Tomasi Outlined

Electronics Systems and Technologies
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
CHAPTER 1 :Introduction to Electronic Communications
the transmission, reception and processing of information

between two or more locations using electronic circuits
signals that are time-varying voltages or currents that are

continuously changing, such as cosine and sine waves. It
contains an infinite number of values
analog signals
signals that are voltages or currents that change in discrete

steps or levels
digital signals
he invented the first workable telegraph
it is used to transfer information in the form of dots, dashes and

spaces between a simple transmitter and receiver using a
transmission line consisting of a length of metallic wire
Samuel Finley
Morse (1837)
electromagnetic
induction
they were the first to successfully transfer human conversation

over a crude metallic-wire communication system using a device
they called telephone
a logarithmic unit that can be used to measure ratios of virtually

anything
a transmission-measuring unit used to express relative gains

and losses of electronic devices and for describing relationships
between signals and noise
another name for power loss

a collection of one or more electronic devices or circuits that
converts the original source information to a form more suitable
for transmission over a particular transmission medium
attenuation
it provides a means of transporting signals between a

transmitter and a receiver and can be as simple as a pair of
copper wires
transmission medium or
communications channel
any unwanted electrical

information signal
system noise
receiver
a collection of electronic devices and circuits that accepts the

transmitted signals from the transmission medium and then
converts those signals back to their original form
higher-frequency analog signal
the process of changing one or more properties of the analog
modulation
signals
that
interfere
with
the
electronic
communications
Breese
Alexander Graham Bell

Thomas A. Watson
decibel (dB)
decibel
transmitter
carrier
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
carrier in proportion with the information signal
a system in which energy is transmitted and received in analog

form, both the information and the carrier are analog signals
Analog
system
communication
it covers a broad range of communication techniques including

digital and digital radio
Digital
system
communication
a true
digital system where digital pulses are transferred
between two or more points in communication system
digital transmission
the transmittal of digitally modulated analog carriers between

two or more points in communication system
digital radio
the information signal is analog and the amplitude of the carrier

is varied proportional to the information signal
Amplitude
(AM)
modulation
the frequency is varied proportional to the information signal
Frequency
(FM)
modulation
a circuit performing modulation in a transmitter
modulator
a carrier that has been acted on by an information signal
modulated
wave
modulated signal
the reverse process of modulation and converts the modulated

carrier back to the original information
it is often used to refer to a specific band of frequencies

allocated a particular service
channel
another name for information signal
intelligence signal
the process of converting a frequency or band of frequencies to

another location in the total frequency spectrum
frequency translation
it can propagate as a voltage or current along a metallic wire as

emitted radio waves through free space or as light waves down
an optical fiber
electromagnetic energy
simply the number of times a periodic motion such as sine wave

of voltage or current occurs in a given period of time
frequency
an international agency in control of allocating frequencies and

services with the overall frequency spectrum
International
Telecommunications
Union (UTI)
signals in the 30-Hz to 300-Hz range and include ac power

distribution signals (60Hz) and low frequency telemetry signals
signals in the 300-Hz to 3000-Hz range and include frequencies

generally associated with human speech, standard telephone
or
demodulation
Extremely
frequencies
Voice frequencies
low
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
channels
signals in the 3-kHz to 30-kHz range which include the upper

end of the human hearing range, specialized government and
military system (submarine communications)
Very low frequencies
signals in the 30-kHz to 300-kHz range and used primarily for

marine and aeronautical navigation
Low frequencies
signals in the 300-kHz to 3-MHz range and are used primarily

for commercial AM radio broadcasting (535 kHz to 1605 kHz)
Medium frequency
signals in the 3-MHz to 30-MHz range and are used for two-way
radio communications, Voice of America and Radio Free Europe
broadcast, amateur radio and citizens band (CB) radio
High frequencies
signals in the 30-MHZ to 300-MHz and are used for mobile radio,
marine, and aeronautical communications, commercial FM
broadcasting (88 MHz to 108 MHz), and commercial television
broadcasting of channels 2 to 13 (54 MHz to 216 MHz)
Very high frequencies
signals in the 300-MHz to 3-GHz range and are used by

commercial television broadcasting of channels 14 to 83, land
mobile communication services, cellular telephones, certain
radar and navigation systems, and microwave and satellite radio
systems
signal in the 3-GHz to 30-GHz range used for microwave and

satellite radio communication system
Superhigh frequencies
signals in the 30-GHz to 300-GHz range and seldom used for

radio communication system
Extremely
frequencies
signal in the 0.3-THz to 300-THz

electromagnetic radiation generally
associated with heat
range.
It
refers
to
Ultrahigh frequencies
high
Infrared
the length that one cycle of an electromagnetic wave occupies

in space. It is inversely proportional to the frequency of the wave
and directly proportional to the frequency of the wave and
directly proportional to the velocity of propagation
speed of light
the two most significant limitations on the performance of a
communication system
3 x 108 m/s
noise
bandwidth
simply the difference between

frequencies in the information
bandwidth
of
information signal
the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies that
the
highest
and
lowest
wavelength
bandwidth
of
an
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
the channel will allow to pass through
communication channel
a highly theoretical study of the efficient use of bandwidth to

propagate information through electronic communications
system
Information theory
a measure of how much information can be propagated through

a communications system and is a function of bandwidth and
transmission time
Information capacity
simply the number of bits transmitted during one second and is

expressed in bit per second
Bit rate
any undesirable electrical energy that falls within the passband

signal
Electrical noise
implies a relationship between the signal and the noise. Exist

only when a signal is present
correlated
noise present all the time whether there is signal or not
uncorrelated
noise that is generated outside the device or circuit
external noise
naturally occurring electrical disturbances that originate within

Earths surface like lightning
Atmospheric noise
another name for atmospheric noise
Static electricity
frequency of atmospheric noise
30 MHz
Extraterrestrial noise
consists of electrical signal that originate from outside Earths

atmosphere
another name for extraterrestrial noise
continuously distributed throughout the galaxies
Cosmic noise
another name for cosmic noise
Black-body noise
simply noise that is produced by mankind
Man-made noise
another name for man-made noise
Industrial noise
electrical interference generated within a device or circuit
internal noise
caused by random arrival of carriers at the output element of an

electronic device such as diode, field effect transistor or bipolar
transistor
Shot noise
any modification to a stream of carriers as they pass from the

input to the output of a device produces an irregular random
variation
Transit-time noise
Deep-space noise
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
the rapid and random movement of electrons within a conductor

due to thermal agitation
Thermal noise
another names for thermal noise:
occurs when unwanted harmonics of a signal are produced

through nonlinear amplification
Harmonic distortion
integer multiples of the original signal
Harmonics
another name for harmonic distortion
Amplitude distortion
the generation of unwanted sum and difference frequencies

produced when two or more signals mix in a nonlinear device
characterized by high-amplitude peaks of short duration in the

total noise spectrum
a form of external noise meaning to disturb or detract from
when information signals from one source produce frequencies

that fall outside their allocated bandwidth and interfere with
information signals from another source
the ratio of the signal power level to the noise power level
white noise
Brownian noise
Johnson noise
Intermodulation
distortion
Impulse noise
Interference
Electrical interference
Signal-to-noise
ratio
CHAPTER 2: Signal Analysis and Mixing
the only two levels possible in a digital signal
binary signal
four-level signals
quaternary digital signal
the voltage- or current-time variations that can be

represented by a series of sine or cosine waves
Electrical signals
a waveform which repeats at a uniform rate
Periodic
a description of a signal with respect to time
Time domain
a time-domain instrument
Oscilloscope
an amplitude-versus-time representation
signal
of the
Signal waveform
power
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
a description of a signal with respect to its

frequency
Frequency-domain
representation
a frequency-domain instrument
Spectrum analyzer
any repetitive waveform that is comprised of more

than one harmonically related sine or cosine wave
Sinusoidal wave
any periodic waveform that is not a sinusoid such as

square waves, rectangular waves and triangular
waves
Complex wave
a French physicist and mathematician who used a

mathematical series to analyze a complex periodic
wave
Baron Jean Fourier
a mathematical tool that allows us to move back

and forth between time and frequency domains. It is
used in signal analysis to represent the sinusoidal
components of non-sinusoidal periodic waveforms
it describes the symmetry of a waveform in the time

domain, that is, its relative position with respect to
the horizontal (time) and vertical (amplitude) axes
a periodic voltage waveform in symmetric about

vertical axis that have axes, or mirror, symmetry
Even symmetry
a periodic voltage waveform

point, or skew, symmetry
Odd symmetry
a periodic voltage waveform such that the waveform

for the first half-cycle repeats itself except with the
opposite sign for the second half cycle
a waveform consists of all the frequencies contained

in the waveform and their respective amplitudes
plotted in the frequency domain
range of frequencies contained in the spectrum

the difference between the highest and lowest
frequencies contained in the information
the difference between the highest and lowest
frequencies that the channel will allow to pass
through
that said to have
Fourier analysis
Wave symmetry
Half-wave symmetry
Frequency spectrum
Bandwidth
the rate at which energy is dissipated, delivered, or

used and is a function of the square of the voltage
or current
Electrical power
a time-domain signal is sampled at discrete times
Discrete Fourier transform
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
the computing time is proportional to n log 2n rather

that n2
Fast Fourier series
it reduces the information capacity of the system

the process of combining two or more signals and is
an essential process in electronic communications
Bandlimiting
Mixing
two ways in which signals can be combined or

mixed:
it occurs when two or more signals combine in a

linear device, such as passive network or a smallsignal amplifier
Linear summing
(linear mixing)
occurs when two or more signals are combined in a

nonlinear device such as a diode or large-signal
amplifier
Nolinear mixing
undesired harmonics
Harmonic distortion
desired harmonics
Frequency multiplication
linearly
nonlinearly
CHAPTER 3 : Oscillators, Phase-Locked Loops,

and Frequency Synthesizers
to fluctuate between two states or conditions, to

vibrate or to change
Oscillate
a device that produces oscillations
Oscillator
an amplifier with a feedback loop (i.e., a path to

propagate from the output back to input)
Feedback oscillators
four requirements for a feedback oscillator:
amplification
positive feedback
frequencydetermining
components
power source
an untuned oscillator RC phase shift oscillator that

uses both positive and negative feedback
Wien-bridge oscillator
oscillator circuits that utilize tuned LC tank circuits for

the frequency-determining components
LC oscillators
the ability of an oscillator to remain at a fixed

frequency and is of primary importance in
Frequency stability
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
communication systems
feedback oscillator circuits in which the LC tank circuit

is replaced
with a crystal for the frequencydetermining component
the study of the form, structure, properties, and
classifications of crystals. It deals with lattices,
bonding and the behavior of slices of crystal material
that have been cut at various angles with respect to
the crystals axes
Crystal oscillators
Crystallography
it occurs when oscillating mechanical stresses applied

across a crystal lattice structure generate electrical
oscillations and vice versa
another name for mechanical vibrations
Bulk Acoustic Waves

(BAWs)
it is consist of a crystal-controlled oscillator and a

voltage-variable component such as varactor diode
Crystal oscillator module
it is often used when describing varactor diode

fabrication
Graded junction
Piezoelectric effect
CHAPTER 4 : Amplitude Modulation Transmission
the process of impressing low-frequency information

signal onto a high-frequency
Modulation
the reverse process where the received signals are

transformed back to their original form
Demodulation
the process of changing the amplitude of a relatively

high frequency carrier signal in proportion with the
instantaneous value of the modulating signal
Amplitude Modulation
(AM)
frequencies that are high enough to be efficiently

radiated by an antenna and propagated through
free space
Radio frequency
the most commonly used amplitude modulation
AM double side-band full

carrier (AM DSBFC)
a term used to describe the amount of amplitude

change present in an AM waveform
Coefficient of modulation
gives the percentage change in the amplitude of the

output wave when the carrier is acted on by a
modulating signal
it use a unique arrangement of transistors and FETs
Percent modulation
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
to perform signal multiplication, which is a
characteristic that makes them ideally suited for
generating AM waveforms
Linear integrated-circuit
function generators
typically a sensitive class A linear voltage amplifier

with a high input impedance
Preamplifier
a low-gain, high-input impedance linear amplifier

used to isolate the oscillator from the high-power
amplifiers
it is sometimes called upward or downward

modulation and has absolutely nothing to do with
the frequency of the carrier. A form of amplitude
distortion introduced when positive and negative
alternations in the AM modulated signal are not
equal
are complex waveforms comprised of two or more

frequencies
are complex waves made up of two or more

harmonically related sine waves and include square,
rectangular and triangular waves
Complex repetitive
a form of amplitude modulation where signals from

two separate information sources modulate the
same carrier frequency at the same time without
interfering with each other
Quadrature
modulation
Buffer amplifier
Carrier shift
Nonsinusoidal signals
amplitude
CHAPTER 5 : Amplitude Modulation Reception
several parameters commonly used to evaluate the

ability of a receiver to successfully demodulate a
radio signal
a receiver parameter that is used to measure the

ability of the receiver to accept a given band of
frequencies and reject all others
Selectivity
the noise reduction ratio achieved by reducing the

bandwidth
Bandwidth Improvement
(BI)
the corresponding reduction in the noise figure to

the reduction in bandwidth
Noise Figure Improvement
selectivity
bandwidth
sensitivity
dynamic range
fidelity
insertion loss
noise temperature
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
the minimum RF signal level that can be detected at

the input to the receiver and still produce a usable
demodulated information signal
another name for receiver sensitivity
Sensitivity
Threshold
the difference in decibels between the minimum

input level necessary to discern a signal and the
input level that will overdrive the receiver and
produce distortion
the output power when the RF amplifier response is

