m u m located somewhere inside the plastic enclave and at a distance from the free
boundary equal to approximately one-third of the respective radius of the elastic plastic
boundary [17] - [20]. Thus, the surface of the intensity distribution of this stress inside the enclave
has the shape of a hill instead of a surface of a continuously diminishing or increasing slope from
the boundaries to the interior of the stress field without presenting any m a x i m u m inside it.
A typical example of such a variation of stresses is given, besides [17] - [20], in [34], where this
m a x i m u m of the o-r-stress distribution appears inside the plastic enclave.
Furthermore, it is obviously stipulated that outside the plastic enclave the material behaves
elastically and there is a smooth continuation of stress-components on both sides of the
elastic-plastic boundary.
The above reasoning is algebraically expressed by the following conditions:
a~(r)
i) ~
...... = 0,

(15)

ii) #(r) .... (_) = c~(r).... (+) = #i+1,

(16)

where cri+ 1 is defined in Fig. lb,

iii) d6(r)
_ d6(r)
,
dr It=r,(-)
dr r=r,(+)

(17)

where rm.x is the polar radius of the position of the m a x i m u m 6(r)-stress and r~(O)is the respective
radius of the elastic-plastic boundary at the same direction. Here for a transversely cracked plate
subjected to simple tension at a direction normal to the crack-axis it is valid that 0 = 0 ~
To materialize the above-stated conditions for 6(r), we assume that the function 6(r) takes the
form:
clr 2 - c2r + c3
~(r) = ~ o.oo(G12(r' 0, n) + 3G22(r, 0, n) + 3G32(r, 0, n)) 1/2

for
for

r < r/
r > rl

(18.1)
(18.2)

Elastic-plastic analysis of cracked plates

81

where ci, i = 1, 2, 3, are constants and the form of #(r) for r > ri is similar to that of Eq. (5), where
the real functions Gi(r, 0, n), i = 1, 2, 3, are determined in a similar manner to that for the elastic
case. Really, we stipulate the following expressions for the complex stress-functions ebp(Z) and
Up(Z) for r > r~, in analogy with the elastic complex stress functions ~)e(Z) and %(z) given in
relations (1):
~oo
%(z)

z2n

O'c~

2 (r 2 - ae)"

4 '

~o~

0"0o

(19)
TiP(Z)-

z2n

2 (r a - a2)" + ~ '

where the unknown exponent n is a positive number and it takes the value n = 1/2 for the
respective elastic problem. Equations (19) are analytic and satisfy the Cauchy-Riemann
conditions, as Eqs. (1) do. Expressions (19) yield the following expressions for the components of
stresses:
o-~ = cr~o[Gl(r, O, n) - Gz(r, O, n)],
cry = a~[Ga(r, O, n) + G2(r, O, n)],

(20)

Zxy = a~oG3(r, O, n),

where Ga, G2, G3 are real functions defined in complete analogy with functions F~ (i = 1, 2, 3)
given by relations (3). These functions are given by:
1

Ga(r, O, n) = rlZ"r2-" cos (2ncpl - ngo2) - 2'

Gz(r, O, n) = 2nrr~ 2"- lr 2-n sin 0{sin [(2n - 1) (D1

--

nrg2]
1

- rlZr2 -1 sin [(2n + 1) go1 - (n + 1) ~o2]} + 2 '

(21)

G3(r, O, n) = 2nrrx2"-ir2 -" sin 0 { - c o s [(2n - 1) goa - ngoz]

+ rler2

a cos [(2n + 1) rpl - (n + 1) go2]}.

The radial behavior conditions, then, result in:

3D
ca = 4rr'

D
cz = ~-,

c3 = # i + 1 -

rD
~-,

(22)

where D is the radial derivative of or(r) for r = ri, given by:

~#(r)
D -

~?r - cry~

0Ga
0G2
~G3
Ga ~
+ 3Ga ~ - r + 3G3 a~(Gi2 + 3G22 + 3G32)l/e

(23)

and Ga, G2, G3 are expressed by relations (21) while rl is the respective polar radius of the
elastic-plastic boundary.
The exponent n in the above equations is generally a function of the angle 0, along which the
computations are performed at the effective loading step, or, equivalently, the respective value
rl of the radius of the plastic enclave.

