MSE 313

Department of Materials Science and Engineering

Spring 2005

Laboratory 5
Tensile Testing of Metals and Plastics

Objectives
The purpose of this laboratory is to determine the mechanical properties such as tensile
strength, elastic modulus, fracture strength, ductility and the energy to fracture of metals
and plastics in tension using a mechanical testing apparatus (Instron corporation, model
no: 5500R).

YOU MUST READ ASTM E8 AND D638 STANDARDS BEFORE

THE LAB

Introduction
The Tensile Test is a common standard test which is simple to conduct and is a valuable
method of determining important mechanical properties of engineering materials. A
thorough understanding of a material's properties is required by the engineer if failures
are to be avoided. The procedural details of the test vary for different material types, but
tensile tests are generally conducted at room temperature at relatively slow loading rates
although various temperatures and loading rates may be required for the determination of
material behavior under specific conditions.

The output of a standard tensile test is load versus displacement data. Since load-
displacement characteristics are dependent on specimen size, for example, it will require
twice the load to produce the same elongation if the cross-sectional area of the specimen
is doubled, load-displacement data is routinely converted to engineering stress-strain
data. For axial loading, engineering stress, σ , is defined by the well known relationship,
σ = P/Ao, where P is the instantaneous load applied perpendicular to the specimen cross
section, in units of pounds force (Ibf) or Newton's (N), and Ao is the original cross-
sectional area of the specimen before any load is applied (in2 or m2). The units of stress
are generally kips per square inch (ksi) or mega pascals (MPa). Engineering strain, ε ,
along the loading axis of an uniaxially loaded sample is defined as,
ε = ∆ L/L,
where engineering strain, ε (mm/mm), is determined by dividing the change in gauge
length, ∆ L (mm), by the original length of the specimen, L (mm). Engineering strain is
unitless, but inches per inch or meters per meter are often used; the value of strain is
clearly independent of the units system applied! Strain may also be expressed as a
percentage, in which case the strain value is multiplied by 100.
In Tensile Testing, the test specimen is deformed, usually until complete fracture occurs,
with a gradually applied increasing tensile load that is applied uniaxially along the long
axis of the specimen. When a specimen is loaded beyond its' ultimate strength the cross-
sectional area begins to decrease in a localized region instead of decreasing over its entire
length creating a so called "neck.” Normally the test specimen is circular, but rectangular
specimens can also be used. Each specimen is of a specific shape and the dimensions
should be in accordance with ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials)
specifications for standardization. During testing, deformation is confined to the narrow
center region, which has a uniform cross section along its length as shown in Fig. 1.

Figure 1: Dogbone tensile testing specimens: (a) aluminum , (b)polymer, and (c) composite.

By analyzing the stress-strain curve of a specific material that has been tested in tension,
a number of mechanical properties of the material can be determined. The list of
properties that can be determined from the stress-strain curves is given below.