1 dB less than the ideal linear-gain response
a measure of the ability of a communication system

to produce at the output of the receiver, an exact
replica of the original source information
three forms of distortion that can deteriorate the

fidelity of a communication system:
the predominant cause of phase distortion
Filtering
the total phase shift encountered by a signal and

can generally be tolerated as long as all frequencies
undergo the same amount of phase delay
Absolute phase shift
it occurs when different frequencies undergo

different phase shifts and may have a detrimental
effect on a complex waveform
Differential phase shift
it occurs when the amplitude-versus-frequency

characteristics of a signal at the output of a receiver
differ from those of the original information signal
Amplitude distortion
it occurs when frequencies

are present in a
received signal that were not present in the original
source information
Frequency distortion
a parameter associated with the frequencies that

fall within the passband of a filter and is generally
defined as the ratio of the power transferred to a
load with a filter in the circuit to the power
transferred to a load without the filter
a hypothetical value that cannot be directly

measured. An indication of the reduction in the
signal-to-noise as a signal propagates through a
receiver
two basic types of radio receivers:
Dynamic range
1-dB compression point
Fidelity
Insertion Loss (IL)
Equivalent Noise
Temperature (Te)
10
amplitude
frequency
phase
coherent
(synchronous)
noncoherent
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
(asynchronous)
a type of receiver wherein the frequency generated

in the receiver and used for demodulation are
synchronized to oscillator frequencies generated in
the transmitter
a type of receiver where either no frequencies are

generated in the receiver or the frequencies used
for demodulation are completely independent from
the transmitters carrier frequency
another name for noncoherent detection because

the information is recovered from the received
waveform by detecting the shape of the modulated
envelope
one of the earliest types of AM receivers and

probably
the simplest designed radio receiver
available
Tuned Radio-frequency
(TRF)
it means to mix two frequencies together in a

nonlinear device or to translate one frequency to
another using nonlinear mixing
Heterodyne
five sections of the superheterodyne receiver:
a broad-tuned bandpass filter with an adjustable

center frequency that is tune to the desired carrier
frequency. It reduce the noise bandwidth of the
receiver
Preselector
it determines the sensitivity of the receiver
RF amplifier
its purpose is to convert the IF signals back to the

original source
Detector
the ability of the local oscillator in a receiver to

oscillate either above or below the selected radio
frequency carrier by an amount equal to the
intermediate frequency throughout the entire radio
frequency band
the difference between the actual local oscillator
frequency and the desired frequency
Tracking
any frequency other than the

frequency carrier that if allowed to
and mix with the local oscillator
cross-product frequency that is
intermediate frequency
selected radio
enter a receiver
will produce a
equal to the
11
Coherent
Noncoherent
Envelope detection
RF section
Mixer/converter section
IF section
Audio detector section
Audio amplifier section
Tracking error
Image frequency
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
a numerical measure of the ability of a preselector

to reject the image frequency
Image-frequency
ratio
it occurs when a receiver picks up the same station

at two nearby points on the receiver tuning dial
Double spotting
its purpose is to down-convert the incoming radio

frequencies to intermediate frequencies
Mixer / converter
the most common technique used for coupling IF

amplifiers where the voltage that is applied to the
primary windings of a transformer is transferred to
the secondary windings
the ability of a coil to induce a voltage within its

own windings
Self-inductance
the ability of one coil to induce a voltage in another

coil
Mutual inductance
the ratio of the secondary flux to the primary flux
Coefficient of coupling
the transfer of flux from the primary to the

secondary windings
Flux linkage
a circuit that compensates for minor variations in

the received signal level where it automatically
increases the receiver gain weak RF input levels and
automatically decreases the receiver gain when a
strong RF signal is received
when the receiver becomes less sensitive
Automatic Gain Control

(AGC)
a circuit that has the purpose to quiet a receiver in

the absence of a received signal. It keeps the audio
section of the receiver turned off or muted in the
absence of a received signal
Squelch circuit
used for removing sporadic, high amplitude noise

transients of short duration such as impulse noise
Diode limiters or clippers
another circuit option commonly used for reducing

the effects of high amplitude noise pulses where it
detects the occurrence of a high-amplitude, short
duration noise spike then mutes the receiver by
shutting off a portion of the receiver for the duration
of the pulse
Blanking circuit
the ratio of the demodulated signal level at the

output of the receiver to the RF signal level at the
input to the receiver
Net Receiver Gain
samples of receiver losses:
12
Inductive
coupling
or
rejection
transformer
Automatic desensing
preselector loss
mixer loss
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
it includes all the gains and losses incurred by a

signal as it propagates from the transmitter output
stage to the output of the detector in the receiver
and includes antenna gain and transmission line
and propagation losses
the adjustment for the center frequency of the

preselector and the adjustment for the local
oscillator
it offers higher gain and less

conventional cascaded amplifiers
noise
than
detector loss
System gain
Gang tuned
Cascoded amplifier
CHAPTER 6 Single-Sideband Communications System
a form of amplitude modulation in which the carrier

is transmitted at full power but only one of the
sidebands is transmitted. It requires only half as
much bandwidth as conventional double sideband
AM
AM Single-sideband Full
Carrier (SSBFC)

is totally suppressed and one of the sidebands
removed and considerably less transmitted power
AM Single-sideband
Suppressed Carrier
(SSBSC)
a form of amplitude modulation in which one

sideband is totally removed and the carrier voltage
is reduced to approximately 10% of its unmodulated
amplitude
AM Single Side-band
Reduced Carrier (SSBRC)
a form of amplitude modulation in which a single

carrier frequency is independently modulated by
two different modulating signals
AM Independent Sideband
(ISB)

and one complete sideband are transmitted but only
part of the second sideband is transmitted
AM Vestigial Sideband
(VSB)
13
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
the rms power developed at the crest of the

modulation envelope when the modulating-signal
frequency components are at their maximum
amplitudes
advantages of single-sideband transmission:
Peak envelope power (PEP)
power conservation
bandwidth conservation
selective fading
noise reduction
disadvantages of single-sideband transmission:
complex receivers
tuning difficulties
a circuit that produces

suppressed-carrier signal
Balanced Modulator
another name for balanced modulator
Balanced Lattice Modulator
a small carrier component always present in the

output signal
Carrier Leak
the typical amount of carrier suppression
between 40 dB and 60 Db
three transmitter configurations used for singlesideband generation:
it is made from lead zirconate-titanate

exhibits the piezoelectric effect
Ceramic filters
a mechanically resonant transducer that when it

receives electrical energy, it converts to mechanical
vibrations and then converts the vibrations back to
electrical energy at its output
four elements that comprise a mechanical filter:
double-sideband
which
phase-shift method
filter method
third method
Mechanical filter
input transducer
series
of
mechanical
resonant metal disks
coupling rod
output transducer
filters that use acoustic energy rather than

electromechanical energy to provide excellent
performance for precise bandpass filtering
Surface Acoustic Wave

(SAW) filters
the basic SAW filter
Bidirectional
it launches the acoustic wave in only one direction
Unidirectional
a narrow band PLL that tracks the pilot carrier in the

composite SSBRC receiver signal and uses the
Recovery circuit
14
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
recovered carrier to regenerate coherent
oscillator frequencies in the synthesizer
local
a
system
that
provide
narrowband
voice
communications for land-mobile services with nearly
the quality achieved with FM systems and do it
using less than one-third the bandwidth
a device that performs compression and expansion
process of combining transmissions from more than

one source and transmitting them over a common
facility, like metallic or optical fiber cable or a radiofrequency channel
an analog method of combining two or more analog
sources that originally occupied the same frequency
band in such a manner that the channels do not
interfere with each other
a multiplexing method that uses double-sideband

suppressed-carrier transmission to combine two
information sources into a single composite
waveform that is then transmitted over a common
facility without the two channels interfering with
each other
Amplitude-compandoring
Single-sideband (ACSSB)
Compandor
(compressor-expander)
Multiplexing
Frequency-division
Multiplexing (FDM)
Quadrature Multiplexing
(QM)
CHAPTER 7 Angle Modulation Transmission
it results whenever the phase angle modulation of a

sinusoidal wave is varied with respect to time
varying the frequency of a constant-amplitude carrier

directly proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal at a rate equal to the frequency of
the modulating signal
varying the phase of a constant-amplitude carrier

directly proportional to the amplitude of the
modulating signal at a rate equal to the frequency of
the modulating signal
the relative angular displacement of the carrier phase

in radians in respect to the reference phase
Phase deviation ()
the relative displacement of the carrier frequency in

hertz in respect to its unmodulated value
Frequency deviation (f)
four terms with reference to angle-modulation
15
Angle modulation
Direct Frequency
Modulation (FM)
Direct
(PM)
Phase
Modulation
instantaneous
deviation
phase
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
instantaneous phase
instantaneous
frequency deviation
instantaneous
frequency
the instantaneous change in the phase of the carrier

at a given instant of time and indicates how much the
phase of the carrier is changing with respect to its
reference phase
Instantaneous
deviation
the precise phase of the carrier at a given instant of

time
Instantaneous phase
the instantaneous change in the frequency of the

carrier and is defined as the first time derivation of
the instantaneous frequency deviation
the precise frequency of the carrier at a given instant

of time and is defined as the first derivative of the
instantaneous phase
it can be defined as angle modulation in which the
instantaneous phase deviation is proportional to the
amplitude of the modulating signal voltage and the
instantaneous frequency deviation is proportional to
the slope or first derivative of the modulating signal
Instantaneous frequency
an angle modulation in which the instantaneous

frequency deviation is proportional to the amplitude
of the modulating signal and the instantaneous phase
deviations is proportional to the integral of the
modulating signal voltage
Frequency modulation
the output-versus-input transfer functions for the

modulators which give the relationship between what
output parameter changes in respect to specified
changes in the input signal
Deviation sensitivities
peak phase deviation

the change in frequency that occurs in the carrier
when it is acted on by a modulating-signal frequency
Modulation index
Frequency deviation
peak-to-peak frequency deviation
Carrier swing
the ratio of the frequency deviation actually produced

to the maximum frequency deviation allowed by law
stated in percent form
Percent Modulation
a circuit in which the carrier is varied in such a way

that its instantaneous phase is proportional to the
modulating signal
Phase modulator
a single-frequency sinusoid
Unmodulated carrier
(rest frequency)
16
Instantaneous
deviation
phase
frequency
Phase modulation
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
a circuit in which the carrier is varied in such a way

that its instantaneous phase is proportional to the
integral of the modulating signal
Frequency modulator
(frequency deviator)
differentiator followed by an FM modulator
PM Modulator
FM demodulator followed by an integrator
PM demodulator
integrator followed by a PM modulator
FM modulator
PM demodulator followed by a differentiator
FM demodulator
rule that approximates the bandwidth necessary to

transmit an angle-modulated wave as twice the sum
of the peak frequency deviation and the highest
modulating-signal frequency, it defines a bandwidth
that includes approximately 98% of the total power in
the modulated wave
the worst-case modulation index and is equal to the

maximum peak frequency deviation divided by the
maximum modulating-signal frequency
Deviation Ratio (DR)
the interference produced when the highest side

frequencies from one channel are allowed to spill over
into adjacent channels
Adjacent Channel
Interference
the noise voltage at the output of a PM demodulator

is constant with frequency, whereas the noise voltage
at the output of an FM demodulator increases linearly
with frequency
a high-pass filter
Preemphasis Network
a low-pass filter
Deemphasis Network
an angle modulation in which the frequency of the

carrier is varied directly by the modulating signal
Direct FM
an angle modulation in which the frequency of the

carrier is deviated indirectly by the modulating signal
Direct PM
a circuit that compares the frequency of the

noncrystal carrier oscillator to a crystal reference
oscillator and then produces a correction voltage
proportional
to the difference between two
frequencies
a purpose to achieve near-crystal stability of the

transmit carrier without using a crystal in the carrier
oscillator
meaning cancel of the deviation thus removing the
modulation from the FM wave
17
Carsons rule
Noise Triangle
Automatic
Control (AFC)
AFC loop
wipe off
Frequency
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
transmitters that produce an output waveform in

which the phase deviation is directly proportional to
the modulating signal therefore the carrier oscillator
can be a crystal because the oscillator itself is not a
modulator
Indirect FM transmitters
the low-pass filter that is simply 1/f filter
Predistorter
(frequency
correction network)
advantages of angle modulation:
it allows a receiver to differentiate between two signal

received with the same frequency
noise immunity
FM thresholding
capture effect
power utilization
efficiency
Capture effect
CHAPTER 8 : Angle Modulation Reception and FM Stereo
it rejects the image frequency
Preselector
it establishes the signal-to-noise ratio and noise figure
RF amplifier
down-converts RF to IF
Mixer/converter
it provides most of the gain and selectivity of the

receiver
IF amplifiers
it removes the information from the modulated wave
Detector
it is a frequency-dependent circuits designed to

produce an output voltage that is proportional to the
instantaneous frequency at its input
FM Demodulators
18
and
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
the most common circuits used for demodulating FM

signal
it converts FM to AM and then demodulate the AM

envelope with conventional peak detectors
it is the simplest form of tuned-circuit frequency

discriminators that has the most nonlinear voltageversus-frequency characteristics
Single-ended slope detector
a simply two single-ended slope detectors connected

in parallel and fed 180 out of phase
Balanced slope detector
a tuned-circuit frequency discriminator whose

operation is very similar to that of the balanced slope
detector
Foster-Seeley discriminator
(phase shift discriminator)
it is relatively immune to amplitude variations in its

input signal, it has a single tuned circuit in the
transformer secondary
Ratio Detector
it requires no tuned circuits and automatically

compensates for changes in the carrier frequency due
to instability in the transmit oscillator
Phase-Locked Loop
FM Demodulator
it extracts the original information signal from the

composite IF waveform by multiplying two quadrature
(90 out of phase) signals
Quadrature FM
Demodulator
(coincidence detector)
the minimum dB difference in signal strength between

two received signals necessary for the capture effect
to suppress the weaker signal
Capture Ratio
the inherent ability of FM to diminish the effects of

interfering signals
Capture Effect
it is used rather than a simple mechanical switch to

reduce the static noise associated with contact
bounce in a mechanical switches
Electronic push-to-talk
(PTT)
slope detector
Foster-Seeley
discriminator
ratio detector
PLL demodulator
quadrature detector
tuned-circuit
frequency
discriminators
(PLL)
CHAPTER 9: Digital Modulation
the transmission, reception, and processing

information with the use of electronic circuits
the transmittal of digitally modulated analog signals

(carriers) between two or more points in a
19
of
Electronic communications
Digital modulation
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
communication system
sometimes called for digital modulation because

digitally modulated signals can be propagated
through Earths atmosphere and used in wireless
communications systems
a digitally modulated signal where in the information

signal is digital and the amplitude of the carrier is
varied proportional to the information signal
Amplitude
(ASK)
Shift
Keying
if the frequency
information signal
Frequency
(FSK)
Shift
Keying
if the phase of the carrier is varied proportional to the

information signal
a highly theoretical study of the efficient use of

bandwidth
to
propagate
information
through
electronic communications systems
Information theory
a measure of how much information can be

propagated through a communication system and is a
function of bandwidth and transmission time
Information capacity
the most basic digital symbol used to represent

information
Binary digit, bit
simply the number of bits transmitted during one

second and is expressed in bits per second (bps)
Bit rate
he published a paper in the Bell System Technical

Journal relating the information capacity of a
communication channel to bandwidth and signal-tonoise ratio
a term derived from the word binary
a term that is often misunderstood and commonly

confused with bit rate (bps). Like bit rate, is also a
rate of change; however it refers to the rate of
change of a signal on the transmission medium after
encoding and modulation have occurred
another name for amplitude-shift keying
Digital
Amplitude
Modulation (DAM)
a form of constant-amplitude angle modulation similar

to standard frequency modulation except the
modulating signal is a binary signal that varies
between two discrete voltage levels rather than a
continuously changing analog waveform
Frequency-Shift Keying
(FSK)
is
varied
proportional
to
the
Digital radio
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
Claude E. Shannon, 1948
M-ary
20
Baud
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
the most common circuit used for demodulating

binary FSK signals
another form of angle-modulated, constant-amplitude

digital modulation; an M-ary digital modulation
scheme similar to conventional phase modulation
except with PSK the input is a binary digital signal and
there are a limited number of output phases possible
simplest form of PSK; a form of

modulation of a continuous wave signal
other names for BPSK:
square-wave
Phase-locked Loop (PLL)
Phase-shift Keying (PSK)
Binary Phase-shift
(BPSK)
Keying
phase reversal keying

(PRK)
biphase modulation
it acts as a phase reversing switch in a BPSK

transmitter
Balanced modulator
similar to a phasor diagram except that the entire

phasor is not drawn, only the relative positions of the
peaks of the phasors are shown
Constellation
diagram,
sometimes
called
signal
state-space diagram
a balanced modulator wherein the output signal is the

product of the two input signals
Product modulator
another form of angle-modulated constant-amplitude

digital modulation. An M-ary encoding scheme where
N = 2 and M = 4; four output phases are possible for
a single carrier frequency
Quaternary
Phase
Keying
(QPSK),
Quadrature PSK
group of two bits
Dibits
a modified form of QPSK where the waveforms on the

