Maxwell Equations, Macroscopic Electromagnetism,

Conservation Laws
Maxwells Displacement Current; Maxwell Equations
Amperes Law:

B 0 J

In general case

J 0 for steady state

J 0
0
t
t

Then Maxwell replaced J in Amperes law by its generalization

J

J 0

E
t

for time-dependent fields. Thus Amperes law became

E

B 0 J 0

The Maxwell equations can be written as follows:

(i) E 0 ,
(iii) B 0,

(ii) E

B
t

(iv) B 0 J 0

Vector and Scalar Potential

B A

B 0

B
t

E
0
t

A
t

Then the inhomogeneous equations can be written in terms of the potentials

1

as
2

2A

( A ) / 0
t

(1)

1 2A
1

A 2
0 J
2
2
c t
c t

(2)

We can find that the electromagnetic fields are invariant under the gauge
transformations: A A A

Gauge Transformations, Lorentz Gauge, Coulomb Gauge

(i) Lorentz Gauge:

1
0
c 2 t

The equations (1) and (2) becomes

2

2A

1 2
c 2 t 2
1 2A
c 2 t 2

/ 0

(3)

0 J

(4)

(ii) Coulomb Gauge: A 0

From (1) we see that the scalar potential satisfies the Poisson equation,
2 / 0

with solution,

(x, t )

1
4 0

(x, t ) 3
d x
x x

The vector potential satisfies the inhomogeneous wave equation,

2A

1 2A
c

0 J

c
t
1

 The Helmholtz Theorem

Theorem: Partial Integral

A (f ) d 3 x

da
fA n

f ( A) d 3 x

where A(x)

is a vector field and f(x) a scalar field.

Proof :
Use the Gausss theorem

and the vector formula

( fA) d 3 x

( fA) d 3 x

da
fA n

A (f ) d 3 x

f ( A) d 3 x

Finally we obtain the partial integral

A (f ) d 3 x

da
fA n

f ( A) d 3 x

The Helmholtz Theorem

Let H(x) be differentiable at all points in space, with divergence H =

d(x) and curl H = c(x). If d(x) and c(x) approach to 0 faster than r as r

, and H(x) 0 as r , then H = + A where

( x)

1
4

d (x ) 3
d x
x x

A ( x)

1
4

c(x)

x x d

Proof :
3

H(x) 3
d x
x x

1
x x

H(x)

d 3 x

1
H(x)
x x

1
x x

d 3 x 4

d 3 x

H(x) x x d

H
da 4H(x)
n
x x

1 3
d x

x x
H(x )

H(x)
1 3
d x

H(x)

x x

x
x

H(x) 3
H(x)
d x
n da
x x
x x

H(x) 3
d x
x x

H 3
d x
x x

H(x)

x x d

H(x) 2

H(x) 3
d x 2

xx

H(x)

3
d x Let x x r ,

then we have
H(x)

H
d 3 x
4 x x

H(x) 3
d x
4 x x

So that H(x) = + A
where

( x)

1
4

d (x ) 3
d x
x x

and

A ( x)

1
4

c(x) 3
d x .
x x

The vector field H(x) can be written as the sum of two terms,
H(x) = F(x) + G(x)
where F(x) is call the longitudinal or irrotational field and has F = 0,
while G(x) is call the transverse or solenoidal field and has G = 0.

Maxwells Equations in Matter

We consider the static case that an electric polarization P produces a bound
4

charge density
b P

Likewise, a magnetic polarization (or magnetization) M results in a bound

current
Jb M

Theres just one new feature to consider in the non-static case: Any change in
P involves a flow of bound charge (call it Jp), which must be included in the
total current. If P increases a bit, the charge on each end increases
accordingly, giving a net current
dI

b
P
dA
dA
t
t

The current density, therefore, is

Jp

P
t

P
dA

This polarization current Jp has nothing whatever to do with the bound

current Jb. We could check that the above equation for Jp is consistent with
the continuity equation:
Jp

P b
t t
t

In view of all this, the total charge density can be separated into two parts:
f b f P ,

and the current density into

three parts:
J J f Jb J p J f M

P
t

Gausss law can now be written as

5

1
f b 1 f P
0
0

D f

or
where

D 0E P .