82

R S. Theocaris

In order to evaluate this quantity we proceed by increasing the total strain by de on the
elastic-plastic boundary which corresponds to a new value for # given by:
(24)

8i+1 = ~i - H dg.

The stress #i+1 causes a shift of the curve ei to the curve e~+, for the elastic material and
a corresponding shift of the curve Pl to p~+ 1 for the strain-hardening material, as it is shown in
Fig. lb. In both cases, the increase in strain-energy density is represented by the area we of the
strip between e~ and e~+l in the elastic material and the area wp between p~ and P~+I in the
elastic-plastic material. These two quantities we and w, are related, as it is shown in Fig. lb, by:
O-max

Area ( O F ' F ' )

We

wp

Area(OAFF')

O-o2

E{o-0(l_l)

+ H+~}

2,

(25)

where O'max is the m a x i m u m value of # inside the plastically deformed enclave.

On the other hand, concerning we and wp, it is valid that:
wj = ~ [~{+,(r) - #,J(r)] dr,

j = e, p,

(26)

where #i+ l(r) and #i(r) are given by Eqs. (18) with the superscript j = p for the elastic-plastic
material and by Eq. (5) for the elastic material, with the superscript e. Taking into consideration
Eqs. (5), (18) and (26), relation (25) has two unknown quantities, O-ooand n.
The value for a~o may be found by averaging the %-stress distribution along the minimum
section of the cracked plate. Thus the mean value of the O-y-stress component along the minimum
section yields the value a~. Introducing this value into Eq. (23) for r > r~ we define the value for
the exponent n. Introduction of the computed values of O-ooand n into Eq. (18.2) gives a new value
ri+ 1 for the radius of the elastic-plastic boundary point (ri+ 1, a~+ ~ = O-o)in Fig. lb. This point
replaces the previous one (rl, #~ = O-o)and lies on the new elastic-plastic boundary, i.e. it is again
represented by the point A in Fig. la.
The above described procedure can be repeated for the new increment dg, as well as for any
other 0-direction. This iterative procedure continues up to the desired loading step or, anyhow,
up to a value of ~oo not exceeding O-oFinally, by connecting points r belonging at the same load-step O-oofor - rc < 0 < ~, we plot
successive elastic-plastic boundaries. The same procedure can be applied either along the
elastic-plastic boundary or along circles centered on the crack-tip, in order to evaluate the
stress-components. It remains now to define the form of stress distribution inside the plastic
enclave and evaluate the coefficients c~ (i = 1, 2, 3) in relation (18.1).

The photoelastic evaluation of the stresses along the minimum section

It remains to evaluate the exact stress distribution inside the elastic field and the plastic enclaves
at least along the minimum section of the plate in order to define accurately the factors
cl (i = 1, 2, 3) determining Eq. (18.1) yielding the distribution of the effective stress #(r) inside the
stress field. For this purpose use was made of the method of photoelastic coatings which is
a powerful experimental method for defining the stress distribution inside a contained plasticity
problem [)4] - [161.