I and Q channels are offset or shifted in phase from
each other by one-half of a bit time
Offset QPSK (OQPSK)
a bit in QPSK transmitter that modulates a carrier that

is in phase with the reference oscillator
I bit (hence the name I

for in phase channel)
a bit in QPSK transmitter that modulates a carrier that

is 90 out of phase or in quadrature with the
reference carrier
Q bit (hence the name Q

for quadrature channel)
three bits are encoded, forming bits, forming tribits

and producing eight different output places; there are
eight possible output phases
8-PSK
a code used to reduce the number of transmission

errors
Gray
code
distance code)
a form of digital modulation similar to PSK except the

digital information is contained in both the amplitude
Quadrature-amplitude
Modulation (QAM)
21
Shift
or
(maximum
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
and the phase of the transmitted carrier; amplitude
and phase-shift keying are combined; this reduce the
likelihood or error occurring
less bandwidth is required to propagate a given bit

rate
Bandwidth compression
often used to compare the performance of one digital

modulation technique to another; the ratio of the
transmission bit rate to the minimum bandwidth
required for a particular modulation scheme
Bandwidth
efficiency
(information
density
or
spectral efficiency)
the process of extracting a phase-coherent reference

carrier from a receiver signal
Carrier
recovery
referencing)
the binary data were encoded as a precise phase of

the transmitted carrier
the function to determine the absolute phase of the
received carrier necessary to produce a carrier at the
receiver that is phase coherent with the transmit
reference oscillator
Absolute Phase Encoding
methods of carrier recovery
an alternative form of digital modulation where the

binary input information is contained in the difference
between two successive signaling elements rather
than the absolute phase
Differential
Keying (DPHK)
combines encoding and modulation to reduce the

probability of error, thus improving the bit error
performance
Convolutional (tree) codes
the manner in which signal-state transitions are

allowed to occur, and transitions that do not follow
this pattern are interpreted in the receiver as
transmission errors
Trellis Coding
an encoding technique used for over standard

telephone circuits
the ratio of the average carrier power (the combined
power of the carrier and its associated sidebands)
Trellis
Code
Modulation
(TCM)
Carrier-to-noise
Power
Ratio
the energy of a single bit of information
Energy per bit
the thermal noise power normalized to a 1-Hz

bandwidth
Noise power density
used to compare two or more digital modulation

systems that use different transmission rates (bit
rates) modulation schemes
Energy
per
Power Density
22
(phase
Carrier Recovery Circuit
squaring loop
Costas loop
remodulator
Phase-sift
Bit-to-noise
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
simply the ratio of the energy of a single bit to the

noise power present in 1 Hz of bandwidth
Energy
per
Power Density
optimum signaling format
Antipodal signaling
the transmitter and receiver are not frequency or

phase synchronized
Noncoherent FSK
local receiver reference signals are in frequency and

phase lock with the transmitted signals
Coherent FSK
Bit-to-noise
CHAPTER 10: Digital Transmission
primary advantage of digital transmission
Noise immunity
the processing of analog signals using digital methods

and includes bandlimiting the signal with filters,
amplitude equalization, and phase shifting
Digital
(DSP)
one of
the most important aspects of any
communications system because it is costly and
limited
Bandwidth
consists essentially of sampling analog information

signals and then converting those samples into
discrete pulses and transporting the pulses from a
source to a destination over a physical transmission
medium
Pulse Modulation
sometimes called pulse duration modulation

(PDM) or pulse length modulation (PLM), as the
width of a constant amplitude pulse is varied
proportional to the amplitude of the analog signal at
the time the signal is sampled
Pulse
Width
(PWM)
Modulation
the position of a constant-width pulse within a

prescribed time slot is varied according to the
amplitude of the sample of the analog signal
Pulse Position
(PPM)
Modulation
the amplitude of a constant width, constant-position

pulse is varied according to the amplitude of the
sample of the analog
Pulse Amplitude Modulation

(PAM)
the analog signal is sampled and then converted to a

serial n-bit binary code for transmission; each code
has the same number of bits and requires the same
Pulse
(PCM)
23
Signal
Code
Processing
Modulation
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
length of time transmission
he is credited with inventing PCM in 1937 while

working for AT&T at its Paris laboratories
Alex H. Reeves
the function to periodically sample the continually

changing analog input voltage and convert those
samples to a series of constant-amplitude pulses that
can more easily be converted to binary PCM code
Sampling circuit in a PCM

transmitter
when tops of the sample pulses retain their natural

shape during the sample interval making it difficult
for an ADC to convert the sample to a PCM code
Natural Sampling
introduces less aperture distortion than natural

sampling and requires a slower analog-to-digital
converter
the gradual discharge across the capacitor during

conversion time caused by the capacitor discharging
through its own leakage resistance and the input
impedance of voltage follower
Droop
establishes the minimum sampling rate (fs) that can

be used for a given PCM system
Nyquist sampling theorem
an impairment that occurs if minimum Nyquist

sample rate is less than two times maximum analog
input frequency
Alias or foldover distortion
the process of converting an infinite number of

possibilities to a finite number of conditions
Quantization
type of code wherein the codes on the bottom half of

the table are a mirror image of the codes on the top
half, except for the sign bit
Folded binary code
the magnitude difference between adjacent steps
Quantization
Quantum
it occurs if the magnitude of the sample exceeds the

highest quantization interval
Overload
limiting)
the magnitude of a quantum
Resolution
any round-off errors in the transmitted signal are

reproduced when the code is converted back to
analog in the receiver
Quantization Error (Qe)
another name for quantization error

the ratio of the largest possible magnitude to the
smallest possible magnitude that can be decoded by
the digital-to-analog converter in the receiver
Quantization Noise (Qn)

Dynamic Range (DR)
24
Flat-top sampling
interval
distortion
or
(peak
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
a numerical indication of how efficiently a PCM code is

utilized; the ratio of the minimum number of bits
required to achieve a certain dynamic range to the
actual number of PCM bits used
Coding Efficiency
the magnitude change between any two successive

code is the same
Linear codes
occurs when the input signal is at its minimum

amplitude
during times when there is no analog input signal, the

only input to the PAM sampler is random, thermal
noise
Signal
voltage-toquantization noise voltage
ratio (SQR)
Idle Channel Noise
the first quantization interval is made larger in

amplitude than the rest of the steps
Midtread quantizing
the lowest-magnitude positive and negative codes

have the same voltage range bas all the other codes
Midrise quantization
this type of coding compares the PAM signal to a

ramp waveform while a binary counter is being
advanced at a uniform rate; it requires a very fast
clock
Level-at-a-time coding
this type of coding determines each digit of the PCM

code sequentially; analogous to a balance where
known reference weights are used to determine an
unknown weight
Digit-at-a-time coding
flash encoders and are more complex; however they

are more suitable for high-speed applications
Word-at-a-time coding
the process of compressing and then expanding
Companding
amplified less than the lower-amplitude signals
Compressed
amplified more than the lower-amplitude signals
Expanded
it was implemented with diodes that were placed just

after the low-pass filter in the PCM receiver
Analog expansion
it involves compression in the transmitter after the

input sample has been converted to a linear PCM
code and then expansion in the receiver prior to PCM
decoding
Digital companding
a single integrated-circuit chip function to encode and

decode
Codec
refers to the most of the more recently developed
Combo chips
25
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
codecs as they include an antialising (bandpass filter),
a sample-and-hold circuit, and an analog-to-digital
converter in the transmit section and a digital-toanalog converter, a hold circuit, and a bandpass filter
in the receive section
special voice encoders/decoders; are designed to

reproduce only the short-term power spectrum, and
the decoded time waveforms often only vaguely
resemble the original input signal
Vocoders
three vocoding techniques:
he developed the first channel vocoder
Homer Dudley, 1928
the spectral power of most speech energy

concentrates at three or four peak frequencies
Formants
a vocoder that compressed conventional speech

waveforms into an analog signal with a total
bandwidth of approximately 300 Hz
First channel vocoder
a vocoder that takes advantage of the fact that the

short term spectral density of typical speech signals
seldom distributes uniformly across the entire voiceband spectrum; it simply determines the location of
Format vocoders
a vocoder that extracts the most significant portions

of speech information directly from the time
waveform rather than from the frequency spectrum
as with the channel and formant vocoders
Linear predictive coders
simply the data rate at which serial PCM bits are

locked out of the PCM encoder onto the transmission
line; it is dependent on the sample rate and the
number of bits in the compressed PCM code
Line speed
it uses a single-bit PCM code to achieve digital

transmission of analog signals
the slope of the analog signal greater than the delta
modulator
Delta modulation
when the original analog input signal has a relatively

constant amplitude, the reconstructed signal has
variation that were not present in the original signal
Granular noise
Adaptive delta modulation
a delta modulation system where the step size of the

DAC is varied, depending on the amplitude
characteristic of the analog signal
secondary lobes
an important consideration in the transmission of
Intersymbol
26
channel vocoder
formant vocoder
linear predictive coder
Slope overload
Ringing tails
interference
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
pulses over circuits with a limited bandwidth and a
nonlinear phase response
(ISI)
it equalize the distortion for all frequencies, creating a

uniform
transmission
medium
and
reducing
transmission impairments
Equalizers
placed in a communication channel to bandlimit

signals and reduce or eliminate predicted noise and
interference; also used to produce specific pulse
response
Filters
it resulted when the frequency characteristics of a

communication channel depart from the normal or
expected values; occurs when the peaks of pulses are
reduced causing improper ringing frequencies in the
time domain
Pulse distortion
simply the superposition of a series of harmonically

related sine waves with specific amplitude and phase
relationships
Pulse
it occurs if the relative phase relations of the

individual sine waves are altered
Phase distortion
a convenient technique for determining the effects of

the degradations introduced into the pulses as they
travel to the regenerator
Eye pattern
CHAPTER 11 : Digital T- Carriers and Multiplexing
the transmission of information from one or ore

source to one or more destination over the same
transmission medium; the transmission medium may
be a metallic wire pair, a coaxial cable, a PCS mobile
telephone, a terrestrial microwave radio system, a
satellite microwave system, or an optical fiber cable
Multiplexing
a rather unsophisticated form of multiplexing that

simply constitutes propagating signals from different
sources on different cables that are contained within
the same trench
Space-division multiplexing
(SDM)
transmissions from multiple sources occur on the

same facility but not at the same time; transmissions
from various sources are interleaved in the time
domain
Time division multiplexing
a communication system that uses digital pulse

rather than analog signals to encode information
Digital carrier
27
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
stands for transmission one and specifies a digital

carrier system using PCM-encoded analog signals
T1
occurs once per frame and is recovered in the

receiver where it is used to maintain frame and
sample synchronization between the TDM transmitter
and receiver
Additional bit (framing bit)
consists of 24 193-bit frames totaling 4632 bits, of

which 24 are bits
Extended
format
a digital interface that provides

connection to a digital carrier network
Data service unit/channel

service unit (DSU/CSU)
can handle bit-rate conversions on both directions
provides a convenient place to make patchable

interconnects and perform routine maintenance and
troubleshooting
a low-quality video transmission for use between

nondedicated subscribers
Picturephone
involves converting standard logic levels to a form

more suitable to telephone line transmission
Digital line encoding
can be used to categorize the type of transmission
Duty cycle
if the binary pulse is maintained for the entire bit time
Nonreturn to zero (NRZ)
if the active time of the binary pulse is less than

100% of the bit time
Return to zero (RZ)
a condition when a long string of either logic 1s or 0s

produces a condition in which a receive may lose its
amplitude reference for optimum discrimination
between received 1s and 0s
DC wandering
a popular type of line encoding that produces a strong

timing component for clock recovery and does not
cause dc wandering
Digital
(Manchester
diphase)
used for encoding SMPTE (Society of Motion Picture

and Television Engineers) time-code data for
recording on videotapes
Biphase M
forms of delay-modulated codes where a logic 1

condition produces a transition in the middle of the
clock pulse and a logic 0 produces no transition at the
end of the clock intervals unless followed by another
logic 0
Miller codes
the
physical
28
superframe
Multiplexers/demultiplexers
(muldem)
Digital cross-connect (DSX)
biphase
code
or
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
used for the transmission of PCM-encoded timedivision multiplexed digital signals
T carriers
filters and shapes the incoming digital signal and

raises its power level so that the regenerator circuit
can make a pulse-no pulse decision
Amplifier/equalizer
reproduces the clocking information from the received

data and provides the proper timing information to0
the regenerator
Timing clock recovery
simply a threshold detector that compares the

sampled voltage received to a reference level and
determines whether the bit is a logic 1 or logic 0
Regenerative repeater
were designed to combine PCM and TDM techniques

for short-haul transmission of 24 64-kbps channels
with each channel capable of carrying digitally
encoded voice-band telephone signals or data
T1 carrier systems
a technique used to ensure that sufficient transitions

occur in the data to maintain clock synchronization
Binary
eight
substitution (B8ZS)
the same as added-digit framing except that digits

are added in groups or words instead of as individual
bits
Added-channel framing
2 methods of interleaving PCM transmissions:
a large-scale integration chip designed for use in the

telecommunications industry for private branch
exchanges, central office switches, digital handsets,
voice store-and-forward systems and digital echo
suppressors
Codec
combined codec chips; provide the analog-to-digital

and the digital-to-analog conversions and the
transmit and receive filtering necessary to interface a
full-duplex (four wire) voice telephone circuit to the
PCM highway of a TDM carrier system
Combo chip
multiple sources that originally occupied the same

frequency spectrum are each converted to a different
frequency band and transmitted simultaneously over
a single transmission medium
Frequency-division
multiplexing (FDM)
describes the modulating signal (intelligence) in a

communications system
Baseband
a double side-band suppressed carrier modulator
Balanced modulator
29
bit interleaving
word interleaving
zero
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
a void band of frequencies that is not included within

any supergroup band
Guard bands
involves the transmission of multiple digital signal

using several wavelengths without their interfering
with one another
Wavelength
division
multiplexing (WDM)
separate signals with different wavelengths in a

manner similar to the way filters separate electrical
signals of different frequencies
Demultiplexers or splitters
direct signals of a particular wavelength to a specific

destination while not separating while not separating
all the wavelengths present on the cable
WDM routers
specific wavelengths are separated from the other

optic signal by reflecting them at different angles
Diffraction
prisms
a mirror with a surface that has been coated with a

material that permits light of only one wavelength to
pass through while reflecting all other wavelengths
Dichroic filter
gratings
or
CHAPTER 12: Metallic Cable Transmission Media
two general category of transmission media
transmission media with some form of conductor that

provides a conduit in which electromagnetic signals
are contained
Guided transmission media
it transports signals using electric current
Copper
a guided transmission medium and can be any

physical facility used to propagate electromagnetic
signals between two locations in a communication
system
Cable transmission medium
include open wire, twin lead and

copper wire as well as coaxial cable
Metallic
medium
the most common means of interconnecting devices

in local area networks transmission of digital signals
Cable transmission medium
a metallic conductor system used to transfer energy
Transmission lines
twisted-pair
30
guided
unguided
transmission
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
from one point to another using electrical current
flow; two or more electrical conductors separated by
a nonconductive insulator (dielectric); can be as short
as a few inches or span several thousand miles; can
be used to propagate dc or low-frequency ac or to
propagate very high frequencies
the displacement (amplitude) is in the direction of

propagation; surface wave of water
Longitudinal waves
the direction of propagation of displacement is

perpendicular to the direction of propagation;
electromagnetic
Transverse waves
propagation of electrical power along a transmission

line occurs in the form of ______________________
Transverse electromagnetic
(TEM) waves
the E and H fields are perpendicular to each other (at

