HERBACCO

Herbal Tobacco.
 ingredient:

1.Fo-Ti ( Polygonum multiflorum )

Polygonum multiflorum
Polygonum multiflorum
Etymology

Heshouwu ('Black-haired Man'), a Chinese man

who is reputed to have lived until the age of 132,
is the first consumer of this herb to be
reported[citation needed]. The Chinese patent medicine
called Shouwuzhi has Polygonum multiflorum as
one of its primary ingredients.

Characteritics
Polygonum multiflorum
As a herb specimen, it is a quickly spreading Scientific classification
vine that will cover anything rapidly. There Kingdom: Plantae
appear in the autumn (fall). Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Magnoliopsida
Medicinal use Order: Caryophyllales
Family: Polygonaceae
In traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), P.
multiflorum is believed to: Genus: Polygonum
Species: P. multiflorum
 Tonify the kidneys Binomial name
 Balance a fragile yin. Polygonum multiflorum
 Treat weak bones and premature graying Thunb.
of hair, hair loss treatment.
 Protect the skin against UVB damage[1]

When taken internally, P. multiflorum also has a laxative effect.

P. multiflorum contains stilbene glycosides similar to resveratrol and with superior

antioxidant activity.[2]

Resveratrol is extracted from P. multiflorum's close relative, Japanese knotweed (P.

cuspidatum). Resveratrol has been suggested to extend lifespan by a variety of
mechanisms.
Dried sliced Polygonum multiflorum root

Notes
1. ^ I.K. Hwang, K.Y. Yoo, D.W. Kim, S.J. Jeong, C.K. Won, W.K. Moon, Y.S.
Kim, D.Y. Kwon, M.H. Wo and D.W. Kim (September 2006). "An extract of
Polygonum multiflorum protects against free radical damage induced by
ultraviolet B irradiation of the skin". Braz J Med Biol Res 39 (9): 1181–1188.
doi:10.1590/S0100-879X2006000900005. http://www.scielo.br/scielo.php?
script=sci_arttext&pid=S0100-879X2006000900005.
2. ^ L.V. Li-Shuang, Xiaohong Gu, Chi-Tang Ho (June 2006). "Stilbene Glycosides
from the Roots of Polygonum Multiflorum Thunb. and Their Antioxidant
Activities". Journal of Food Lipids 13 (2): 131–144. doi:10.1111/j.1745-
4522.2006.00039.x. http://www.blackwell-synergy.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1745-
4522.2006.00039.x.

General references
 Shinju, H., M. Higuchi, et al. (1994). Studies on cultivation of Polygonum
multiflorum Thunberg (Part 1) on the methods of vegetative propagation. Natural
Medicines 48(2): 126-130. Tsumura Cent. Res. Lab., 3586, Yoshihara, Ami-
machi, Inashiki-gun, Ibaraki 300-11, Japan.
 Monograph in the Plants For A Future database

2.Lactuca Virosa,
Botanical Source.—Lactuca virosa has a tap-shaped root, with a solitary stem, 2 or 3
feet high, erect, round, smooth, sparingly leafy, scarcely branched, panicled at the top,
and a little prickly below. The leaves are horizontal, nearly smooth, and finely toothed;
the radical ones numerous, obovate, undivided, depressed; those of the stem smaller,
often lobed; arrow-shaped, clasping at their base; the midrib of all more or less beset
underneath with prominent prickles, such as often occur on the margin also. The flower-
heads are numerous and panicled, with an abundance of small, heart-shaped, pointed
bracteas. Involucral scales downy at the tip, destitute of any keels or ribs. Corolla small
and light-yellow. Pappus rough (L.). There are many varieties of lettuce; they all have
large leaves, often corrugated, and containing more or less of a whitish juice, the
lactucarium. Their stems are round and corymbose at the summit; the leaves suborbicular
and runcinate; cauline ones cordate or obovate; flowers Yellow.

Lactuca sativa has an annual, tap-shaped root, with a corymbose Stem, 2 or 3 feet in
height, and suborbicular leaves; cauline ones cordate. Heads numerous and small, with
yellowish corolla (W.). It is not so rank in odor as the L. virosa, has not blood-red spots
on its stems, and no prickles on the keel of its leaves. Previous to the appearance of the
flowering stems, the garden lettuce contains a pleasant, sweet, watery juice, and in this
condition the plant is employed as a salad; but in both species, no sooner does the
flowering stem rise above the early leaves than the juice grows milky, very bitter, and of
a strong, peculiar, rank odor, not unlike that of opium (see Chemical Composition).