• Yield Strength (σ ys) - Yield Strength is defined as the stress required to produce a
specified amount of plastic deformation or permanent set (strain) in a material.
Below the elastic limit, the stress-strain relationship in loading and unloading are
identical for practical purposes. Therefore, it is not necessary to unload a
specimen in order to determine the yield strength. Rather, a line parallel to the
initial straight line portion of the curve is constructed. The parallel line is
displaced from the origin of the curve by an amount equal to the specified
permanent set. The stress at the intersection of the parallel line with the stress-
strain curve is called as the yield strength. The offset most commonly used is
0.2% strain or 0.002 in/in or mm/mm. The yield strength is a practical measure of
the limit of elastic action of a material. It is always greater than the elastic limit
and is sensitive to measurement instrument precision.
• Ultimate or Tensile Strength (σ ul) - The Ultimate Strength, also referred to as the
Tensile Strength, is calculated by dividing the maximum load sustained by the
specimen by the original cross-sectional area of the specimen.
 • Fracture or Rupture Strength (σ ru) - The Rupture Strength, also referred to as the
Fracture Strength, is determined by dividing the load sustained at rupture by the
original cross-sectional area of the specimen. This load will be less than the
maximum load because the cross-sectional area of the specimen is reduced
drastically after the maximum load is reached. The reduced cross-section has an
"Hour-Glass" shape and the phenomenon of reduction in cross-section is called as
Necking or Necking Down.
• Modulus of Elasticity (E) - The Modulus of Elasticity is a measure of material
stiffness and is termed Young's Modulus for tensile loading. The Modulus of
Elasticity, E, is the constant of proportionality between stress, σ , and strain, ε ,
at stresses below the proportional limit. The Modulus of Elasticity is found by
measuring the slope of the straight-line portion of the stress-strain curve.
• Modulus of Toughness (UT) - The toughness of a material refers to the ability of
the material to absorb energy up to the point of rupture. The Modulus of
toughness is determined by measuring the area under the stress-strain curve. This
is not an exact indication of toughness because the specimen does not strain
uniformly over its length, and hence does not absorb energy uniformly throughout
its volume. The units of toughness are determined by multiplying stress with
strain.
• Percent Elongation (% EL) - The Percent Elongation refers to the elongation at
rupture and can be expressed as: % EL = 100 (∆ LT) where ∆ LT represents total
elongation; ∆ LT = final length – original length (Lf - Lo)
• Percent Reduction in Area (% RA) - The Reduction in Area refers to the reduction
in cross-sectional area at rupture and can be expressed as: % RA =100 (∆ AT)
where ∆ AT represents total reduction in area; ∆ AT = original cross-sectional
area- final cross-sectional area (Ao - Af)
• True Strain (ε Τ )- The True Strain is the change in length divided by the
instantaneous length and can be simply determined as:
ε T= ln (ε + 1)
• True Stress (σ T) - The True Stress is the applied load divided by the
Instantaneous cross-sectional Area and can be simply determined as:
σ T = σ (ε + 1)

For some materials (e.g., concrete, gray cast iron) the initial elastic portion of the stress-
strain curve is non-linear where it is impractical to determine a standard modulus of
elasticity. Furthermore, the modulus of elasticity is restricted to the initial linear portion
of a standard stress-strain diagram and is invalid beyond this region. For non-linear
behavior, either the Tangent or Secant Modulus is generally utilized.

Experimental Procedure
Samples of 6061 (T6 condition) aluminum alloy and high density polyethylene (HDPE)
will be used for testing. 6061 Al-alloy contains Mg and Si as major alloying elements and
also contains Fe, Cu, Mn, Zn, Cr and Ti. T6 condition implies that the alloy has been
solution heat treated and artificially aged. One aluminum alloy sample and one HDPE
sample will be provided to each group. The elongation of the specimen will be obtained
from two sources: crosshead displacement and extensometer (more accurate). The TA(s)
will explain about the procedure and precautions to be followed while loading and testing
the samples. Each student will get a chance to involve himself/herself in loading the
samples, setting up the software program for testing, and testing the samples. The load vs
displacement data of the materials will be obtained as .TXT files and these files will be
distributed to the students for analysis.

Things to be done before and after testing the samples

Measure dimensions of the test specimen(s) [note; accurate and precise measurement of
specimen dimensions is important]

For circular cross-section specimens: Gage length before and after testing,
diameter before and after testing.

For rectangular cross-section specimens: Gage length before and after testing,
width and thickness before and after testing.

It is always good to measure diameter, width and thickness at different locations

along the gage length as they can be used for finding out the error bars while
reporting the data.

Assignment

1. Prepare plots of Load vs. Displacement, Engineering Stress vs. Engineering

Strain, and True Stress vs. True strain for each of the specimens provided.
2. Determine the following for the samples tested in a comparative chart: 0.2%
offset Yield Strength, Ultimate Strength, Rupture Strength, Modulus of Elasticity,
Modulus of Toughness, Percent Elongation, and Percent Area Reduction. Also
include available literature values and compare your data with literature values (Your
results must be presented in SI units).
3. Why are ceramics not tested in a manner similar to metals?

References
1.) G.E. Dieter, Mechanical Metallurgy, McGraw-Hill Inc., New York, 1986.
2.) F.A. McClintock and A.S. Argon, Mechanical Behavior of Materials, Addison-
Wesley Inc., Reading, Mass., 1966.
3.) Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 3.01, Standard E8, ASTM, Philadephia, Pa.
2002.
4.) Annual Book of ASTM Standards, Vol 8.01, Standard D638, ASTM, Philadephia, Pa.
2002.