90 angles) at all points
Space quadrature
electromagnetic
waves
that
travel
along
transmission line from the source to the load
Incident waves
those that travel from the load back toward the

source
Reflected waves
it travel at approximately 1100 feet per second in the

normal atmosphere
Sound waves
the rate at which the periodic wave repeats
Frequency
the distance of one cycle occurring in space
Wavelength
with two-wire balanced lines, both conductors carry

current; however, one conductor carries the signal,
and the other conductor is the return path
Differential
or
Balanced
signal transmission
currents that flow in opposite directions in a balanced

wire pair
Metallic circuit currents
currents that flow in the same direction
Longitudinal currents
cancellation of common mode signals
Common mode rejection
with an unbalanced transmission line, one wire is at

ground potential, whereas the wire is at signal
potential
Single-ended or Unbalanced
signal transmission
a circuit device used to connect

transmission line to an unbalanced load
Balun
(balanced
unbalanced)
balanced
31
to
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
are comprised of two or more metallic conductors

separated by a nonconductive insulating material
called a dielectric
Parallel-wire
lines
transmission
two-wire parallel conductors; consist simply of two

parallel wires, closely spaced and separated by air;
its advantage is its simple construction; there is no
shielding, radiation losses are high, and the cable is
susceptible to picking up signals through mutual
induction
Open-wire
lines
transmission
occurs when a signal on one cable interferes with a

signal on an adjacent cable
Crosstalk
it is called if the sleeve is woven into a mesh
Braid
it is given in dB of loss per 100 meters of cable with

respect to frequency
Attenuation
given in dB of attenuation between the transmit

signal and the signal is returned due to crosstalk with
higher dB values indicating less crosstalk
Crosstalk
the name given to the area between the ceiling and

the roof in a single building or between the ceiling
and the floor of the next higher level in a multistory
building
Plenum
plenum cables that coated with Teflon, which does not

emit noxious chemicals when ignited, or special fireresistant PVC
Plenum-grade PVC
a coaxial cable with one layer of foil insulation and

one layer of braided shielding
Dual shielded
consist of two layers of foil insulation and two layers

of braided metal shielding
Quad shielding
cables that are relatively expensive to manufacture

and to minimize losses, the air insulator must be
relatively free of moisture
Rigid-air filled coaxial
have lower losses than hollow cables and are easier

to construct, install and maintain
Solid coaxial cables
sometimes referred to as bayonet mount as they

can be easily twisted on or off
BNC connectors
are threaded and must be screwed on and off
n-type connectors
the transmission characteristics of a transmission line
Secondary constants
defined as the impedance seen looking into an
Characteristic
impedance
(surge impedance)
32
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
infinitely long line or the impedance seen looking into
a finite length of line that is terminated in a purely
resistive load with a resistance equal to the
characteristic impedance of the line
used to express the attenuation (signal loss) and the

phase shift per unit length of a transmission line
Propagation
constant
(propagation coefficient)
defined simply as the ratio of the actual velocity of

propagation of an electromagnetic wave through a
given medium to the velocity of propagation through
a vacuum (free space)
Velocity
factor
constant)
the relative dielectric constant of air
1.0006
transmission lines designed to intentionally introduce

a time delay in the path of an electromagnetic wave
Delay lines
a phenomenon that when current flows through an

isolated round wire, the magnetic flux associated with
it is in the form of concentric circles surrounding the
wire core
Skin effect
the ratio of the ac resistance to the dc resistance of a

conductor
Resistance ratio
it caused a difference of potential between two

conductors of metallic transmission line
Dielectric heating
the energy radiated if the separation between

conductors in a metallic transmission is an
appreciable fraction of a wavelength, the electrostatic
and electromagnetic fields that surround the
conductor cause the line to act as if it were an
antenna and transfer energy to a nearby conductive
material
Radiation loss
it occurs whenever a connection is made to or from a

transmission line or when two sections of
transmission line are connected together
Coupling loss
a luminous discharge that occurs between the two

conductors of a transmission line when the difference
of potential between them exceeds the breakdown
voltage of the dielectric insulator
Corona
voltage that propagates from the source toward the

load
Incident voltage
voltage that propagates from the load toward the
Reflected voltage
33
(velocity
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
source
a transmission line with no reflected power
Flat or nonresonant line
defined as the ratio of the maximum voltage to the

minimum voltage or the maximum current to the
minimum current of a standing wave on a
transmission lin
Standing Wave Ratio (SWR)
used to match transmission lines to purely resistive

loads whose resistance is not equal to the
characteristic impedance of the line
Quarter-wavelength
simply a piece of additional transmission line that is

placed across the primary line as close to the load as
possible; the susceptance is to tune out the
susceptance of the load
Transmission-line stub
a technique that can be used to locate an impairment

in a metallic cable
Time-domain reflectometry
(TDR)
simply a flat conductor separated from a ground

plane by an insulating dielectric material
Microstrip
simply a flat conductor sandwiched between two

ground planes; less likely to radiate; losses are lower
Stripline
CHAPTER 13 : Optical Fiber transmission Media
the bandwidth of an analog communications

system is expressed as a percentage of its carrier
frequency
it was a device constructed from mirrors and
selenium detectors that transmitted sound waves
over a beam of light
Bandwidth utilizations ratio
he successfully transmitted images through a single

glass fiber
H. Lamm
they experimented with light transmission through

bundles of fibers
34
Photophone
A.C.S van Heel

H.H. Hopkins
N.S. Kapany
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
it was when the three scientists experimented on a

bundle of glass fiber the transmission of light
1951
he coined the term fiber optics
N.S. Kapany
they wrote a paper describing how it was possible

to use stimulated emission for amplifying light
waves as well as microwaves
defined as the maximum angle in which external

light rays may strike the air/glass interface and still
propagate down the fiber
Acceptance angle
other term used for acceptance angle
Acceptance cone half-angle
closely related to acceptance angle and is figure of

merit commonly used to measure the magnitude of
the acceptance angle
Numerical aperture
the refractive index of a glass core
1.5
only one path for light rays to take down a cable
Single mode
more than one path
Multimode
the term that means path in fiber optics technology
Mode
these parameters dictate how a light propagates
the graphical representation of the magnitude of

the refractive index across the fiber
Index profile
has a central core with a uniform refractive index
Step-index fiber
no cladding and the refractive index of the core is

nonuniform
Graded-index fiber
has a central core that is smaller in diameter that

any of the multimode cables
Single-mode step-index fiber
type of fiber has a large light to fiber aperture and

allows more external light to enter the cable
Multimode step-index optical

fiber
the light rays that make up the pulse spread out in

time, causing a corresponding reduction in the
pulse amplitude and stretching of pulse width
Pulse spreading
other term used for pulse spreading
Pulse-width dispersion
UPRZ is the acronym for _____
Unipolar return to zero
a condition wherein the energy from pulse a were
UPNRZ transmission
35
Charles H. Townes
Arthur L. Schawlow
mode or propagation
index profile of fiber
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
to fall back one-half of a bit time, it would interfere
with pulse b
UPNRZ is the acronym for _____
Unipolar nonreturn to zero
the light energy from pulse a were to fall back one

bit time, it would interfere with pulse b and change
what was a logic 0 to logic 1
UPRZ
the difference between the absolute delay times of

the fastest and slowest rays of light propagating
down a fiber of unit length
Pulse spreading constant
equal to the pulse spreading constant times the

total fiber length
Total pulse spread
caused by imperfect physical connections
Coupling losses
the other term used for gap displacement
End separation
the typical value of

displacement less than 2
these are the spectral widths of a standard LED
30 nm to 50 nm
the wavelength equivalent of bandwidth
Linewidth
a pn junction diode usually made from a

semiconductor material such as aluminum gallium
arsenide or gallium arsenide phosphide
LED
a group iv atom used to produce light wavelengths

in the 800 nm range
Arsenide
a small batterylike device that produced a dc

output voltage proportional to the amount of light
received
Photocell
a special high-intensity, single frequency light

source. it produces a very narrow beam of brilliant
light of a specific wavelength (color); it can
penetrate atmospheric obstacles better than other
type of light,
Laser
commonly used as a light source, this is a

semiconductor device that puts out a low-intensity
red light beam
LED
another commonly used light source, that

generates an extremely intense single frequency
light beam
Solid-state laser
loss
for
an
angular
36
Less 0.5 dB
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
light sensitive device, used to detect the light

pulses; converts the light pulses to electrical signal
Photocell or light detector
CHAPTER 14: Electromagnetic Wave Propagation
a form of electromagnetic radiation that consist of

traveling electric and magnetic fields
Radio waves
orientation of the electric field vector in respect to

the surface of earth
Polarization
the polarization remains constant
Linear polarization
a form of linear polarization when the electric field

is propagating parallel to the Earths surface
Horizontal polarization
if the electric field is propagating perpendicular to

the Earths surface
Vertical polarization
if the polarization vector rotates 360 as the wave

moves one wavelength through the space and the
field strength is equal at all angles of polarization
Circular polarization
when the field strength varies with changes in

polarization
Elliptical polarization
shows
a
surface
of
constant
phase
of
electromagnetic waves; formed when points of
equal phase on rays propagated from the same
source are joined together
Wavefront
a single location from which rays propagate equally

in all directions
Point source
an invisible force field produced by a magnet, such

as a conductor when current is flowing through it
Magnetic field
the rate at which energy passes through a given

surface area in free space
Power density
also an invisible force fields produced by a

difference in voltage potential between two
conductors
Electric fields
a source that radiates power at a constant rate

uniformly in all directions
Isotropic radiator
the power density is inversely proportional to the
Inverse square law
37
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
square of the distance from the source
reduction in power density and occurs in free space

as well as the Earths atmosphere
Attenuation
the reduction of power where in it contains particles

that can absorb electromagnetic energy
Absorption loss
the reduction in power density due to nonfreespace propagation
Absorption
sometimes referred to as the bending of the radiowave path
Refraction
the angle formed between the incident wave and

the normal
Angle of incidence
the angle formed between the refracted wave and

the normal
Angle of refraction
the ratio of the velocity of propagation of a light ray

in free space to the velocity of propagation of a
light ray in a given material
Refractive index
the ratio of the reflected to the incident voltage

intensities
Reflection coefficient
a condition when an incident wavefront strikes an

irregular surface, it randomly scattered in many
directions
Diffuse reflection
reflection from a perfectly smooth surface
Specular
reflection
the fraction of power that penetrates medium two
Absorption coefficient
states that a semirough surface will reflect as if it

were a smooth surface whenever the cosine of the
angle of incidence is greater than /8d, where d is
the depth of the surface irregularity and is the
wavelngth of the incident wave
defined as the modulation or redistribution of
energy within a wavefront when it passes near the
edge of an opaque object; the phenomenon that
allows light or radio waves to propagate around
corners
(mirrorlike)
Rayleigh criterion
Diffraction
states that every point on a given spherical

wavefront can be considered as a secondary point
source of electromagnetic waves from which other
secondary waves are radiated outward
Huygens principle
occurs
Linear superposition
whenever
two
or
more
waves
38
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
simultaneously occupy the same point in space;
states that the total voltage intensity at a given
point in space is the sum of the individual wave
sectors
electromagnetic waves traveling within Earths

atmosphere
Terrestrial waves
communications between two or more points on

Earth
Terrestrial
communications
direct and ground-reflected waves together
Space waves
the cumulative sum of the direct, ground-reflected,

and surface waves
Ground wave
depends on the presence of the ionized layers

above the Earth that return some of the energy that
otherwise would be lost in outer space
Sky wave
an earth-guided electromagnetic wave that travels

over the surface of Earth;
Surface waves
travel essentially in a straight line between the

transmit and received antennas
Direct waves
occurs when the density of the lower atmosphere is

such that electromagnetic waves are trapped
between it and Earths surface
Duct propagation
electromagnetic waves that are directed above the

horizon
Sky waves
another term for sky wave propagation
Ionospheric propagation
the lowest layer of the ionosphere and is located

approximately between 30 miles and 60 miles
above Earths surface
D layer
located approximately between 60 miles and 85

miles above the Earths surface; sometimes called
Kennelly-Heavyside layer
E layer
made up of two layers F1 and F2 layers; during

daytime, F1 layer is located between 85 miles and
155 miles above the earths surface; the F2 layer is
located 85 miles to 185 miles above the Earths
surface during winter and 155 miles to 220 miles in
the summer
F layer
defined as the highest frequency that can be

propagated directly upward and still be returned to
earth by the ionosphere; depends on the ionization
density and, therefore varies with the time of day
Critical frequency (fc)
39
radio
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
and season
the height above earths surface from which a

refracted wave appears to have been reflected
Virtual height
the highest frequency that can be used for sky

wave propagation between two specific points on
Earths surface
Maximum
(MUF)
a law that assumes a flat Earth and a flat reflecting

layer can never exist
Secant law
85% of the MUF that provides more reliable

communications
Optimum working frequency

(OWF)
defined as the minimum distance from a transmit

antenna that a sky wave at a given frequency will
be returned to Earth
usually of little significance, as it tends to be much
weaker than the lower ray because it spreads over
a much larger area than the lower ray
Skip distance
the area between where the surface waves are

completely dissipated and the point where the first
sky wave returns to Earth
Quiet or skip zone
often defined as the loss incurred by an

electromagnetic wave as it propagates in a straight
line through a vacuum with no absorption or
reflection of energy from nearby objects
it occurs simply because of the inverse square law
Free-space path loss
loss attributed to several different phenomena and

can include both short- and long- term
Fading
an additional loss is added to the normal path loss

to accommodate temporary fading
Fade margin
usable
frequency
Pedersen ray
Spreading loss
CHAPTER 15 : Antennas and Waveguide
the plane parallel to the mutually perpendicular

lines of the electric and magnetic fields
Wavefront
the ratio of radiate to reflected energy
Radiation efficiency
antenna wherein the conductors are spread out in a

straight line to a total length of one-quarter
wavelength
Quarter-wave
antenna
(vertical monopole sometimes
called Marconi antenna)
40
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
a half wave dipole
Hertz antenna
meaning two dipoles that is used to radiate more

energy by simply spreading the conductors farther
apart
Dipole
a basic antenna that cannot amplify a signal, at

least not in the true sense of the word
Passive reciprocal device
a special coupling device that can be used to direct

the transmit and receive signals and provide the
necessary isolation
Diplexer
a polar diagram or graph representing field

strength or power densities at various angular
positions relative to an antenna
Radiation pattern
primary beam in a 90 direction
Major lobe
represent undesired radiation or reception
Minor lobe
the lobe that receives the most energy
Front lobe
lobes adjacent to the front lobe (the 180 minor

lobe)
Side lobes
lobes in a direction exactly opposite the front lobe
Back lobe
ratio of the front lobe power to the back lobe power
Front-to-back ratio
the ratio of the front lobe to a side lobe
Front-to-side ratio
the line bisecting the major lobe, or pointing from