Elastic-plastic analysis of cracked plates

83

The method consists of cementing a thin layer of a polymeric substance presenting a high
coefficient of birefringence on the polished surface of the specimen made of the same material
which is under study. Linear and circular polarization of a white or monochromatic light bundle,
impinging on and reflected from the surface of the loaded matallic specimen, yields the isolinic
and the isochromatic ensembles created because of the straining of the coating, which follows the
deformations of the specimen, which constitutes the substrate of the "canap6". Then, while the
metallic specimen may deform elastically or plastically, the birefringent coating, which is a rather
brittle material and yields insignificantly, is deformed only elastically. Then the components of
strain in the coating may be readily determined by solving the elastic problem. These strains,
being equal to the strains of the substrate, yield the means to evaluate the elastic and plastic
components of the plastically deformed specimen.
Variations of the method have been used with success for various elastoplastic problems
[17] - [20] and they are considered as reasonably accurate for obvious reasons, but also since they
were used as standards to compare the accuracies of other experimental methods and especially
the numerical methods [35],[36], [41]. Therefore, the method will not be described here in detail,
since it will be applied in its simplest form to yield the values of the strain components along only

Fig. 2. The isochromatic patterns for a symmetrically edge-cracked plate at four different loading steps

84

R S. Theocaris

the minimum sections of the specimens, which are sufficient for the determination of the
coefficients ci.
For this purpose the shear difference method, as it has been introduced and applied
extensively in [37], was used for the separation of the Cartesian components of stresses along the
minimum sections of the tested cracked plates. Since the shear difference method is based
exclusively on the equilibrium equations for stresses, its validity is not restricted only to purely
elastic problems and therefore its use is allowed allover any intersection of the elastic-plastic
stress field.
For the separation of the Cartesian components of stresses it is necessary to dispose, besides
the ensemble of isochromatics or trajectories of the principal stress differences, the network of
is oclinics. For the minimum sections, which constitute sections of symmetry of the plate, it is well
known that the components of stresses parallel and normal to the minimum section are principal
stresses. Therefore these axes belong to a zero order isoclinic and the shear stress at the above
system is equal to zero. This simplifies considerably the evaluation of individual stresses along
these sections.
Figure 2 ( a - d ) presents the network of the isochromatics of a steel plate, symmetrically
edge-cracked, subjected to simple tension, normal to the crack-axis. The material of the plate is
a high-yield strength alloy steel under the trade name USS-T1, quenched and tempered, which
presents a linear elastic stress-strain relationship up to the yield point and an almost flat yield
characteristic corresponding to a value H/E = 0.05. The mechanical properties of this material
are given in [38].
The families of isochromatics presented in Fig. 2 correspond to four successive steps of
loading. While Fig. 2a presents the loading step for incipient plastic deformation, Fig. 2b
corresponds to a significant advance of the plastic enclaves around the crack tips of the plate.
Figures 2 c and 2d indicate cases of progressive loading of the plate where the brittle birefringent

/I

-~.0

-3.0

-2'.0

-Ii0

0A

1.0

2.0

~ccr'ack-tip

3.0
(cm)

Fig. 3. The network of isoclinics around the crack tip of an edge cracked plate under plane stress for a low
strain-hardening material H/E = 0.05

Elastic-plastic analysis of cracked plates

85

coating, incapable to follow the plastic deformations of the extended plastic enclaves presents
a partial dislocation with the metallic substrate. The distinctively defined dislocation boundaries
in both figures correspond exactly to the respective elastic-plastic boundaries of the metallic plate
under plane-stress conditions.
Indeed, it is reasonable and obvious to accept that as soon as the components of strains,
and especially the equivalent or effective strain g overpasses the elastic-plastic boundary and
starts to increase rapidly it forces the still elastically deforming brittle coating to dislocate from
the metallic substratum, thus creating this splitting or "delamination" effect. It is worthwhile
indicating that it is the first and only direct experimental definition of the elastic-plastic
boundary in plastically deformed materials and the picture coincides exactly with respective
figures of such boundaries defined either experimentally [17]- [20] or numerically [35], [36] and
[41].
Figure 3 presents the ensemble of the isoclinics for the same problem and for the impending
plasticity loading step. However, the network of isoelinics in the successive loading steps, when
the plastic enclaves are spreading inside the stress field, does not change significantly especially in
the zone delineated by an ellipse having as major axis the minimum section of the specimen. The
only variation is that its minor axis is reduced as the loading is processing and the orders of the
isochromatics move towards the axis of symmetry of the plate. This again facilitates the
calculations especially in this interior zone, which is the most important one.
The shear difference analysis, yielding the values of the individual stresses inside the stress
field, allows the evaluation of the coefficients ci (i = 1, 2, 3) and, thus, Eq. (18.1) is completely
defined. Then, applying the completely defined relationships (18), (23) and (24) we can determine
points of the stress field corresponding to the same load level ~% either along the elastic-plastic
boundary or along any polar distance inside either the elastic or the plastic region of the stress
field.
Figure 4 presents the equivalent or effective stress distribution #, normalized to the yield
stress ~ro in simple tension of the respective plain specimen, along the minimum section, for
1.5