Meanwhile, Ampres law becomes

B 0 J f J b J p 0 0

or

H J f

where

E P
E
0 J f M 0 0
t
t

D
t

H B / 0 M .

Therefore the Maxwells equations in matter can be

written as follows:
(i) D f ,

(ii) E

(iii) B 0,

B
t

(iv) H J f

D
t

Some people regard these as the true Maxwells equations, but please
understand that they are just only the approximate formula, they are in no
way more general than the original Maxwells equations.

Boundary Conditions
(i)

D f

D da Q f

D D2 f

(ii) B 0

B da 0

(iii)

B1 B2 0
B
t

(iv)

H J f

E dl dt B da
c

E1 // E2 // 0

D
t
d
dt

H dl I

H1 l H 2 l I f

H1 // H 2 // K

D da
S

Poyntings Theorem and Conservation of Energy

According to the Lorentz force law, the work done on a charge q with an
infinitesimal displacement dl is
dW F dl q(E v B) vdt qE vdt

If there exists a continuous distribution of charge and current, the total rate of
doing work by the EM fields in a finite volume V is
dW

dt

J E d 3x

D 3
E ( H) E
d x

V
t

If we now employ the vector identity,

(E H ) H ( E) E ( H)

we have

J E d 3x

D
B 3
(E H) E
H
d x

V
t
t

(5)

The energy density stored in the EM fields is

u em

1
(E D B H )
2

If we denote the total energy density of the charged particles within the
volume V as umech (the mechanical energy density), so that
dW d

dt dt

u mech d 3 x

u mech 3
d x
t

Then Eq.(5) can be written

u mech 3
d x
t

u em

(E H) d 3 x

V
t

Since the volume V is arbitrary, this leads to the continuity equation of

energy,

u mech u em S
t

where S E H is called the Poynting vector.

The Poyntings theorem expresses the conservation of energy for the system
of charged particles moving in EM fields as
dE d
( Emech Efield )
dt dt

S da

where
8

dE mech

dt

J E d 3x

and

E field

u em d 3 x

Example

Assuming that the

current density is

uniform, the electric field parallel to the wire is

E

V
L

The magnetic field at the surface has the value

B

0 I
2a

Accordingly, the magnitude of the Poynting vector is

S

VI
2aL

Therefore the energy per unit time passing in through the surface of the wire
is

S da S ( 2aL ) VI

 Maxwell Stress Tensor and Conservation of Momentum

The conservation of linear momentum can be similarly considered. We can
write, from the Lorentz force and Newtons second law,
dPmech

dt

( E J B) d 3 x

(6)

We use the Maxwell equations to eliminate and J from Eq.(6):

1
E
( B) 0
B
t
0
B

0 E( E) E
c 2 B ( B) 0
(E B)
t
t

E J B 0 ( E)E

0 E( E) c 2 B( B) E ( E) c 2 B ( B) 0

(E B)
t

The rate of change mechanical momentum Eq.(6) can now be written

dPmech
d

dt
dt
0

(E B) d x
E( E) E ( E) c
V

B( B) c 2 B ( B) d 3 x

(7)

We may identify the total EM momentum Pfield in the volume V:

Pfield 0

E B d 3 x 00

S d 3x

So that the density of momentum in the EM fields is

pem 0 0 S

S
c2

If we employ the vector identity,

E( E) E ( E) i

x
j

( Ei E j
j

1
2

E 2 ij )

the right hand side of Eq.(7) has the form of a divergence of a second rank
10

tensor. With the definition of the Maxwell stress tensor Tij as

Tij 0 Ei E j c 2 Bi B j 12 ( E 2 c 2 B 2 ) ij

Therefore we can write Eq.(7) as

d
(Pmech Pfield )
dt

where T

Physically,

Tij
x j

T d 3x

and

T n da

T ni

(8)