the center of the antenna in the direction of
maximum radiation
Line of shoot (point of shoot)
refers to the filed that is close to the antenna
Near field
refers to the field pattern that is at great distance
Far field
sometimes called to near field
Induction field
sometimes called for far field because power that

reaches the far field continues to radiate outward
and is never returned to the antenna
an ac antenna resistance and is equal to the ratio
of the power radiated by the antenna to the square
of the current at its feedpoint
Radiation field
the ratio of the power radiated by an antenna to

the sum of the power radiated and the power
dissipated or the ratio of the power radiated by the
antenna to the total input power
Antenna efficiency
41
Radiation resistance
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
the ratio of the power density radiated in a

particular direction to the power density radiated to
the same point by a reference antenna, assuming
both antennas are radiating the same amount of
power
Directive gain
the maximum directive gain
Directivity
the same as directive gain except that the total

power fed to the antenna is used; it is assumed
that the given antenna and the reference antenna
is lossless
Power gain
defined as an equivalent transmit power; the

equivalent power that an isotropic antenna would
have to radiate to achieve the same power density
in the chosen direction at a given point as another
antenna
Effective Isotropic
Power (EIRP)
the power density in space and a somewhat

misleading quantity
Captured power density
refers simply to the orientation of the electric field

radiated from it.
Polarization of an antenna
simply the angular separation between the two

half-power points on the major lobe of an antennas
plane radiation pattern, usually taken in one of the
principal planes
Beamwidth
vaguely defined as the frequency range over which

antenna operation is satisfactory
Antenna bandwidth
normally taken as the difference between the halfpower frequencies but sometimes refers to
variations in the antennas input impedance
Bandwidth
the point on the antenna where the transmission

line is connected
the feedpoint presents an ac load to the
transmission line
Feedpoint
an electrically short dipole
Elementary doublet
a multiple of quarter-wavelength long and open

circuited at the far end
Resonant antenna
a monopole antenna one-quarter wavelength long,

mounted vertically with the lower end either
connected to ground or grounded through the
antenna coupling network
Marconi antenna
a wire structure placed below the antenna and
Counterpoise
42
Radiated
Antenna input impedance
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
erected above the ground; should be insulated from
earth ground
a technique wherein the physical length of an

antenna remains unchanged although its effective
electrical length is increased
Loading
a coil (inductor) added in series with a dipole

antenna that effectively increases the antennas
electrical length
Loading coil
a technique where in
a metallic array that
resembles a spoked wheel is placed on top of the
antenna
Top loading
formed when two or more antenna elements are

combined to form a single antenna
Antenna array
an individual radiator, such as a half- or quarterwave dipole
Antenna element
elements that are directly connected to the

transmission line and receive power from or are
driven by source
Driven elements
not connected to the transmission line; they receive

energy only through mutual induction with a driven
element or another parasitic element
Parasitic element
a parasitic element that is longer than the driven

element from which it receives energy; effectively
reduces the signal strength in its direction and
increases it in the opposite direction
Reflector
a parasitic element that is shorter than its

associated driven element; increases field strength
in its direction and reduces it in the opposite
direction
Director
one of the simplest types of antenna rays; made by

simply placing a several resonant dipoles of equal
size in parallel with each other and in a straight line
Broadside array
essentially the same element configuration as the

broadside array except that the transmission line is
not crisscrossed between elements; as a result the
field are additive in line with the plane of the array
End-fire array
a nonresonant antenna that is capable of operating

satisfactorily over a relatively wide bandwidth
making it ideally suited for HF transmission
Rhombic antenna
essentially a single antenna made up of two

elements
Folded dipole
43
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
dipole elements larger in diameter;
Fat dipole
antenna named after two Japanese scientists who

invented it and describe its operation
Yagi-uda antenna
a linear array consisting of a dipole and two or

more parasitic elements: one reflector and one or
more directors
Yagi antenna
formed by placing two dipoles at right angles to

each other 90 out of phase
Turnsile antenna
a class of frequency-independent antennas where

in its primary advantage is the independence of
their radiation and radiation pattern to frequency;
from the initial work of V. H. Rumsey, J. D. Dyson,
R. H. DuHamel and D.E. Isbell
Log-periodic antennas
the ratio of the highest to the lowest frequency

over which antenna will satisfactorily operate
Bandwidth ratio
simply a single-turn coil of wire that is significantly

shorter than one wavelength and carries RF current
Loop antenna
a group of antenna or a group of antenna arrays

that, when connected together function as a single
antenna whose beamwidth and direction can be
changed electronically without having to physically
move any of the individual antennas or antenna
elements within the array
Phased array antenna
a broadband VHF or UHF antenna that is ideally

suited for applications for which radiating circular
rather than horizontal
or vertical polarized
electromagnetic waves; used as a single element
antenna or stacked horizontally or vertically in an
array to modify its radiation pattern by increasing
the gain and decreasing the beamwidth of the
primary lobe
Helical antenna
electromagnetic radiation is in a direction at right

angles to the axis of the helix
Normal mode
radiation is in the axial direction and produces a

broadband, relatively directional pattern
Axial mode
defined as the ratio of its maximum gain in the

forward direction to its maximum gain in its
backward direction
Front-to-back ratio
44
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
used with point-to-point microwave systems
Highly directional antennas
provide extremely high gain and directivity and are

very popular for microwave radio and satellite
communications skills
Parabolic reflector antennas
two main parts of parabolic antenna:
resemble the shape of a plate or dish; a plane

curve that is defined as the locus of a point that
moves so that its distance from another point
added to its distance from a straight line is of
constant length
Parabolic reflectors
(parabolic
dish,
antennas)
the ratio of the focal length to the diameter of the

mouth of the parabola
Aperture ratio
the resulting curved surface dish
Paraboloid
energy near the edge of the dish does not reflect

but rather is diffracted around the edge of the dish
Spillover or leakage
considers both the radiation pattern of the primary

radiator and the effect
Aperture efficiency
the ratio of the focal length of the antenna to the

reflector diamtere
Aperture number
houses the primary antenna which radiates

electromagnetic waves toward the reflector
Feed mechanism
three primary types

parabolic antennas:
the primary antenna is placed at the focus
Center feed
the primary antenna is a small horn antenna rather

than a simple dipole or dipole array
Horn feed
the primary radiating source is located in or just

behind a small opening at the vertex of the
paraboloid rather than at the focus
Cassegrein feed
consists of a cone that is truncated in a pice of

circular waveguide; the waveguide in turn connects
the antenna to either the transmitter or the
receiver
Conical horn antenna
a hollow conductive tube, usually rectangular in
Waveguides
of
feed
mechanism
45
for
parabolic reflector
feed mechanism
center feed
horn feed
cassegrain feed
dish
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
cross section but sometimes circular or elliptical
the velocity at which a wave propagates; the

velocity at which information signals of any kind are
propagated; also the velocity at which energy is
propagated; can be measured by determining the
time it takes for a pulse to propagate a given length
of a waveguide
Group velocity
velocity at which the wave changes phase; the

apparent velocity of a particular phase of the wave;
the velocity with which a wave changes phase in a
direction parallel to a conducting surface; such as
the walls of a waveguide
Phase velocity
minimum frequency of operation; the absolute

limiting frequency; frequencies above the cutoff
frequency will not be propagated by the waveguide
Cutoff frequency
maximum wavelength that they can propagate;

defined as the smallest free-space wavelength that
is just unable to propagate in the waveguide
Cutoff wavelength
the travel of electromagnetic waves

waveguide in different configurations
Propagation of modes
means that the electric field lines are everywhere

transverse (perpendicular to the guide walls)
TE
waveguides used in radar and microwave

applications when it is necessary or advantageous
to propagate both vertically and horizontally
polarized waves in the same waveguide
Circular waveguide
waveguide that is more expensive to manufacture

than a standard rectangular waveguide; however it
allows operation at lower frequencies for a given
size
Ridged waveguide
consists of a spiral-wound ribbons of brass or

copper; used extensively in microwave test
equipment
Flexible waveguide
down
CHAPTER 16: Telephone Instruments and Signal
a part of global communications network which

uses telephone or a data modem on a telephone
network
46
Public
(PTN)
telephone
network
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
PTN that interconnects subscribers through one or

more switches
Public
switch
network (PSTN)
the simplest and most straightforward form of

telephone service which involves subscribers
accessing the public telephone network through a
pair of wires
Plain old telephone service

(POTS)
simply an unshielded twisted-pair transmission line

(cable pair) consisting of two insulated conductors
twisted together; generally comprised of several
lengths of copper wire interconnected at junction
and cross-connect boxes located in manholes, back
alleys, or telephone equipment rooms with large
buildings and building complexes
Subscriber loop (local loop)
means to connect a telephone set at a subscribers

location to the closest telephone office, which is
commonly called an end office, local exchange
office, or central office
Subscriber loop
enables the subscriber

telephone network
Electronic
(ESS)
the quality of transmission over a telephone

depends on:
to
access
the
public
switching
system
received volume
relative
frequency
response of the telephone
circuit
degree of interference
helps prevent the speaker from talking too loudly
Sidetone/talkback
pair of wires connecting a subscriber to the closest

telephone office
Local loop
one wire on the local loop

come from the -inch-diameter two-conductor
phone plugs and patch cords used at telephone
company switch-boards to interconnect and test
circuits
Tip
Tip and Ring
standards for registered jacks and is sometimes

called as RJ-XX; a series of telephone connection
interfaces (receptacle and plug) that are registered
with the U.S. FCC
RJ
the most common telephone jack in use today and

can have up to six conductors
RJ-11
reasons why a dc voltage was used rather than an

ac voltage
47
telephone
prevent
hum
power
supply
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
allow service to continue

in the event of a power
outage
people were afraid of ac
voltage selected to minimize electrolytic corrosion

on the loop wires; used for supervisory signaling
and to provide talk battery for the microphone in
the telephone set
-48 Vdc
examples of supervisory signals
placed directly across the tip and ring of the local

loop; the purpose of the ringer is to alert the
destination party of incoming calls
Ringer circuit
a simple single-throw, double pole (STDP) switch

placed across the tip and ring; mechanically
connected to the telephone is idle (on hook) is
open; when the telephone is in use (off hook) is
closed completing an electrical path through the
microphone between the tip and ring of the local
loop
On/off hook circuit (switch)
combinations of passive components that are used

to regulate the amplitude and frequency response
of the voice signals
Equalizer
the receiver for the telephone; converts electrical

signals received from the local loop to acoustical
signals (sound waves) that can be heard and
understood by a human being; connected to the
local loop through the hybrid network; typically
enclosed in the handset of the telephone along with
the microphone
Speaker
the transmitter for the telephone; converts

acoustical signals in the form of sound pressure
waves from the caller to electrical signals that are
transmitted into the telephone network through the
local subscriber loop
Microphone
a special balanced transformer used to convert a

two-wire circuit (the local loop) into a four-wire
circuit (the telephone set) and vice versa, thus
enabling full duplex operation over a two-wire
circuit
Hybrid network (hybrid coil or

duplex coil)
enables
the
subscriber
to
output
signals
representing digits and this enables the caller to
enter the destination telephone number; either an
electronic dial-pulsing circuit or a Touch-Tone
Dialing circuit
48
on-hook
off-hook
dial pulsing
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
keypad which sends various combinations of tones
representing the called digits
are acknowledgement and status signals that

ensure the processes necessary to set up and
terminate a telephone call are completed in an
orderly and timely manner
Call progress tones and call

progress signals
the exchange of signaling messages over local

loops between stations (telephone) and telephone
company switching machines
Station signaling
the exchange of signaling messages between

switching machines
Interoffice signaling
indicate a request for service such as going off

hook or ringing the destination telephone
Alerting signals
provide call status information, such as busy or

ring-back signals
Supervising signals
provide information in the form of announcements

such as number changed to another number, a
number no longer in service
Controlling signals
provide the routing information such as calling and

called numbers
Addressing signals
Call Progress Tone Summary

Tone or
Frequency
Signal
Dial tone
350 Hz plus 440 Hz
DTMF
697 Hz, 770 Hz, 852 Hz, 941
Hz,
1209 Hz, 1336 Hz, 1477 Hz,
1633 Hz
MF
700 Hz, 900 Hz, 1100 Hz,

1300 Hz, 1500 Hz, 1700 Hz
Dial pulses
Open/closed switch
Station busy
480 Hz plus 620 Hz
Equipment
busy
Ringing
480 Hz plus 620 Hz

20 Hz, 90 vrms (nominal)
49
Duration/Range
Continuous
Two of eight
tones
On, 50-ms
minimum
Off, 45-ms
minimum
3-s minimum
Two of six tones
On, 90-ms
minimum
120-ms
maximum
On, 39 ms
Off, 61 ms
On, 0.5 s
Off, 0.5 s
On, 0.2 s
Off, 0.3 s
On, 2 s
Off, 4 s
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
Ring-back
440 Hz plus 480 Hz
Receiver on
hook
Receiver off
hook
Receiver-leftoffhook alert
Open loop
Dc current
1440 Hz, 2060 Hz, 2450 Hz,
2600 Hz
On, 2 s
Off, 4 s
Indefinite
20 mA minimum
80 mA maximum
On, 0.1 s
Off, 0.1 s
a 2600-Hz frequency tone placed on a circuit to

indicate the circuit is not currently in use
IDLE signal
a multifrequency control tone comprised of 1100 Hz

plus 1700 Hz ranging from 90 ms to 120 ms; used
to indicate the beginning of a sequence of MF digits
Key Pulse (KP) signal
the method originally used to transfer digits from a

telephone set to the local switch
Dial
pulsing
pulsing)
is sent from the switching machine back to the

calling station whenever the called telephone
number is off hook; a two-tone signal comprised of
480Hz and 620 Hz
Station busy signal
sent from the switching machine back to the calling

station whenever the system cannot complete the
call because of equipment unavailability
Equipment
(congestion
available)
whenever the system is overloaded and more calls

are being placed than can be completed
Blocking
sent from a central office to a subscriber whenever

there is an incoming call; the purpose is to ring the
bell in the telephone set to alert the subscriber that
there is an incoming call
Ringing signal
sent back to the calling party at the same time the

ringing signal is sent to the called party; the
purpose is to give some assurance to the calling
party that the destination telephone number has
been accepted, processed, and is being rung
Ring-back signal
simply tones that operate cords attached to the

handset; a full duplex, battery-operated , portable
radio transceiver that communicates directly with a
stationary transceiver located somewhere in the
Cordless telephone
50
(rotary
dial
busy
signal
tone/no-circuits-
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
subscribers office
enables the destination of a telephone call to

display the name and telephone number of the
calling party before the telephone is answered;
allows subscribers to screen incoming calls and
decide whether they want to answer the telephone;
a simplex transmission sent from the central office
switch over the local loop to a caller ID display unit
at the destination
Caller ID
simplex wireless communications system deigned

to alert subscribers of awaiting messages; relay
radio signals and messages from wire-line and
cellular telephones to subscribers carrying portable
receivers
Paging transmitters
CHAPTER 17 : The Telephone Circuit
the network bandwidth for a standard voice-band

message channel
4 kHz
the only facility required by all voice-band circuits,

as it is the means by which subscriber locations are
connected to the local telephone company
Local subscriber loop
a metallic transmission line comprised of two

insulated copper wires (a pair) twisted together
Local loop
an actual loss of signal strength
Attenuation
occurs when two or more frequencies undergo

different amounts of phase shift
Phase distortions
depend on the wire diameter, conductor spacing,

dielectric constant of the insulator separating the
wires and the conductivity of the wire
refers to the electrical characteristics of a cable
uniformly distributed along its length
Transmission characteristics
the largest cable used in a local loop, usually 3600

pair of copper wire placed underground or in
conduit
Feeder cable (F1)
a cross-connect point used to distribute the larger

feeder cable into smaller distribution cables
Serving area interface (SAI)
a smaller version of a feeder cable containing less

wire pairs
Distribution cable (F2)
51
Distributed parameters
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
a device that serves as the demarcation point

between local telephone company responsibility
and subscriber responsibility for telephone service
Subscriber
or
standard
network interface (SNI)
the final length of cable pair that terminates at the

