Hwa Chong Institution

Sec 4 Chemistry
Name: _______________________ (

Class: 4 (

Date:

Topic: Rate of Reaction

Pupils should be able to:
(a) describe the effect of concentration, pressure, particle size and temperature on the
speeds of reactions and explain these effects in terms of collisions between
reacting particles
(b) describe how the above factors are used to explain the danger of explosive
combustion with fine powders (e.g. in flour mills) and combustible gases (e.g. in
mines)
(c) define the term catalyst and describe the effect of catalysts (including enzymes) on
the rates of reactions
(d) explain how pathways with lower activation energies account for the increase in
rates of reactions
(e) state that some compounds act as catalyst in a range of industrial processes and
that enzymes are biological catalyst
(f) suggest a suitable method for investigating the effect of a given variable on the rate
of a reaction
(g) interpret data obtained from experiments concerned with rate of reaction
1. The Importance of Reaction Rate
The rate of reaction for a reactant or product in a particular chemical reaction is defined
as how fast a reaction takes place. For example, the oxidation (rusting) of iron under the
atmosphere is a slow reaction which can take many years, but the combustion of butane
in a fire is a reaction that takes place in fractions of a second.
Speeds of reactions are also important in industry. Many industrial reactions must be fast
so that large amounts of products are formed in a short time. A slow reaction means slow
production which means less profit.
2. Measuring the Rate of Reaction
By rate of reaction, we mean how quickly a reactant is used up or how quickly a product
is formed.
The rate of reaction can be measured by measuring:
1) the time taken for reaction to be complete
2) the amount of reactant used up in a period of time
Rate of reaction =

Amount of reactant used up

Time taken

3) the amount of product produced in a period of time

Rate of reaction =

Amount of product obtained

Time taken

4) For a chemical reaction that produces a gas,

Rate of reaction =

Seck-tanbc/ rate of reaction

Volume of gas produced

Time taken

adapted from Mr Vincent Tans lecture notes

The method chosen to measure the rate of a reaction depends on the

particular chemical reaction being investigated.
E.g. Reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid
Equation:
CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq)

CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

Method 1:
To measure time taken for reaction to be completed
test-tube
Hydrochlori
c acid
calcium
carbonate

The reaction ____________ when acid is poured into the test-tube which
contains calcium carbonate.
Reaction is complete when there is _____________________________.
Time taken for the reaction is measured from when acid is added to when
no more effervescence observed.
Rate of reaction is inversely proportional to the time taken for reaction to be
completed
Rate 1/time

Method 2:
To measure the volume of CO2 evolved at regular time intervals
gas
syringe

stopwatch

calcium
carbonate
hydrochloric
acid

Seck-tanbc/ rate of reaction

adapted from Mr Vincent Tans lecture notes

Graph of volume of CO2 produced against time

Volume of CO2
evolved / cm3

Time / min

The following observation can be made from the graph:

(1) The rate changes throughout the reaction.
It is highest at the start, but decreases as the reaction proceeds.
(2) The curve becomes flat when the reaction is over.
Gradient is zero at the end of the reaction.
Inference:
Rate of reaction is equal to the ____________ of the tangent drawn to the curve
at that time. The ___________ the gradient, the faster is the reaction.
Explain the shape of the graph.

Method 3:
To measure the change in mass against time

(Calcium
carbonate)

Seck-tanbc/ rate of reaction

adapted from Mr Vincent Tans lecture notes

Questions:
1. W hy will there be a change in mass over a period of time?

2. W hat is the use of the plug of cotton wool?

3. Plot a graph to show how the mass of the flask and its contents changes with time.
Mass of flask
and contents /g

Time/min
4. Plot a graph of loss in mass of the flask and its contents against time.
Loss in mass
of flask and
contents /g

Time/min

Other methods of measuring rate of reaction:

Measuring the time taken for a precipitate to form

E.g. Reaction between sodium thiosulphate and dilute hydrochloric acid

Equation:

Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HCl(aq)

2NaCl(aq) + S(s) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)

Measure the time taken for the X to disappear from view.