Tij n j

is the force per unit area (or stress) acting on the surface. More

precisely, Tij is the force per unit area in the i-th direction acting on an
element of surface oriented in the j-th direction

diagonal elements (Txx,

Tyy, Tzz) represent pressures, and off-diagonal elements (Txy, Tyz, Tzx,...) are
shears. Eq.(8) can be written in the differential form as follow:

( pmech pem ) T
t

Example

The fields are

E

1
e
2 0

0 I
e
2
11

The Poynting vector is therefore

S

I
e z
4 0 2
2

The power transported is

I
2
0

S da 4

b
a

1
I
2 d
ln(b / a ) IV
2
2 0

The momentum in the fields is

Pfield 0 0

S d

0 Il
e z
4 2

b
a

0 Il
1
2

ln(b / a )e z
2
2

Suppose now that we turn up the resistance, so the current decrease. The
changing magnetic field will induce an electric field:
0 dI

ln c e z
2 dt

The field exerts a force on

l dI
0 dI

dI

ln a c e z l 0 ln b c e z 0
ln(b / a )e z
2 dt
2 dt

2 dt

F l

The total momentum imparted to the cable, as the current drops from I to 0,
is therefore
Pmech

F dt

0 Il
ln(b / a )e z
2

Example: The Feynman disk paradox.

In Fig. an insulator disk is free to rotate
on

its

axis. Attached

to

the

disk

coaxially there are: (i) a solenoid coil (2)

12

a ring of positive charge fixed on the disk. Initially the battery is not
connected to the coil, no current flows, and the system is at rest. When the
switch is closed there is an impulsive torque on the disk. Is the angular
momentum conserved?

Angular Momentum
The EM fields carry the energy density
u em

1
(E D B H ) ,
2

and the momentum density

pem 0 0 S 0 (E B) ,

and, for that matter, the angular momentum density:

l em r pem 0 r (E B) .

Example 8.4
Before the current was switched off, there was an
electric field,
E

Q 1
e
2 0 l

( a b) ,
13

and a magnetic field,

B 0 nI e z

( R ).

The momentum density was therefore

pem

0 nIQ
e (a R )
2l

The angular momentum density was

l em r pem

0 nIQ
e z (a R)
2l

The total angular momentum in the fields was

1
L em 0 nIQ R 2 a 2 e z
2

When the current is turned off, the changing magnetic field induces a electric
field, given by Faradays law:

1 dI R 2
0n
e , ( R),
2 dt
1 dI
0 n e , ( R).
2 dt

Thus the torque on the outer cylinder is

N b r (QE)

1
dI
0 nQR 2 e z
2
dt

and it picks up an angular momentum

Lb

1
0 nQR 2e z
2

t0
0

dI
1
dt 0 nQR 2e z
dt
2

0
I

1
dI 0 nIQR 2 e z
2

Similarly, the torque on the inner cylinder is

1
dI
N a 0 nQa 2
e z
2
dt
14

and it picks up an angular momentum

1
0 nIQa 2 e z
2

La

So it all works out: Lem = La + Lb

Appendices:
(I) Multi-pole Expansion
1
1 x x
3
x x
x
x

1
4
x x
l 0

m l

rl
1
*
Ylm
( , )Ylm ( , )
2l 1 rl 1

(A.1)

The electrostatic potential for the charge density (x) is

( x)

1
4 0

(x) 3
d x
x x

(A.2)

Substitution (A.1) into (A.2) leads to

( x)

where

qlm

1
0

l 0 m l

qlm Ylm ( , )
2l 1 r l 1

*
l
3
lm ( , ) r ( x) d x

(i) The electric monopole moment ( the total charge ) is q.

(ii) The electric dipole moment is
p

x (x ) d 3 x

15

(iii) The electric quadrupole moment tensor is

Qij

(3 x x r
2

i j

ij ) ( x ) d

Then we have
( x)

q px 1
4 0 r
2
r3

ij

Qij

xi x j
r5

(II) Elementary Treatment of Electrostatics with Ponderable

Media
When an averaging is made of the microscopic equation,

E micro 0 ,

the

macroscopic equation, namely,

E 0

holds for the averaged. Here E is the macroscopic electric field.