SNI
Drop wire
that portion of the local loop that is strung between

poles
Aerial
the location where individual cable pairs within a

distribution cable are separated and extended to
the subscribers location on a drop wire
Distribution cable and dropwire cross-connect point
an irregularity found in cables serving subscriber

locations; unused sections of cable that are
connected in shunt to a working cable pair
Bridge tap
the basic yardstick used for making

measurements in communications
Decibel, dB
defined as the optimum level of a test tone on a

channel on a channel at some point in a
communications system
Transmission level point (TLP)
the ratio in dB of the power of a signal at that point

to the power the same signal would be at a 0-dBm
transmission level point
Transmission level (TL)
a parameter
transmission
Data level point (DLP)
used primarily in Europe; assumes a perfect

receiver; therefore, its weighting curve corresponds
to the frequency response of the human ear only
Psophometric noise weighting
apply to dedicated private-line data circuits that

utilize the private sector of the public telephone
network circuits with bandwidths comparable to
those of standard voice-grade telephone channels
that do not utilize the public switched telephone
network
Transmission parameters
direct connections between two or more locations
Private-line circuits
the difference
frequency
an indirect method of evaluating the phase delay

characteristics of a circuit
Attenuation
distortion
(frequency
response,
differential gain and 1004-Hz
deviation)
Envelope delay distortion
used
as
in circuit
reference
gain
of a
power
for
data
reference
52
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
the process used to improve a basic telephone

channel; improves the high frequency response of a
message channel and reduces power loss
specifies the maximum limits for attenuation and
envelope delay distortion; pertains to line
impairments for which compensation can be made
with filters and equalizers
Line conditioning
telephone systems provided by local telephone

companies dedicated to a single customer, usually
with a large number of stations
Private switched networks
a relatively low-capacity switching machine where

the subscribers are generally limited to stations
within the same building or building complex
Private
(PBX)
the time delay encountered by a signal as it

propagates from a source to a destination
Propagation time
delay measured in angular units, such as degrees

or radians
Phase delay
the actual time required for a particular frequency

to propagate from a source to a destination through
a communications channel
Absolute phase delay
evaluate not the true phase-versus-frequency

characteristics but rather the phase of a wave that
is the result of a narrow band of frequencies
Envelope delay
the phase difference at the different carrier

frequencies; indicates the relative delays of the
various carrier frequencies with respect to the
reference frequency
Envelope delay distortion
neither reduces the noise on a circuit nor improves

the signal-to-noise ratio; a requirement and does
not add anything to the circuit and it cannot be
used to improve a circuit; it simply places higher
requirements on circuits used for high-speed data
transmission
D-type conditioning
unwanted multiples of the transmitted frequencies
Harmonic distortion
cross products [sums and differences] of the

transmitted frequencies
Intermodulation
distortion
(fluctuation noise or crossmodulation noise)
the purpose is to simulate the combined signal

power of a standard voice-band data transmission
1004-Hz test tone
determine the average weighted rms noise power
C-message noise
differ
C-notched noise
from
standard
C-message
noise
53
C-type conditioning
branch
exchange
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
measurements only in the fact that a holding tone
is applied to the transmit end of the circuit while
the noise measurement is taken
ensures that the circuit operation simulates a

loaded voice or data transmission
Holding current
a communications term that indicates the presence

of a signal power comparable to the power of an
actual message transmission
Loaded
characterized by high-amplitude peaks (impulses)

of short duration having an approximately flat
frequency spectrum; can saturate a message
channel; the primary source of transmission errors
in data circuits
Impulse noise
a sudden, random change in the gain of a circuit

resulting in a temporary change in the signal level
Gain hit
a decrease in circuit gain of more than 12 dB

lasting longer than 4 ms; characteristics of
temporary open-circuit conditions and are generally
caused by deep fades on radio facilities or by
switching delays
Dropout
sudden, random changes in the phase of a signal;

are classified as temporary variations in the phase
of a signal lasting longer than 4 ms
Phase hits (slips)
a form of incidental phase modulation-a continuous,

uncontrolled variation in the zero crossings of a
signal; occurs at a 300 Hz rate or lower and its
primary cause is low-frequency ac ripple in power
supplies
Phase jitter
the presence of one or more continuous, unwanted

tones within a message channel
Single-frequency interference
unwanted tones caused by crosstalk or cross

modulation between adjacent channels in a
transmission system due to system nonlinearities
occurs in coherent SSBSC systems, such as those
using frequency-division multiplexing when the
received carrier is not reinserted with the exact
phase relationship to the received signal as the
transmit carrier possessed
Spurious tones
used to match impedances and to provide isolation

between the two directions of signal flow
Hybrid set
used to convert two-wire circuits to four-wire

circuits similar to the hybrid coil found in standard
telephone sets
Hybrid circuits
54
Phase intercept distortion
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
eliminate the echo electrically subtracting it from

the original signal rather than disabling the
amplifier in the return circuit
Echo cancellers
used to eliminate echo
Echo suppressors
can be defined as any disturbance created in a

communications channel by signals in other
communications channels; a potential problem
whenever two metallic conductors carrying
different signals are located in close proximity to
each other; was originally coined to indicate the
presence of unwanted speech sounds in a
telephone receiver caused by conversations on
another telephone circuit
Crosstalk
crosstalk cause by inadequate control of the

transfer characteristics or transmittance of
networks
Transmittance crosstalk
electromagnetic coupling between two or more

physically isolated transmission media;
Coupling crosstalk
crosstalk that occurs at the transmit end of a circuit

and travels in the opposite direction as the signal in
the disturbing channel
Near-end crosstalk (NEXT)
occurs at the far-end receiver and is energy that

travels in the same direction as the signal in the
disturbing channel
Far-end crosstalk (FEXT)
referenced to the level on the cable that is being

interfered with
dBx for crosstalk
CHAPTER 18 : The Public Telephone Network
identifies and connects the subscribers to a suitable

transmission path
Switching functions
supply and interpret control and supervisory signals

needed to perform the operation
Signaling functions
involves the actual transmission system of a

subscribers messages and any necessary control
signals
Transmission functions
referred to the leased lines

configured for their use only
Private-line
(dedicated lines)
designed
55
and
circuits
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
equipment and facilities that are available to all the

public subscribers to the network which includes
transmission facilities and telephone switches
Common usage equipment
sometimes called to public telephone companies
Service providers
simply the dedicated facility used to connect an

instrument at a subscribers station to the closest
telephone office
Local loop
similar to local loop except trunk circuits used to

interconnect two telephone offices; a common
usage connection; can be simple as a pair of copper
wires twisted together or as sophisticated as an
optical fiber cable
Trunk circuit
allows any telephone connected to it to be

interconnected to any of the other telephones
connected to the exchange without requiring
separate cable pairs and telephones for each
connection
Telephone exchange
the first telephone exchanges where manual

interconnects were accomplished using patchcords
and jacks
Switchboards
each telephone line that could have 10 or more

subscribers connected to the central office
exchange using the same loop
Party line
a programmable matrix that allows circuits to be

connected to one another; interconnect input loop
or trunk circuits to output loop or trunk circuits
Circuit switch
local exchanges centrally located within the area

they serve; can directly interconnect any two
subscribers whose local loops are connected to the
same local exchange
Central offices (CO)
a telephone call completed within a single local

exchange
Intraoffice
call)
calls placed between two stations

connected to different local exchanges
Interoffice calls
an exchange without any local loops connected to it
Tandem office
called switchers switch
Tandem switch
trunk circuits that terminate in tandem switches
Tandem trunks (intermediate

trunks)
that
56
are
call
(intraswitch
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
was established to provide a telephone numbering

system for the United States, Mexico, and Canada
that would allow any subscriber in North America to
direct dial virtually any other subscriber without the
assistance of an operator
North American Telephone

Numbering Plan (NANP)
allows many subscribers to share a limited number

of lines to a central office switch
Concentrator
splits the two directions of signal propagation so

that the actual long-distance segment of the route
can be accomplished on a four-wire basis
Terminating set (hybrid)
allows a certain degree of route selection when

establishing a telephone call
Switching hierarchy
simply a path between two subscribers and is

comprised of one or more switches, two local loops,
and possibly one or more trunk circuits
Route
an equipment busy signal received by the calling

party if a call cannot be completed because the
necessary trunks or circuits are not available
Blocking
a local exchange where subscriber loops terminated

and received dial tone; end offices interconnected
subscriber loop to other subscriber loops and
subscriber loops to tandem trunks, interoffice
trunks, and toll-connecting trunks
Class 5 end office
provided no operator assistance
Class 3 primary center
provide service to geographical regions varying in

size from part of a state to all of several states,
depending on population density
Class 2 sectional center
the highest-ranking office in the DDD network in

terms of the size of the geographical area serves
and trunking options available
Class 1 regional center
a global standard for telecommunications defined

by the International Telecommunications Union
(ITU) Telecommunications Sector (ITU-T); was
developed as an alternate and much improved
means of transporting signaling information
through the public telephone network;
Common channel
no. 7 (SS7 or C7)
a telecommunications term that describes the legal

boundaries for the responsibility of maintaining
equipment and transmission lines; a demarcation
point separating two companies
Point-of-presence
57
signaling
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
allows customers to change to a different service

and still keep the same telephone number
Porting
store information about subscribers services,

routing of special service numbers and calling card
validation for fraud protection and provide
information necessary for advanced call-processing
capabilities
Databases
provides access from one level of the protocol to

another level
Primitive
CHAPTER 19 : Cellular Telephone Companies
utilized frequency modulation and were generally

assigned a single carrier frequency in the 35 MHz to
45 MHz range that was used by both the mobile
unit and the base station
Mobile
telephone
systems
(MTSs) (manual telephone
system)
small handsets, easily carried by a person in their

pocket or purse
Mobile telephone stations
suggested any radio transmitter, receiver, or

transceiver that could be moved while in operation
Mobile
described a relatively small radio unit that was

handheld, battery powered, and easily carried by a
person moving at walking speed
Portable
similar to two-way mobile radio in that most

communications occurs between base stations and
mobile units; best describe by pointing out the
primary difference between it and two-way mobile
radio
Cellular telephone
push-to-talk
PTT
examples of two-way mobile radio
citizens band (CB)

public land mobile radio
Evolution of Cellular Telephone

July 28, 1945
: Saturday Evening Post, E. K. Jett, then the commissioner of the FCC hinted of a cellular
telephone scheme that he referred to as simply s small zone radio telephone system
June 17, 1946
: in St. Louis Missouri, AT&T and Southwestern Bell introduced the first American
58
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
commercial mobile radio-telephone service to private customers. In the same year,
similar services were offered to 25 major cities throughout the United States
early 1950s
: the FCC doubled the number of mobile telephone channels by reducing the bandwidth to
60 kHz per channel
1960
: AT&T introduced direct-dialing, full-duplex mobile telephone service with other
performance enhancements
1966
: Don Adams, in a television show called Get Smart, unveiled the most famous mobile
telephone to date: the fully mobile shoe phone
1968
: AT&T proposed the concept of cellular mobile system to the FCC with the intent of
alleviating the problem of spectrum congestions in the existing mobile telephone system
1974
: the FCC allocated an additional 40-MHz bandwidth for cellular telephone service
1975
: the FCC granted AT&T the first license to operate a development cellular telephone
service in Chicago
1976
: the Bell Mobile Phone service for metropolitan New York City offered only 12 channels
that could serve a maximum of 543 subscribers. FCC granted authorization to the
American Radio Telephone Service (ARTS) to install a second developmental system in the
Baltimore- Washington, D.C., area
1983
: the FCC allocated 666 30 kHz half-duplex mobile telephone channels to AT&T to form the
first U.S. cellular telephone system called Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS)
1991
: the first digital cellular services were introduced in several major U.S. cities, enabling a
more efficient utilization of the available bandwidth using voice compression
November 17, 1998
: a subsidiary of Motorola Corporation implemented Iridium, a satellite-based wireless
personal communications satellite system (PCSS)
the pattern that fits the cellular concept
Honeycomb
defined by its physical size; its physical size varies

depending on user density and calling patterns
Cell
the smallest cells used most often in high-density

areas such as found in large cities and inside
buildings; exhibit milder propagation impairments
such as reflections and signal delays
Microcells
these is used in well-shielded areas or areas with

high levels of interference
Picocells
normally used in center-excited cells (center of the

cell)
Omnidirectional antennas
are used in edge- and corner- excited cells (three of

the cells six vertices)
Sectored directional antennas
the process in which the same set of frequencies
Frequency reuse
59
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
(channels) can be allocated to more than one cell,
provided the cells are separated by sufficient
distance
a geographic cellular radio

containing three groups of cells
when the area of a cell, or independent component

coverage area of a cellular system is further
divided, thus creating more cell areas; to increase
the channel capacity and improve the availability
and reliability of a cellular telephone network
Cell splitting
the point when a cell reaches maximum capacity

occurs when the number of subscribers wishing to
place a call at any given time equals the number of
channels in the cell
Maximum traffic load
decreasing co-channel interference while increasing

capacity by using directional antennas
Sectoring
placing two receive antennas; improves reception

by effectively providing a larger target for signals
radiated from mobile units
Space diversity
divides a group of channels into smaller groupings

or segments of mutuality exclusive frequencies; cell
sites, which are within the reuse distance, are
assigned their own segment of the channel group; a
means of avoiding co-channel interference, lowers
the capacity of a cell by enabling reuse inside the
reuse distance
Segmentation
means of avoiding full-cell splitting where the entire

area would otherwise need to be segmented into
smaller cells
Dualization
the locations of these radio-frequency transceivers;

serves as central control for all users within that
cell
Base stations
when mobile unit moves possibly from one

companys service area into another companys
service area
Roaming
the transfer of a mobile unit from one base

stations control to another base stations control
Handoff (handover)
a connection that is momentarily broken during the

cell-to-cell transfer
Hard handoff
a flawless handoff; no perceivable interruption of

service and normally takes approximately 200 ms
which is imperceptible to voice telephone users
Soft handoff
coverage
60
area
Clusters
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
although the delay
transmitting data
may
be
disruptive
when
a protocol aligns with a subprotocol of the SS7

protocol stack that facilitates communications
among databases and other network entities; allow
mobile units to roam and to perform handoffs of
calls already in progress when a mobile unit moves
from one cellular system into another without
subscriber intervention
IS-41
the process where a mobile unit notifies a serving

MTSO of its presence and location through a base
station controller
Autonomous registration
operates under the direction o switching center