HIE =0.3

, \ .'-,

~
--.

0N

--

H=O ~ - - . . . . .
(elastic)

0
0

.35

0.1

0.2

0.3

O.t~

0.5

xlQ
Fig. 4. The radial distribution of the reduced value of equivalent stress c?/Crofor 0 = 0~ versus the reduced
ratios r/a - x/a from the crack tip for a material with H I E = 0.3

86

R S. Theocaris

parametric values of the ratio c%/ao, that is as the externally applied tensile load is increased
continuously.
It is worthwhile noting that the results given for the material with H/E = 0.30 along the
minimum section resemble the respective results for the remaining three other types of materials
studied. The only difference, apart for the values ofa~/ao at the crack tip and the middle points of
the minimum sections, is that, as the material strain-hardens the inside, the plastic enclaves
maxima of the ay-stresses are reduced relatively to their respective values at the crack tips.
However, the trends of the curves are similar, thus justifying the representation of the variation of
the #(r)-curves by the relation (18.1). Outside the area around the minimum sections of the plates
the interior maxima of the #(r)-distributions progressively disappear as the polar angles
0 increase from 0 = 0 ~ at the minimum section to 0 --, _+~z/2 along the Ay-axis. This means that
the coefficients c~ in relation (18.1) are slightly changing with the polar angle 0.

Application of the method and results

The above-described method was applied in four types of different engineering materials
presenting different amounts of strain hardening and its results were compared to already
existing results derived by other methods. To initiate the computations, the following material
properties and constants are required: the modulus of elasticity, E, Poisson's ratio, v, the plastic
tangential modulus, H, and the yield stress in simple tension ao of the uncracked material. Also,

g/o"o = 0.75

8 edg

H/E:O.05

0.72

0.7!

Fig. 5. Polar distribution of the r~radii of the elastic-plastic boundary

around the crack-tip for various
levels of the applied load for the
materials with H/E = 0.3

Elastic-plastic analysis of cracked plates

87

crack
HIE:0.3

Fig. 6. Polar distribution of the rl-radii of the elastic-plastic

boundary around the crack-tip for various levels of the
applied load for the materials with HIE = 0.5