The electric polarization in a medium is given by
P ( x) N i p i
i

The charge density at the macroscopic level will be

(x) N i ei excess
i

Thus the charge of V is (x)V and the dipole moment of V is P(x)V . If

there are no higher macroscopic multipole moment densities, the potential
caused by the configuration of moments in V is given by
( x )
P ( x) (x x )

3
4 0 x x

x x

( x, x )

Then
( x)

1
4 0

(x)

1

P(x )

x x
x x

d 3 x

An integration by part for the second term yields

16

1
( x)
4 0

(x) P(x) d 3 x
x x

1
4 0

P(x) n
da
x x

With E = , the first Maxwell equation therefore reads

E

1
- P
0

We can define the volume bound charge density

b P

And the surface bound charge density

b P n

Define the electric displacement D:

D 0E P

We have
D

We assume that the medium is isotropic. Then

P 0 eE

The constant e is called the electric susceptibility of the medium. The

displacement D is therefore proportional to E
D E

and

E /

where the electric permittivity e

17

(III) Magnetic Fields of a Localized Current Distribution,

Magnetic Moment
The Biot-Savart law:
B(x)

0
4

A(x)

x x

J (x) x x
0
4

d 3 x

J ( x)

x x d

x A

(A.3)

J ( x) 3
d x
x x

The Taylor expansion

1
1 x x
3
x x
x
x

Substitution of this into (A.3) yield

Ai (x)

0
4

J i ( x) d 3 x

x
x

x J i (x )d 3 x

(A.4)

If J(x) is localized but not necessarily divergenceless have the identity

fgJ d

fgJ n da 0

Then

fJ g gJ f fg Jd x 0
3

(A.5)

(i) With f = 1, g = xi and J = 0, (A.5) yields

( x ) d 3 x 0

18

(ii) With f = xi, g = xj and J = 0, (A.5) yields

( x J
i

x j J i ) d 3 x 0

The integral in the second term of (A.4) can be therefore written

x

xJ

d 3 x

x x J
j

d 3 x

1
2

ijk

xj

j ,k

x J

1
2

x x J
j

x j J i d 3 x

d 3 x

1
x
2

x J d

Define the magnetic moment m :

1
x J (x ) d 3 x
2

(A.6)

Then the vector potential from the second term in (A.4) is the magnetic
dipole vector potential,
0 m x
4 x 3

A(x)

The magnetic B induction can be calculated directly

B(x)

0
4

3n(n m) m
x

8
m ( x)
3

If the current I flows in a closed circuit whose line element is dl, (A.6)
becomes
m

I
2

x dl

Therefore the magnetic moment has magnitude,

m I ( Area )

19

(IV) Macroscopic Equations of B and H

The averaging of the microscopic equation,

B micro 0 ,

leads to the same

macroscopic equation
B 0

The large number of molecules per unit volume, each with its molecular
magnetic moment mi, give rise to an average macroscopic magnetization or
magnetic moment density,
M (x)

mi

Then the vector potential from a small volume V at the point x will be
A ( x)

0
4

J ( x)
M (x) (x x)

V
3
x x
x x

J ( x)
M ( x) (x x) 3

d x
3
x x
x x

Then
A ( x)

0
4

An integration by part for the second term yields

M ( x )
da

x x

M ( x ) 3
d x

x x

M ( x ) M (x ) (x x )

d 3 x

3
x x

x x

Then
A ( x)

0
4

J (x) M (x) 3
0

d x
x x
4

M (x) n
da
x x

The magnetization is seen to contribute an effective current density

JM M

So that
B 0 J M

We can define a new macroscopic field H,

H

1
BM
0
20

Then the macroscopic equations are

H J
B 0

We assume that the medium is isotropic. Then

B H

(5.84)

The parameter is called the magnetic permeability ( for

paramagnetic substances and for diamagnetic substances).
For the ferromagnetic substances, (5.84) must
be replaced by a nonlinear relationship,
B F (H)

21