Seck-tanbc/ rate of reaction

adapted from Mr Vincent Tans lecture notes

Measuring the changes in pH

E.g. Reaction between magnesium and dilute hydrochloric acid

Equation:

Mg(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2 (g)

Measure the pH of the reacting mixture at regular time intervals

pH
7

Time / min

3. The Collision Theory

Consider the reaction between hydrogen and chlorine to form hydrogen chloride.
The collision theory can be used to explain why some hydrogen and chlorine molecules
react to form hydrogen chloride but others do not.
1. The collision theory states that for a reaction to occur between 2 particles,
a) the reacting particles must collide with each other, and
b) they must collide with a certain minimum energy known as the activation
energy, and with the correct orientation.
Activation energy is the minimum amount of energy that
reacting molecules must have in order for a chemical reaction to occur.
2. A collision that results in the formation of product molecules is called an
effective collision.
3. In order for a chemical reaction to occur, effective collisions must take place between
the reacting particles.
4. Thus, fast moving hydrogen and chlorine molecules with energies equal to or
greater than the activation energy will react on collision to form hydrogen chloride.

Seck-tanbc/ rate of reaction

adapted from Mr Vincent Tans lecture notes

4. Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction

Factor

Increases the number of effective collisions per unit

Increases the frequency of effective

collisions between reacting particles

Increases rate of reaction

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Factors to consider:
Concentration of solution
Temperature
Particle size (relating to surface area)
Pressure of gas
Catalyst

5. Use the following set-up to study the effect of different factors on the

rate of reaction between calcium carbonate and hydrochloric acid.

Equation:

CaCO3 (s) + 2HCl (aq)

CaCl2 (aq) + CO2 (g) + H2O (l)

gas
syringe

stopwatch

calcium
carbonate
hydrochloric
acid

Seck-tanbc/ rate of reaction

adapted from Mr Vincent Tans lecture notes

5.1

Concentration of solution

Example 1:

To study the effect of concentration of acid on the reaction between calcium

carbonate and hydrochloric acid

Reaction A: CaCO3 + 2 mol/dm3 of HCl

Reaction B: CaCO3 + 1 mol/dm3 of HCl
Variables:
Independent variable:
Concentration of dilute hydrochloric acid
Constant variables:
________________ of dilute hydrochloric acid
________________ of dilute hydrochloric acid
Mass of calcium carbonate
Particle size
Dependent variable:
Volume of carbon dioxide produced

Result (1):
Volume of CO2 evolved / cm3
2 mol/dm3 HCl

Reaction B has completely reacted

1 mol/dm3 HCl

Reaction A has completely reacted

Time / min

Comments:
a)

Graph for reaction A is more __________ than that for B.

b)

Reactants in reaction ____ are used up faster than reactants in reaction ___.

c)

The limiting reactant in both reactions is ________________________

d)

Volume of carbon dioxide produced is ________________ in both reactions.

Seck-tanbc/ rate of reaction

adapted from Mr Vincent Tans lecture notes

Explanation
An increase in concentration of the acid will cause an increase in
the ____________ of hydrogen ions present
_____________________ of the acid.

This will result in an increase in the ________________ of

_____________ collisions between the reacting particles
(in this case, hydrogen ions and calcium carbonate).

Thus, the rate of reaction increases.

Result (2): Hydrochloric acid is the limiting reactant.

Volume of
CO2 / cm3

Time/min

Comments:
a) Calcium carbonate is in _____________.
b) No. of moles of hydrogen ions used in reaction A is ______________ the no. of
hydrogen ions used in reaction B.
c) Volume of carbon dioxide produced in reaction A is ________________ the volume
of carbon dioxide produced in reaction B.

Seck-tanbc/ rate of reaction

adapted from Mr Vincent Tans lecture notes

Example 2:

To study the effect of concentration of acid on the reaction between sodium

thiosulphate and dilute hydrochloric acid

Equation:

Na2S2O3(aq) + 2HCl(aq)

2NaCl(aq) + S(s) + SO2(g) + H2O(l)

Reaction A: sodium thiosulphate solution + 2 mol/dm3 of HCl

Reaction B:sodium thiosulphate solution + 1mol/dm3 of HCl

Time taken for the cross to disappear is shorter in Reaction A than in Reaction B
Rate 1/time
Rate of Reaction A is faster than Reaction B

Explanation
An increase in concentration of the acid will cause an increase in
the ____________ of hydrogen ions present
_____________________ of the acid.