(MTSO); manage each of the radio channels at each
site, supervises calls, turns the radio transmitter
and receiver on and off, injects data onto the
control and voice channels and performs diagnostic
tests
second part of the base station controllers
Cell-site controller
also a part of the base station subsystem; used

with cellular telephone system voice channels can
be either narrowband FM for analog system
Radio transceivers
generally used to connect switching centers to cell

sites and to the public telephone network
Four-wire leased lines
governs the way telephone calls are established

and is disconnected
Communications protocol
the actual voice channel where mobile users

communicate directly with other mobile and
wireline subscribers through a base station
User channel
is used for transferring control and diagnostic

information between mobile users and a cellular
telephone switch through a base station
Control channel
Base
(BTS)
transceiver
station
CHAPTER 20 Cellular Telephone Systems
a standard cellular telephone service (CTS) initially

placed into operation on October 13, 1983; the idea
61
Advanced Mobile
System (AMPS)
Telephone
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
was to eliminate the possibility of a monopoly and
provide the advantages that generally accompany
a competitive environment
a transmission mode that simultaneously transmit

in both directions
Duplexing
a 34-bit binary code comprised of a three-digit area

code, a three-0digit prefix (exchange number), and
a four-digit subscriber (extension) number
Mobile identification number

(MIN)
a 32-bit binary code permanently assigned to each

mobile unit
Electronic
(ESN)
indicates whether the terminal has access to all

832 AMPS channel ; specifies the maximum
radiated power for the unit
Four-bit
(SCM)
a 15-bit binary code issued by the FCC to an

operating company when it issues it a license to
provide AMPS cellular service to an area
System identifier (SID)
combination of cellular telephone networks and the

Intelligent Network which is the entity of the SS7
interoffice protocol that distinguishes the physical
components of the switching network
Personal
Communications
System (PCS)
a database that stores information about the user,

including home subscription information and what
supplementary services the user is subscribed to
Home location register (HLR)
a database that stores information about

subscribers in a particular MTSO serving area
Visitor location register (VTR)
a database that stores information pertaining to the

identification and type of equipment that exist in
the mobile unit
Equipment
registry (EIR)
allows all calls to pass through the network to the

subscriber except for a minimal number of
telephone numbers that can be blocked
Available mode
the PCS equivalent to caller ID; the name of the

calling party appears on the mobile units display,
which allows PCS users to screen calls
Screen mode
all calls except those specified by the subscriber

are automatically forwarded to a forwarding
destination without ringing the subscribers handset
Private mode
62
serial
station
number
class
mark
identification
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
no calls are allowed to pass through to the

subscriber
Unavailable mode
was originally intended to provide a short-term

solution to the traffic congestion problem in the
AMPS system
Narrowband AMPS (N-AMPS)
used by mobile units to request access to the

cellular telephone system; a unidirectional channel
specified for transmissions from mobile-to-base
units only
RACH
used to transmit information from base stations to

specific mobile stations;
SPACH
channels used to carry generic, system-related

information; a unidirectional base station-to-mobile
unit transmission shared by all mobile units
BCCH
an access method used with standard analog AMPS
FDMA
was first used by the military to ensure reliable

antijam and to secure communications in a
battlefield environment; the fundamental concept is
to break a message into fixed-size blocks of data
with each block transmitted in sequence except on
a different carrier frequency
Frequency-hopping
spectrum
spread
a high-bit rate pseudorandom code is added to a

low-bit rate information signal to generate a highbit-rate pseudorandom signal closely resembling
noise that contains both the original data signal
and the pseudorandom code
Direct-sequence
spectrum
spread
a second-generation cellular telephone system

initially developed to solve the fragmentation
problems inherent in first-generation cellular
telephone system
Global System for Mobile

Communications (GSM)
basic parameters of GSM
a satellite-based wireless personal communications
63
GMSK
modulation
(Gaussian MSK)
50 MHz bandwidth
FDMA/TDMA accessing
eight
25-kHz
channels
w/in each 200-kHz traffic
channel
200 kHz traffic channel
992 full-duplex channels
supplementary integrated
services digital network
(ISDN) services
Iridium
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
network designed to permit a wide range of mobile
telephone
services,
including
voice,
data,
networking, facsimile and paging
uses 66 satellites
the unique key to the Iridium system and the

primary differentiation between Iridium
Satellite cross-links
relay information to the terrestrial gateways and

the system control segment located at the earth
stations
Feeder links
CHAPTER 21: Introduction to Data Communications and Networking
Data
are systems of interrelated computers and
network
computer equipment and can be as simple as a
personal computer connected to a printer or two
personal computers connected together through
the public telephone network
one of the earliest means of communicating

electrically coded information when a proposal
submitted to a Scottish magazine suggested
running a communications line between villages
comprised of 26 parallel wires
1753
Carl Friedrich gauss developed an unusual

system based on a five by five matrix representing
25 letters
1833
the first successful data communications system

was invented.
the first practical data communications code.
1832
Morse secured an American patent for the

telegraph.
the first telegraph line was established between
Baltimore and Washington dc with the first
message conveyed over this system.
1840
1860
high speed printers were available
Emile Baudot invented a telegraph multiplexer

which allowed signals from up to six different
telegraph
machines
to
be
transmitted
simultaneously over a single wire.
64
Morse code
1844
1874
communications
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
the telephone
graham bell
Alexander
1875
Guglielmo Marconi succeeded in sending radio

telegraph messages
1899
the first commercial radio stations carrying voice

information were installed
1920
he
demonstrated
a
sometime in the late 1930s
Konrad Zuis
was
invented
by
computing
machine
the first special purpose computer using

electromechanical relays for performing logical
operations
batch processing systems were replaced by online processing systems with terminals connected
directly to the computer through serial or parallel
communications lines.
1940
the year introduced microprocessor controlled

microcomputers.
1970s
personal computers became an essential item in

the home and workplace.
1980s
1960s
ATM components
routers and switches

to
connect carrier on global
basis
backbone
devices
to
connect all the lans within a
large organization
switches
and
adapters
which
link
desktop
computers to high speed
atm connection for running
multimedia applications
ATM speeds
1.4 Gbps
a digital telecommunications technology that can

simultaneously transmit voice and data over the
same pair of telephone wires
B-channel (Bearer channel)

D channel
H channel
ISDN channels:
used to carry the digital information; build block

of the ISDN; 64 kbps
used
to
carry
ISDN
signaling
and
supervisory
65
B-channel
D channel
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
information to the network; kpbs (bri) or 64 kbps
(pri)
provide for user information at higher bit rates;

combination of several b channels
H channel
for business with larger data needs; American

23b + d(t1 = 1.544mbps); European 30b + d (e1=
2.048 mbps)
PRI
150 mbps; for future HDTV projects; h channels
Broadband ISDN
CHAPTER 22: Fundamental Concepts of Data Communications
the first fixed-length character code developed for

machines rather than for people; named after Emile
Baudot, an early pioneer in telegraph printing; a
fixed-length source code; all characters are
represented in binary and have the same number
of symbols (bits)
Baudot Code
the standard character set for source coding the

alphanumeric
character
set
that
humans
understand but computers do not; a seven-bit fixed
length character set
United States of America

Standard
Code
for
Information Exchange (ASCII)
an eight-bit fixed-length character developed in

1962 by the International Business Machines
Corporation (IBM); used almost exclusively with IBM
mainframe computers and peripheral equipment
Extended
Binary-Coded
Decimal
Interchange
Code
(EBCDIC)
are those omnipresent black-and-white striped

stickers that seem to appear on virtually every
consumer item in the United States and most of the
rest of the world; a series of vertical black bars
separated by vertical white bars
Bar codes
has spaces or gaps between characters; each

character within the bar code is independent of
every other character
Discrete code
does not include spaces between characters
Continuous code
stores data in two dimensions in contrast with a

conventional linear bar code
2D code
uses an alphanumeric code similar to the ASCII

code; consists of 36 unique codes representing the
10 digits and 26 uppercase letters
Code 39 (Code 3 of 9, 3 of 9
Code)
66
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
developed sometime in the early 1970s to identify

the products of the grocery industry; found on
virtually every grocery item from a candy bar to a
can of beans
Universal Product Code (UPC)
only one bit within a given data string is in error;

affects only one character within a message
Single bit error
when two or more non-consecutive bits within a

given data string are in error; can affect one or
more characters within a message
Multiple bit error
the first fixed length character code developed for

machines rather than people
Baudot code
a French postal engineer who developed the

Baudot code
Thomas Murray
RTTY is the acronym for _____
Radio teletype
a fixed length source code
Baudot code
the standard character set for source coding the

alphanumeric
character
set
that
humans
understand
ASCII
an eight bit fixed length character set developed

in 1962 by IBM
EBCDIC
EBCDIC is the acronym for ___
Extended
binary
coded
decimal interchange code
when two or more consecutive bits within a given

data string re in error; can affect one or more
characters within a message
Burst error
the process of monitoring data transmission and

determining when errors have occurred; not to
prevent errors from occurring but to prevent
undetected errors from occurring
Error detection
duplicating each data unit for the purpose of

detecting errors; an effective but rather costly
means of detecting errors, especially with long
messages
Redundancy
adding bits for the sole purpose of detecting errors
Redundancy checking
probably the simplest error-detection scheme
Vertical redundancy checking

(VRC)
(character
parity,
parity)
own error-detection bit
Parity bit
67
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
the parity bit is always a 1; useful only when errors

occur in a large number of bits
Marking parity
another relatively simple form of redundancy error

checking where each character has a numerical
value assigned to it; appended to the end of the
message
Checksum
a redundancy error detection scheme that use parity

to determine if a transmission error has occurred
with a message and is therefore sometimes called
message parity
Longitudinal
Checking (LRC)
the bit sequence for the LRC
Block check sequence (BCS)

or Frame check sequence
(FCS)
probably the most reliable redundancy checking

technique for error detection; a convolutional
scheme; approximately 99.999% of all transmission
errors are detected
Cyclic
(CRC)
include enough redundant information with each

transmitted message to enable the receiver to
determine when an error has occurred
Error-detecting codes
include sufficient extraneous information along with

each message to enable the receiver to determine
when an error has occurred and which bit is in error
Error-correcting codes
two primary methods used for error-correction:
Redundancy
redundancy
checking
retransmission
forward error correction
CHAPTER 23: Data-Link Protocols and

Data Communications Networks
the primary goal is to give users of a network the

tools necessary for setting up the network and
performing data flow control
Network architecture
arrangements between people or processes
Protocols
a set of rules implementing and governing an

orderly exchange of data between layer two devices
such as line control units and front-end processors
Data-link protocol
all stations have equal access to the network, but

when they have a message to transmit, they must
Peer-to-peer network
68
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
contend with the other stations on the network for
access to the transmission medium
determines which device is transmitting and which

is receiving at any point in time
Line discipline
coordinates the rate at which data are transported

over
a
link
and
generally
provides
an
acknowledgement mechanism that ensures that
data are received at the destination
Flow control
a solicitation sent from the primary to a secondary

to determine if the secondary has data to transmit
Poll
how the primary designates a secondary as a

destination or recipient of data
Selection
the transmitting station sends one message frame

and then waits for an acknowledgement before
sending the next message frame
Stop-and-wait flow control
a source station can transmit several frames in

succession before receiving an acknowledgement
Sliding window flow control
refers to imaginary receptacles at the source and

destination stations with the capacity of holding
several frames of data
Sliding window
interpret a frame of data as a group of successive

bits combined into predefined patterns of fixed
length usually eight bits
Character-oriented protocols
a discipline for serial-by-bit information transfer over

a data communications channel
Bit-oriented protocol
are relatively simple, character-oriented generally

used on two-point networks using asynchronous
data and asynchronous modems
Asynchronous
protocols
data-link
remote stations can have more than one PC or

printer
Synchronous
protocols
data-link
group of computers, printers, and other digital

devices
a synchronous character-oriented data-link protocol
developed by IBM; sometimes called bisync or
bisynchronous communications
Cluster
a synchronous bit-oriented protocol developed in

the 1970s by the IBM for use in system network
architecture environment
Synchronous data-link control

(SLDC)
an information field is not allowed; cannot be used

to transfer numbered information
Supervisory frame
69
Binary
synchronous
communications (BSC)
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
causes all previously set functions to be cleared by

the secondary
Clear
causes the secondary to turn on or turn off
Beacon test
causes the addressed secondary station to place

itself into the monitor mode
Monitor mode
causes a secondary station to loop its transmission

directly to its receiver input
Wrap
make a receiver transparent to all data located
Transparency
a switched data communications network similar to

the public telephone network except it is designed
for transferring data only
Public switched data network

(PDN or PSDN)
involves dividing data messages into small bundles

of information and transmitting them through
communications networks to their intended
destinations using computer-controlled switches
Packet switching
logically equivalent to a two-point

private-line circuit except slower
Permanent
(PVC)
users send small packets of data into the network
Datagram (DG)
the integrating of a wide range of services into a

single multipurpose network; a network that
proposes to interconnect an unlimited number of
independent
users
through
a
common
communication network
Integrated
service
network (ISDN)
provides the most economical and effective means

of handling local data communication needs
Local area network (LAN)
the time it takes a signal to travel from a source to a

destination
Propagation delay
dedicated
virtual
circuit
digital
CHAPTER 24: Microwave Radio Communications and System Gain
described
as
electromagnetic
waves
with
frequencies that range from approximately 500
MHz to 300 GHz or more
Microwave
systems are those used to carry information for

relatively long distances
Long-haul microwave systems
70
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
propagate signals through Earths atmosphere

between transmitters and receivers often located
on top of towers spaced about 15 miles to 30 miles
apart
Microwave radios
the composite signal that modulates the FM carrier
Baseband
a preemphasis network precedes the FM deviator;

provides an artificial boost in amplitude to the
higher baseband frequencies
Microwave transmitter
a receiver and a transmitter placed back to back or

in tandem with the system
Microwave repeaters
another name for local oscillator and is

considerably lower in frequency than either the
received or the transmitted radio frequencies
Shift oscillator
the reduction in signal strength
Radio fade
it suggests that there is more than one

transmission path or method of transmission
available between a transmitter and a receiver;
used to increase the reliability of the system by
increasing its availability
Diversity
simply modulating two different RF carrier

frequencies with the same IF intelligence, then
transmitting both RF signals to a given destination
Frequency diversity
the output of a transmitter is fed to two or more

antennas that are physically separated by an
appreciable number of wavelengths
Space diversity
a single RF carrier is propagated with two different

electromagnetic polarizations
Polarization diversity
using more than one receiver for a single radiofrequency channel
Receiver diversity
it combines frequency, space, polarization and

receiver diversity into one system
Quad diversity
somewhat specialized form of diversity that

consists of a standard frequency-diversity path
where the two transmitter/receiver pairs at one end
of the path are separated from each other and
connected to different antennas that are vertically
separated as in space diversity
Hybrid diversity
provide protection for a much larger section of the

communications system that generally includes
several repeaters spanning a distance of 100 miles
or more
Protection
arrangement
71
switching
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
two types of protection switching arrangement:
each working radio channel has a dedicated backup

or spare channel
Hot standby protection
a single backup channel is made available to as

many as 11 working channels
Diversity protection
points in the system where baseband signals either

originate or terminate
Terminals
points in a system where baseband signals may be

reconfigured or where RF carriers are simply
repeated or amplified
Repeater stations
a balanced modulator that when used in

conjunction with a microwave generator, power
amplifier, and bandpass filter, up-converts the IF
carrier to an RF carrier and amplifies the RF to the
desired output power
Transmit
(transmod)
a unidirectional device often made from a ferrite