the magnitude of the increment dg of the equivalent strain, g, was defined according to the details
of the solution of each problem and the first value of the ratio r/a of the radius of the initial plastic
enclave for 0 = 0 ~ to the crack length, a, as evaluated according to the Irwin formula [1]. For all
the materials it was taken cro = 0.77 MPa, E = 210 MPa, v = 0.34, dg = 0.001, r/a = 0.01 and
a = 7.5 x 10 .3 m. It must be noted that the value of dg affects only the number of iterations
leaving unaltered the results for small dds.
Using the data derived by the solution of the system of equations along different polar angles
0 (0 < < 0 < + ~/2) we have plotted in Figs. 5 and 6 the elastic-plastic boundaries for the types of
materials with II/E = 0.05 and H/E = 0.30 respectively, as they have evoluted with the increase
of the externally applied load cr~ ( ~ / ~ o = 0.38 - 0.75 for HIE = 0.05 and a~/C~o= 0.173 - 0.70
for H/E = 0.30).
Figure 7 presents the evolution of the elastic plastic boundary in an infinite plate containing
an internal crack of length 2 a and subjected to a tensile load cr~ at infinity and, therefore, loaded
in plane-stress conditions. These boundaries were derived by a numerical solution of the problem
using the P A P S T programme with finite elements [39], [40].
All these curves are symmetric to the crack axis where they present a shallow minimum.
Furthermore, they present maxima at symmetric positions on both sides of the crack axis and at
angles 0m depending on the ratios H/E, as well as on the amount of the external loading of the
plates. Figure 8 presents the variation ofthe position of these maxima as the loading of the plates
is increasing.
It is interesting to point out that these maxima for 0 are diminishing as the loading is
increasing and plastic enclaves initiate and expand. This means that introduction of plasticity
results in a displacement of the maxima of the elastic-plastic boundaries towards the axis of
symmetry of the plate. Moreover, this phenomenon of rapid angular displacement of the maxima
in the elastic-plastic boundary is more intense for ductile materials and it is progressively slowed
down as the strain-hardening of the material is higher.

88

R S. Theocaris

in[ernalcrack

/
tip

H/E=0.05

A'OI A I

i
Fig. 7. Polar distribution of the rl-radii of the elastic-plastic boundary around the crack-tip for various levels
of the applied load as derived by applying a finite element analysis with the PAPST programme for an
internally cracked plate made of a low strain-hardening material with HIE = 0.05

750

70~ "

0.50

1 650

60 o

55~
0

0.25

0.50

0.75

Fig. 8. Variation of the direction O,, of the maximum radius of the elastic-pIastic boundary versus applied
toad for materials with different H/E-ratios

Elastic-plastic analysis of cracked plates

89

0.9
H

0.8

0.7

0.6
H/E=0.30%

./E:o.so

0.5
0.1

0.2

0.3

0.~-

x/a
Fig. 9. Variation of the exponent n versus reduced radius rp/a of the elastic-plastic boundary for four
materials with different H/E-ratios

Figure 9 presents the variation of the exponent n versus the reduced radius rp/a of the
elastic-plastic boundary for 0 = 0 ~ (rp = x) for the four selected materials. This exponent is
always greater than 1/2. As it can be seen, the more ductile the behavior of a material the higher
values for n are valid. The brittle material H/E = 0.30 shows a limited variation in the values of
this exponent and, finally, the values for the brittlest one with H/E = 0.50 almost coincide with
the elastic value for n = 1/2, as it should be expected. Concerning the polar variation of this
parameter, it is constant around the crack-tip within 2 percent.
Figure 10 shows the variation of the reduced value rp/a (rp/a - x/a) of the radius of the
elastic-plastic boundary ahead of the crack-axis, for 0 = 0 ~ versus the reduced value a~/ao of the
stress at infinity for the same four materials. For comparison, the elastically computed radius is
also plotted. As for the exponent n, the harder the material the smaller is the size of the plastically
deformed zone, tending to the lower (elastic) limit in the case of the brittlest material with
H/E = 0.50.
Figure 11 gives a comparison of the results of the present method with already existing
methods for a material simulating polycarbonate of Bisphenol-A (PCBA) with E = 2.8 MPa,
a0 = 0.05 MPa, v = 0.34, H/E = 0.15. The results plotted in this figure are taken from
experimental data given in [34] for sharply cracked PCBA-plates, as well as from the numerical
results using the finite-element method programme P A P S T [40] and from [7] from a solution for
small scale yielding. It can be concluded that all the existing data agree satisfactorily with the
present results, taking into consideration that PCBA was supposed bi-linear and that the results
of [7] are for hardening exponent n = 5 which is not exactly the case for PCBA.