This will result in an increase in the ________________ of

_____________ collisions between the reacting particles
(in this case, hydrogen ions and thiosulphate ions).

Thus, the rate of reaction increases.

Seck-tanbc/ rate of reaction

adapted from Mr Vincent Tans lecture notes

5.2 Temperature
Example:

To study the effect of temperature of acid on the reaction between calcium

carbonate and hydrochloric acid

Reaction A: 30oC
Reaction B: 40oC
Variables:
Independent variable:
____________________of dilute hydrochloric acid
Constant variables:

__________________ of dilute hydrochloric acid

__________________ of dilute hydrochloric acid

Mass of calcium carbonate

Particle size

Dependent variable:
Volume of carbon dioxide produced

Result:

Volume of
CO2 / cm3

Time/min

Conclusion: Reaction _____ is faster than reaction ________.

Explanation
At temperature is higher, the reacting particles move faster, and collide with
each other more frequently.
As the particles have more kinetic energy, there is an increase in the number of
particles colliding with energy equal to or greater than the activation energy.
This results in an increase in the frequency of effective collisions between the
reacting particles and an increase in rate of reaction
In general, the speed of reaction doubles for every 10oC increase in temperature.

Seck-tanbc/ rate of reaction

10 adapted from Mr Vincent Tans lecture notes

5.3 Particle Size

Example:

To study the effect of particle size on the reaction between calcium

carbonate and hydrochloric acid

Reaction A: large pieces of CaCO3 + 1 mol/dm3 of HCl

Reaction B: powdered CaCO3 + 1 mol/dm3 of HCl
Variables:
Independent variable:
Particle size of calcium carbonate
Constant variables:

________________ of dilute hydrochloric acid

________________ of dilute hydrochloric acid

________________ of dilute hydrochloric acid

Mass of calcium carbonate

Dependent variable:
Volume of carbon dioxide produced

Result:
Volume of CO2
evolved / cm3

Powdered CaCO3

Large pieces of CaCO3

Time / min
Conclusion: Reaction _____ is faster than reaction ________.
Explanation

When powdered CaCO3 is used, the total surface area of the carbonate
particles that is exposed for reaction with the acid ___________.

This increases the __________________ of _____________

________________ between hydrogen ions and calcium carbonate.
Thus, the rate of reaction increases.

Seck-tanbc/ rate of reaction

11 adapted from Mr Vincent Tans lecture notes

Reaction A big
solid particles

Reaction B smaller
solid particles

Questions:
1.
What is the advantage of cooking food in small pieces?
2.

Why is coal dust dangerous in a mining area?

3.

Why are antacid tablets for gastric patients often chewed before being
swallowed?

5.4 Pressure of Gas

Example: N2 (g) + 2H2(g)

2NH3 (g)

Apply pressure

Explanation

Increasing the pressure of the gas _______________ the no. of gaseous molecules
per unit volume.

At higher pressures, the gaseous molecules are packed closer together.

This increases the __________________ of _____________ ________________

between gaseous molecules.

Thus, the rate of reaction increases.

Seck-tanbc/ rate of reaction

12 adapted from Mr Vincent Tans lecture notes

5.5 Catalysts

A catalyst is a substance which increases the speed of a chemical reaction,

but remains chemically and quantitatively unchanged at the end of the
reaction.
Characteristics:

only a ________ amount of a catalyst is needed to change the rate of a reaction

catalysts remain chemically unchanged after a reaction has taken place, but they
can be changed physically

catalysts are very ____________ to a particular chemical reaction

catalysts increase the rate but not the yield of a chemical reaction, i.e. the same
amount of products is formed whether a catalyst is used or not.