material; used in conjunction with a channelcombining network to prevent the output of one
transmitter from interfering with the output of
another transmitter
Isolator
this occurs when three stations are placed in a

geographical straight line in the system
Multihop interference
preventing the power that leaks out the back and

sides of a transmit antenna from interfering with
the signal entering the input of a nearby receive
antenna
Ring around
the line-of-sight path directly between the transmit

and receive antennas
Free-space path
the portion of the transmit signal that is reflected

off Earths surface and captured by the receive
antenna
Ground-reflected wave
consists of the electric and magnetic fields

associated with the currents induced in Earths
surface
Surface wave
the portion of the transmit signal that is returned

back to Earths surface by the ionized layers of
Earths atmosphere
Sky wave
72
hot standby
diversity
modulator
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
often defined as the loss incurred by an

electromagnetic wave as it propagates in a straight
line through a vacuum with no absorption or
reflection of energy from a nearby objects
Free-space path loss
a phenomena where in no electromagnetic is

actually lost or dissipated it merely spreads out as
it propagates away from the source resulting in
lower relative power densities
Spreading loss
the reduction in receive signal level; reduction in

signal strength at the input to a receiver; it applies
to propagation variables in the physical radio path
that affect changes in the path loss between
transmit and receive antennas
Fading
the difference between the nominal output power

of a transmitter and the minimum input power to a
receiver
necessary
to
achieve
satisfactory
performance; must be greater than or equal to the
sum of all gains and losses incurred by a signal as it
propagates from a transmitter to a receiver
System gain
essentially a fudge factor included in system gain

equations that considers the nonideal and less
predictable
characteristics
of
radiowave
propagation, such as multipath propagation and
terrain sensitivity; these characteristics cause
temporary, abnormal atmospheric conditions
the minimum wideband carrier power at the input
to a receiver that will provide a usable baseband
output
Fade margin (link margin)
simply a ratio of input signal-to-noise ratio to

output signal-to-noise ratio
Noise factor
indicates how much the signal-to-noise ratio

deteriorates as a waveform propagates from the
input of a circuit
Noise figure
Receiver threshold
sensitivity)
(receiver
CHAPTER 25 : Satellite Communications
in astronomical terms, a celestial body that orbits

around a planet; in aerospace terms, a space
vehicle launched by humans and orbits Earth or
another celestial body
Satellites
a microwave repeater in the sky that consists of a

diverse combination of one or more of the
following:
receiver,
transmitter,
amplifier,
regenerator, filter, onboard computer, multiplexer,
demultiplexer, antenna, waveguide and about nay
Communications satellite
73
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
other electronic
developed
communications
circuit
ever
called a transponder
Satellite radio repeater
consists of one or more satellite space vehicles, a

ground-based station to control the operation of the
system and a user network of earth stations that
provides the interface facilities for the transmission
and reception of terrestrial communications traffic
Satellite system
includes control mechanisms that support the

payload operation
Bus
the actual user information conveyed through the

system
Payload
a continuously transmitted unmodulated carrier

that an earth station can lock on to and use to
determine the exact location of a satellite so the
earth station can align its antennas
Beacon
accomplished the first transatlantic transmission
Echo
meaning lightning
Molniya
Keplers laws:
the planets move in ellipses

with the sun at one focus
the line joinining the sun and
a planet sweeps out equal
areas in equal intervals of
time (laws of areas)
the square of the time of
revolution of a planet divided
by the cube of its mean
distance from the sun gives a
number that is the same for
all planets (harmonic law)
closest approach to the earth
Perigee
farthest point from earth
Apogee
rotate around the Earth in an elliptical or circular

pattern
Orbital
(nonsynchronous)
the orbit if the satellite is orbiting in the same

direction as Earths rotation (counterclockwise) and
at an angular greater than that of earth
Prograde or posigrade orbit
the orbit if the satellite is orbiting in the opposite

direction of Earths rotation or in the same direction
with an angular velocity less than that of Earth
Retrograde orbit
74
satellites
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
a system utilizing a 66-satellite constellation

orbiting approximately 480 miles above Earths
surface; the main advantage is that the path loss
between earth stations and space vehicles is much
lower than for satellites revolving in medium- or
high-altitude orbits
Low Earth Orbit
operate in the 1.2 GHz to 1.66 GHz frequency band

and orbit between 6000 miles and 12000 miles
above the Earth
Medium Earth Orbit
high-altitude
earth-orbit
satellites
operating
primarily in the 2 GHz to 18 GHz frequency
spectrum with orbits 22 300 miles above the
Earths surface
Geosynchronous satellites
the line joining the perigee and apogee the center

of Earth
Major Axis (line of apsides)
the line perpendicular to the major axis and

halfway between the perigee and apogee
Minor axis
half the distance of the minor axis
Semiminor axis
all satellites rotate around Earth in an orbit that

forms a plane that passes through the center of
gravity of Earth
Geocenter
are virtually all orbits except those that travel

directly above the equator or directly over the
North and South Poles
Inclined Orbits
the angle between the Earths equatorial plane and

the orbital plane of a satellite measured
counterclockwise at the point in the orbit where it
crosses the equatorial plane traveling from south to
north
Angle of inclination
traveling from south to north
Ascending node
the point where a polar or inclined orbit crosses the

equatorial plane traveling from north to south
Descending node
the line joining the ascending an descending nodes

through the center of Earth
Line of nodes
when the satellite rotates in an orbit directly above

the equator, usually in a circular path
Equatorial orbit
when the satellite rotates in a path that takes it

over the North and South poles in an orbit
perpendicular to the equatorial plane
Polar orbit
75
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
causing elliptical orbits to rotate in a manner that

causes the apogee and perigee to move around the
Earth
Rotation of the line of apsides
satellites appear to remain in a fixed location above

one spot on earths surface
Geosynchronous
geostationary)
the process of maneuvering a satellite within a

preassigned window
Station keeping
the circumference of a geosynchronous orbit
264 790 km
the velocity of a geosynchronous satellite
6840 mph
sometimes referred to geosynchronous earth orbit
Clarke orbit or Clarke belt
direction of maximum gain of an earth station

antenna
Boresight
azimuth and elevation angle are jointly referred to

__________
Look angles
a point on the surface below the satellite
Subsatellite point (SSP)
the vertical angle formed between the direction of

travel of an electromagnetic wave radiated from an
earth station antenna pointing directly toward a
satellite and the horizontal plane
Angle of elevation
the horizontal angular distance from a reference

direction either the southern or northern most point
of the horizon
Azimuth
defined as the horizontal pointing angle of an earth

station antenna
Azimuth angle
determine the farthest satellite away that can be

seen looking east or west of the earth stations
longitude
Line-of-sight limits
uses the angular momentum of its spinning body to

provide roll and yaw stabilization
Spinner satellite
the body remains fixed relative to Earths surface,

while an internal subsystem provides roll and yaw
stabilization
Three-axis stabilizer satellites
the geographical representation of a satellite

antennas radiation pattern; the area on Earths
surface that the satellite can receive from or
transmit to
the smallest beams; concentrate their power to
Footprint (footprint map)
76
Spot beams
(stationary
or
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
very small geographical areas and, therefore,
typically have proportionately higher EIRPs than
those targeting much larger areas because a given
output power can be more concentrated
typically target up to 20% of the Earths surface

and, therefore, have EIRPs that are 3 dB or 50%
lower than those transmitted by spot beams that
typically cover only 10% of the Earths surface
Hemispherical
antennas
have a beamwidth of approximately 42% of Earths

surface which is the maximum view of any one
geosynchronous satellite
Earth coverage
increasing the size of an antenna, the beamwidth of

the antenna is also reduced thus, different beams
of the same frequency can be directed to different
geographical areas of Earth
Frequency reuse
consists of an input bandlimiting device (BPF), an

input low-noise amplifier (LNA), a frequency
translator, a low-level power amplifier, and an
output bandpass filter
Satellite transponder
used when it is necessary to communicate between

satellites
Cross-links or intersatellite links

(ISLs)
high power amplifiers used in earth station

transmitters and the traveling-wave tubes typically
used in a satellite transponders
Nonlinear devices
the amount the output level is backed off from

rated levels equivalent to a loss
Back-off loss
defined as an equivalent transmit power
Effective
isotropic
power (EIRP)
a hypothetical value that can be calculated but

cannot be measured; often used rather than noise
figure because it is more accurate method of
expressing the noise contributed by a device or a
receiver when evaluating its performance
Equivalent noise temperature
the noise power normalized to a 1-Hz band width,

or the noise power present in a 1-Hz bandwidth
Noise density
the average
density ratio
Carrier-to-noise density ratio
the combines power

associated sidebands
the thermal noise present in a normalized 1-Hz

bandwidth
wideband
of
carrier
the
power-to-noise
carrier
and
77
its
Wideband carrier power

Noise density
downlink
radiated
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
CHAPTER 26: Satellite Multiple Accessing Arrangements
sometimes called multiple destination because

the transmission from each earth station are
received by all the other earth stations in the
system
Multiple accessing
method of assigning adjacent channels different

electromagnetic polarization
Frequency reuse
an Eskimo word meaning little brother
Anik
a method required when three or more earth

stations wish to communicate with each other
Multiple accessing
sometimes called to multiple accessing because

the transmissions from each earth station are
received by all the other earth stations in the
system
Multiple destination
when it is used, a given number of the available

voice-band channels from each other station are
assigned a dedicated station
Preassignment
voice-channels are assigned on an as-needed basis;

provides more versatility and more efficient use of
the available frequency spectrum
Demand assignment
each earth stations transmissions are assigned

specific uplink and downlink frequency bands within
an allotted satellite; transmissions are separated in
the frequency domain
FDMA
each earth station transmits a short burst of

information during a specific time slot (epoch);
transmissions are separated in the time domain;
the entire transponder bandwidth and power are
used for each transmission but for only a prescribed
interval of time
TDMA
the entire satellite transponder bandwidth is used

by all stations on a continuous basis; signal
separation
is
accomplished
with
envelope
encryption/decryption techniques
CDMA
78
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
an alternate channel allocation scheme
Demand-assignment,
access (DAMA)
an acronym for single-channel-per-carrier PCM

multiple-access demand-assignment equipment
SPADE
a time-division-multiplexed transmission that is

frequency-division multiplexed into the spectrum
below the QPSK-encoded voice-band channels with
a 160 KHz bandwidth
Common signaling channel (CSC)
called when each stations can transmit only during

their specified time slot although the incoming
voice-band signals are continuous
Store-and-forward system
a unique binary word
Chip code
produced when a bipolar data-modulated signal is

linearly multiplied by the spreading signal in a
special balanced modulator
Direct-sequence
spectrum (DS-SS)
a form of CDMA where a digital code is used to

continually change the frequency of the carrier
Frequency hopping
there can be more TCs assigned than there are SCs
Channel compression
a phenomenon when speech energy is detected on

a TC and there is no SC to assign it to
Competitive clipping
a form of analog channel compression that has

been used for suboceanic cables for many years
Time-assignment
interpolation (TASI)
can be defined as the art or science of plotting,

ascertaining, or directing the course of movements;
knowing where you are and being able to find your
way around
Navigation
the most ancient and rudimentary method of

navigation; is simply continuing to travel about
until you reach your destination
Wandering
direction and distance are determined from

precisely timed sightings of celestial bodies
including the stars and moon; a primitive technique
that dates back thousand of years
Celestial navigation
another rudimentary method of navigation; fixing a

position and direction with respect to familiar,
significant landmarks, such as railroad tracks, water
towers, barns, mountain peaks and bodies of water
Piloting
a navigation technique that determines position by
Dead reckoning
79
multiple
spread
speech
Engr. Jaime P.
Licuanan, CCNA
extrapolating a series of measured velocity
increments used quite successfully by Charles
Lindbergh in 1927 during his historic 33 hour
transatlantic journey and quite unsuccessfully by
Amelia Earhart in 1937 during her attempt to make
first around-the-world flight
the most accurate navigation technique; position is

determined by measuring the travel time of an
electromagnetic wave as it moves from a
transmitter to a receiver
Radio or electronic navigation
consist of 24 operational satellites revolving around

Earth in six orbital planes approximately 60 apart
with four satellites in each plane; there are 21
working satellites and three satellites reserved as
spaces
Space segment
this unique number is used to encrypt the signal

from that satellite
Pseudorandom noise (PRN) code
a term generally associated with a table showing

the position of a heavenly body on a number of
dates in a regular sequence, in essence, an
astronomical almanac
Ephemeris
the Navstar control segment which includes all the

fixed-location
ground-based
monitor
stations
located throughout the world a master control
station (MCS), and uplink transmitters
Operational
(OCS)
makes GPS even more accurate; works by

canceling out most of the natural and man-made
errors that creep into normal GPS measurements
Differential GPS
-end-
80
control
system

Licuanan, CCNA
81
Engr. Jaime P.

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Electronics Systems and Technologies

CHAPTER 1 :Introduction to Electronic Communications

the transmission, reception and processing of information

signals that are time-varying voltages or currents that are

signals that are voltages or currents that change in discrete

he invented the first workable telegraph

it is used to transfer information in the form of dots, dashes and

they were the first to successfully transfer human conversation

a logarithmic unit that can be used to measure ratios of virtually

a transmission-measuring unit used to express relative gains

another name for power loss

it provides a means of transporting signals between a

any unwanted electrical

a collection of electronic devices and circuits that accepts the

the process of changing one or more properties of the analog

Alexander Graham Bell

Electronics Systems and Technologies

a system in which energy is transmitted and received in analog

it covers a broad range of communication techniques including

the transmittal of digitally modulated analog carriers between

the information signal is analog and the amplitude of the carrier

the frequency is varied proportional to the information signal

a circuit performing modulation in a transmitter

a carrier that has been acted on by an information signal

the reverse process of modulation and converts the modulated

it is often used to refer to a specific band of frequencies

another name for information signal

the process of converting a frequency or band of frequencies to

it can propagate as a voltage or current along a metallic wire as

simply the number of times a periodic motion such as sine wave

an international agency in control of allocating frequencies and

signals in the 30-Hz to 300-Hz range and include ac power

signals in the 300-Hz to 3000-Hz range and include frequencies

Electronics Systems and Technologies

signals in the 3-kHz to 30-kHz range which include the upper

Very low frequencies

signals in the 30-kHz to 300-kHz range and used primarily for

signals in the 300-kHz to 3-MHz range and are used primarily

Very high frequencies

signals in the 300-MHz to 3-GHz range and are used by

signal in the 3-GHz to 30-GHz range used for microwave and

signals in the 30-GHz to 300-GHz range and seldom used for

signal in the 0.3-THz to 300-THz

the length that one cycle of an electromagnetic wave occupies

simply the difference between

the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies that

Electronics Systems and Technologies

a highly theoretical study of the efficient use of bandwidth to

a measure of how much information can be propagated through

simply the number of bits transmitted during one second and is

any undesirable electrical energy that falls within the passband

implies a relationship between the signal and the noise. Exist

noise present all the time whether there is signal or not

noise that is generated outside the device or circuit

naturally occurring electrical disturbances that originate within

another name for atmospheric noise

frequency of atmospheric noise

consists of electrical signal that originate from outside Earths

continuously distributed throughout the galaxies

another name for cosmic noise

simply noise that is produced by mankind

another name for man-made noise

electrical interference generated within a device or circuit

caused by random arrival of carriers at the output element of an