90

R S. Theocaris

m
0A

0.3

~0.2
x
lli

0.1

Fig. 10. Varialion of the reduced value rJa

of the radius of the elastic-plastic boundary
ahead the crack tip for 0 = 0 ~ versus the
reduced value a~-| o of the stress at infinity
for the four materials with different H/Eratios

0
0

0.25

0.50

0.75

o-Mo-o ---~
0.8

I
x
A
[]

:Popsf

I
6ifford and Hil.fon[401

: Theocc~ris [31.]
:Hiti'on and Hutchinson [7 ]
,. : P r e s e n f m e t h o d

0.6

~0.~.
t~
x
III

-2

0.2-/

(7:

Fig. 11. Comparison of the values rp/aversus cr~/Cro obtained from the present method and three existing ones for polycarbonate
0

0.25

0.50
or=l%

0.75

Elastic-plastic analysis of cracked plates

1.50

91

.. Hitton ond Hufchinson [71

"'+-,~, - - :

%%

Presen~ mefhod

1.00

tO.50

I-,
b

",,2,, I
Fig. 12. Variation of the polar stress-components ~r, a0, ~r0,in the upper half-plane of
the cracked plate according to the present
method and that of Hilton and Hutchinson
[7]

-0.50
0

~1~.

~12

3r~IZ~

Finally, Fig. 12 presents the distribution of the reduced to the yield-stress, ~ro,stresses #, at, or0
and rr0 versus the polar angle 0 around the crack tip (0 =< 0 < 7) according to the present method
and as they are reported in [7] for a material with H/E = 0.15. Taking into consideration the
already mentioned divergences between the results of the present method and those given by
Hilton and Hutchinson [7] concerning the elastic-plastic boundary, the observed qualitative
agreement may be considered as satisfactory. In any case the results derived by the method
developed in this paper present a more reasonable distribution in agreement with basic physical
laws.

Conclusions

The paper presents a simple and fast method for the computation of the elastic-plastic stress field
around a crack-tip, based on the fundamental laws of the theory of plasticity. This was done by
means of two simple hypotheses concerning the relative behavior of the elastic and plastic
components of strains and the radial distribution of the equivalent stress. An '~
condition
was, also, added to initiate the whole procedure. The two main hypotheses were shown to
comply, according to the case, either with the theory of elasticity, or with the incremental theory
of plasticity, as it is described by the Prandtl-Reuss equations.
In addition, in some aspects, the present method seems to result in better approximations of real situations. For example, in Fig. 12, according to the solution given in [7] the
radial stresses, at, (and consequently #) have non-zero values (highly compressive at) at the
crack flanks (0 = 180~ although this region is generally assumed as free of loading. The
present method gives stress-free crack-lips. To this aspect the present method seems to be
superior.
Also, the results obtained by the present method are more sensitive to the variations of the
mechanical properties of the materials, as compared with those of the finite-element method. At
least, the specific programme (PAPST) used for comparison is completely insensitive to the
influence of the ratio H/E, which only slightly affects its results.

92

R S. Theocaris

The sensitivity of the present method depends considerably on the accurate evaluation
through photoelasticity of the stress distribution inside the plastic enclaves and the evaluation of
the equivalent stress inside the plastically deformed zones. However, the specific polynomial
selected in (18.1) to express the stress distribution inside the plastic enclaves has the advantage to
simulate the "local-hardening effect" experimentally verified for P C B A [34].
Similar remarks can be m a d e for the initial (elastic) value of the radius of the elastic-plastic
b o u n d a r y ahead of the crack. Such a quantity is necessary to describe the onset of plasticity and
its value must be c o m p a r a b l e to the diameter of a grain in metals or a similar quantity in other
materials. This "structural p a r a m e t e r " obviously affects the plastic behavior of the material
although it is absent from the point of view of continuum mechanics. However it is a c o m m o n use
for all methods solving plasticity problems to m a k e use of the Irwin assumption [1] for the
definition of the initial rp.
Exponent n, introduced in Eqs. (14), must not be confused with the hardening coefficient. The
latter is a constant necessary to describe algebraically the whole shape of the curve 6 = f(g). On
the contrary, our exponent n varies not only with the specific material, but also with the
corresponding load- or strain-level, encountering the path-history of the material, in a sense
more suitable to the considerations of the theory of plasticity.
Finally, the man- and computer-cost to get the same results from the present m e t h o d is much
lower that that from the P A P S T numerical method which was also used, and although we have
not d a t a on the cost methods similar to the method by Hutchinson, it seems p r o b a b l e that their
cost is comparable rather with the P A P S T - c o s t than with the cost of the present method.