Example:

2H2O2 (aq)

2H2O (l) + O2 (g)

Reaction A: Aqueous H2O2 without manganese (IV) oxide MnO2

Reaction B: Aqueous H2O2 (aq) with 1g of manganese (IV) oxide MnO2

Result:
Volume of
O2 / cm3

Time/min
Conclusion:
Reaction B will be faster than reaction A.
Presence of catalyst does not affect the final amount of products formed

Seck-tanbc/ rate of reaction

13 adapted from Mr Vincent Tans lecture notes

Explanation

Catalysts provide an alternate reaction path which has lower

activation energy than the original reaction.

Thus, a larger number of particles could have sufficient energy to

overcome the new energy barrier.

Hence, the rate of reaction increases.

At the end of the reaction, the catalyst is released and can be reused.

On the same axes, draw a second curve to show the energy profile for the
catalysed reaction. Label the new activation energy.

Energy

Ea (without catalyst)

reactants
products

Progress of reaction

Explanation (for HETEROGENEOUS catalysts)

A solid catalyst provides active sites on their surface for reaction to occur.
The active sites serve as meeting points for the reacting molecules to come
together and form product molecules.
Activation energy is lowered as bonds are weakened at the active sites and
the reaction occurs faster.

Seck-tanbc/ rate of reaction

14 adapted from Mr Vincent Tans lecture notes

Example of HETEROGENEOUS catalyst (for info only)

Consider the production of ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen in the
Haber process. In this reaction, finely divided iron is used as a catalyst.
N2 (g) + 3H2 (g)

2NH3 (g)

The reacting molecules are adsorbed onto the "active sites" on the
surface of the iron particles.

Once adsorbed, the bonds in the reacting molecules are weakened.

The atoms formed can combine faster as they are close to each other
on the iron surface.

Once the ammonia molecules are formed, they are desorbed from
the active sites.

In this way, the weakening of the triple bond in nitrogen, and the faster
combination of nitrogen and hydrogen atoms, cause an increase in the
rate of formation of ammonia.

NOTE:
You are not expected to use the terms heterogeneous catalyst.
Common catalysts you need to know:
Process
Haber Process
3H2 + N2

Catalyst
2NH3

Iron

Contact Process
2SO2 + O2
2SO3
Manufacture of margarine
Vegetable oil + hydrogen
Acid and metal
Zn + H2SO4
ZnSO4 + H2

Vanadium oxide, V2O5

margarine

Nickel
Copper (*)

*Note:
Aqueous copper (II) sulphate is added to the reacting mixture. Copper produced
catalyses the reaction between zinc and dilute sulphuric acid.
ZnSO4 + Cu
Zn + CuSO4

Seck-tanbc/ rate of reaction

15 adapted from Mr Vincent Tans lecture notes

Enzymes: Biological Catalysts

Enzymes have the following properties:
1. They are made from proteins.
2. They are very specific in their actions. The human body contains many different
kinds of enzymes and each one does a single specific job. Amylases, for
example, the enzyme present in saliva, catalyses the reaction which changes
starch into sugar.
3. Enzymes are sensitive to temperatures. They operate most effectively at body
temperature (35 40 C). Too low a temperature will render enzymes inactive
while too high a temperature will cause enzymes to be denatured.
4. They are sensitive to pH changes. Most enzymes work best under pH 7.

Uses of enzymes
1. In the manufacture of wine and other alcoholic drinks, enzymes produced by
yeast (known as zymase) are used to catalyse the conversion of sugar or starch
to ethanol (fermentation)
yeast

C6H12O6(aq)
Glucose solution

2C2H5OH(aq) + 2CO2(g)
ethanol
carbon dioxide

2. Modern detergents (biological washing powders) contain enzymes which are very
effective in removing stains caused by protein-based substances such as food
and blood.
3. Enzymes can be used to make tough meat tender. One such enzyme is found in
the papaya fruit. You can make meat tender by squeezing juice from unripe
papaya onto the fresh meat.
4. Antibiotics are compounds that kill harmful bacteria. They are produced by
enzymes in fungi. The first antibiotic, penicillin, was discovered in 1928. Today,
penicillin and other antibiotics are extracted on a large scale from special strains
of fungi.

Bibliography
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalysis
http://www.chemguide.co.uk/physical/catalysis/introduction.html#top

Seck-tanbc/ rate of reaction

16 adapted from Mr Vincent Tans lecture notes