Acknowledgement
The author is indebted to his secretary Mrs. A. Zografaki for helping him in typing the manuscript and
p!otting the figures of the paper.

References
[1] McClintock, E A., Irwin, G. R.: Fracture toughness testing and its applications. ASTM-STP 381,
84-113 (1965).
[2] Willis, J. R.: Crack propagation in viscoelastic media. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 15, 229-240 (1967).
[3] Rice, J. R.: Mathematical analysis in the mechanics of fracture. In: Fracture, II, An advanced treatise
(Liebowitz, H., ed.), pp. 191-311. New York: Academic Press 1968.
[4] Rice, J. R., Rosengren, G. F.: Plane strain deformation near a crack tip in a power law hardening
material. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 16, 1 - 1 2 (1968).
[5] Hutchinson, J. W.: Singular behavior at the end of a tensile crack in a hardening material. J. Mech. Phys.
Solids 16, 13-31 (1986).
[6] Hutchinson, J. W.: Plastic stress and strain fields at a crack tip. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 16, 3 3 7 - 347 (1968).
[7] Hilton, R D., Hutchinson, J. W.: Plastic intensity factors for cracked plates. Eng. Fract. Mech. 3,
435-451 (1971).
[8] Amazigo, J. C., Hutchinson, J. W.: Crack-tip fields in steady crack growth with linear strain hardening.
J. Mech. Phys. Solids 25, 8 1 - 9 7 (1977).
[9] Edmunds, T. M., Willis, J. R.: Matched asymptotic expansions in nonlinear fracture mechanics-III. In
plane loading of an elastic perfectly-plastic symmetric specimen. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 25, 423-455
(1977).
[10] Rice J. R., Sorensen, E. R: Continuing crack-tip deformation and fracture for plane strain crack growth
in elastic-plastic solids. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 26, 163-186 (1978).
[11] Begley, J. A., Landes, J. D.: Serendipity and the J-integral. Int. Fracture 12, R764--R766 (1976).

Elastic-plastic analysis of cracked plates

93

[12] Begley, J. A., Landes, J. D.: The J-integral as a fracture criterion. In: Fracture toughness (Corten, H. T.,
ed.) The 1971 National Symposium of Fracture of Mechanics, Part II, ASTM-STP 514, 1 - 2 0 (1972).
[13] Green, G., Knott, J: F.: On effects of thickness on ductile crack growth in mild steel. J. Mech. Phys. Solids
23, 167-183 (1975).
[14] Theocaris, R S., Mylonas, C.: Viscoelastic effects in birefringent coatings. J. Appl. Mech. 28, 6 0 1 - 607
(1961).
[15] Theocaris, P. S., Gdoutos, E.: Matrix theory of photoelasticity. Berlin Heidelberg New York: Springer
1979 (Optical science series vol 11).
[16] Theocaris, P. S.: Combined photoelastic and electrical analog method for solution of plane-stress
plasticity problems. Exp. Mech. 3, 207-214 (1963).
[17] Theocaris, P. S.: Experimental solution of elastic-plastic plane stress problems. J. Appl. Mech. 29,
735--743 (1962).
[18] Theocaris, P. S., Marketos, E.: The elastic-plastic strain and stress distribution in notched plates under
conditions of plane stress. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 11, 411-428 (1963).
[19] Theocaris, P. S., Marketos, E.: Elastic plastic analysis of perforated thin strips of a strain hardening
material. J. Mech. Phys. Solids 12, 377-390 (1964).
[20] Theocaris, P. S.: The evolution of stress distribution in plane-stress contained plasticity problems. In:
Proc. l l t h Intern. Congr. Appl. Mech. (G6rtler, H., ed.), pp. 569-574. Berlin Heidelberg New York:
Springer 1965.
[21] Theocaris, P. S., Gdoutos, E.: Verification of the validity of the Dugdale-Barenblatt model by the
method of caustics. Eng. Fract. Mech. 6, 523-535 (1974).
[22] Theocaris, P. S., Gdoutos, E.: The modified Dugdale-Barenblatt model adapted to various fracture
configurations in metals. Int. Fracture 10, 549-564 (1974).
[23] Theocaris, P. S.: Dugdale models for two collinear unequal cracks. Eng. Fract. Mech. 18, 545-559
(1983).
[24] Theocaris, P. S.: Dugdale type crack tip plasticity in orthotropic plates studied by caustics. Eng. Fract.
Mech. 41, 283-297 (1992).
[25] Theocaris, P. S.: Experimental evaluation of the plastic zone for steady mode-III crack growth. Acta
Mech. 69, 271-294 (1987).
[26] Theocaris, P. S., Philipps, Th.: Plastic stress intensity factors in out-of-plane shear by reflected caustics.
Eng. Fract. Mech. 27, 299-314 (1987).
[27] Theocaris, P. S.: Stress intensities in elastic-plastic plane-stress field by caustics. Acta Mech. 87,
219-238 (1991).
[28] Stimpson, L. D., Eaton, D. M.: The extent of elasto-plastic yielding at the crack point of an externally
notched plane-stress tensile specimen. Rep. ARL-24, Aeronautical Research Laboratory (1961).
[29] Muskhelishvili, N. I.: Some basic problems of the mathematical theory of elasticity. Leyden: Noordhoff
1963.
[30] Wigglesworth, L. A.: Stress distribution in a notched plate. Mathematica 4, 7 6 - 9 6 (1957).
[31] Bowie, O. L., Neal, D. M.: Single edge-crack in rectangular tensile sheet. J. Appl. Mech. 32, 708-709
(1965).
[32] Hill, R.: The mathematical theory of plasticity. Oxford: Oxford University Press 1950.
[33] Allen, D. N. de G., Southwell, R.: Relaxation methods applied to engineering problems. XIV Plastic
straining in two-dimensional stress systems. Phil. Trans. Royal Soc. (London) A 242 (2), 379 - 416 (1950).
[34] Theocaris, P. S.: Ductile fracture in glassy polymers. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 17, 475-485 (1975).
[35] Tuba, I. S.: An analytical method for elastic-plastic solutions. Int. J. Solids Struct. 3, 543-564 (1967).
[36] Marcal, P. V., King, I. P.: Elastic-plastic analysis of two dimensional stress systems by the finite element
method. Int. J. Mech. Sci. 8, 143-155 (1967).
[37] Frocht, M. M.: Photoelasticity, Vol. I, pp. 252-285. New York: J. Wiley 1949.
[38] Theocaris, P. S., Coroneos, A.: Stress-strain and contraction ratio curves for polycrystalline steel. The
Phil. Magazine 8, 1871-1893 (1963).
[39] Theocaris, P. S.: On the use of the T-criterion in fracture mechanics (discussion). Eng. Fract. Mech. 24,
371-382 (1986).
[40] Gifford, N., Hilton, P. D.: PAPST non-linear fracture and stress analysis by finite elements. David
Taylor naval ship research and development center Bethesda, Maryland 1 - 75 (1981).
[41] Frocht, M. M.: Elastic-plastic solutions for notched shafts in tension. J. Appl. Mech. 33, 9 5 4 - 956 (1966).
Author's address: R S. Theocaris, National Academy of Athens, RO. Box 77230, 17 510 Athens, Greece