Lactuca Scariola, Linné, differs from L. virosa in having vertical, spinescent, toothed,
deeply-out, or pinnatifid leaves.

History.—The Lactuca virosa, Linné, is the only species recognized by the Br. Pharm.
1885, and is directed by the U. S. P. as the source of Lactucarium (see Lactucarium).
Several other species, however, yield this product. Lactuca sativa, or common lettuce of
the gardens, is supposed to be a native of the East Indies; it is extensively cultivated in
Europe and this country. According to Prof. J. M. Maisch, the L. canadensis, var.
elongata (wild lettuce), of our country possesses narcotic principles similar to the others.
Mr. H. Flowers (Amer. Jour. Pharm., 1879, p. 343) observed in a growing specimen of
this plant a strong, narcotic odor of the milky juice, but a remarkable change in the taste,
from sweetish to bitter, took place later in the season. Lactucarium, or lettuce-opium, so-
called, is obtained from the plants "by cutting the stem of the lettuce at the time of
flowering, imbibing the milky juice that flows out by a sponge or by cotton, and
squeezing it out into a vessel containing a little water. It is then left in a dry place until it
concretes into a solid mass" (Thompson's Org. Chem.). The juice, in drying, loses about
half its weight of water. By making another cut a short distance below the first, and so
proceeding several times daily, the whole of the juice contained in the plant may be
collected. There are several other modes recommended for procuring the lactucarium, but
no one of them obtains an article equal to that collected by the above plan. After the
middle period of inflorescence, the juice, becomes thicker, but deteriorates in its
medicinal principles. A single plant of L. sativa is said to yield 17 grains of lactucarium,
while a plant of L. virosa gives 56 grains. L. Scariola, or prickly lettuce, yields 25 grains.
As found in commerce, lactucarium is in roundish, compact, rather hard masses,
weighing several ounces, of a reddish-brown color externally, of a bitter, narcotic, and
somewhat acid taste, and an odor approximating that of opium. It is asserted that two
species—L. Scariola, Linné, and L. altissima, Bieberstein.furnish a superior article of
lettuce-opium. Fairgrieve, of Scotland, cultivated the L. virosa, var. montana, and
Aubergier, of France, the L. altissima.

Chemical Composition.—The chief constituent of lactuca is lactucarium (see

Lactucarium). Potassium nitrate is an additional constituent. Mr. T. S. Dymond (Pharm.
Jour. Trans., 1891, Vol. XXII, p. 449), having observed mydriatic action with extracts of
Lactuca sativa (common garden lettuce) and L. virosa, the former being collected while
flowering, succeeded in isolating therefrom an alkaloid (not exceeding 0.02 per cent),
which he identified as hyoscyamine. Specimens of English and German lactucarium, on
the other hand, did not contain a trace of the alkaloid. The occurrence of an alkaloid in so
widely-used a vegetable need not, however, cause alarm. It is probably in insignificant
quantity in the early stages of growth of the vegetable.

Medical Uses.—(See Lactucarium.)

3.Siberian Ginseng,
 Eleutherococcus senticosus

Eleutherococcus senticosus
Eleutherococcus senticosus (formerly
Acanthopanax senticosus) is a species of small,
woody shrub in the family Araliaceae native to
Northeastern Asia. In Chinese medicine it is known
as cì wǔ jiā (刺五加).[1] It is commonly called
eleuthero, and was previously marketed in the
United States as Siberian Ginseng as it has similar
herbal properties to those of Panax ginseng.
However, it belongs to a different genus in the
family Araliaceae, and it is currently illegal in the Scientific classification
United States to market eleuthero as Siberian Kingdom: Plantae
Ginseng since "ginseng" only refers to Panax (unranked): Angiosperms
species.[2] (unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
The herb grows in mixed and coniferous mountain Order: Apiales
forests, forming low undergrowth or is found in Family: Araliaceae
groups in thickets and edges. E. senticosus is
Genus: Eleutherococcus
sometimes found in oak groves at the foot of cliffs,
Species: E. senticosus
very rarely in high forest riparian woodland. Its
native habitat is East Asia, China, Japan and Russia. Binomial name
E. senticosus is broadly tolerant of soils, growing in Eleutherococcus senticosus
(Rupr. & Maxim.) Maxim.[1]
sandy, loamy and heavy clay soils with acid, neutral
or alkaline chemistry and including soils of low Synonyms
nutritional value. It can tolerate sun or dappled  Acanthopanax senticosus
shade and some degree of pollution. E. senticosus is (Rupr. & Maxim.) Harms[1]
a decidious shrub growing to 2m at a slow rate. It is
hardy to zone 3. It flowers in July in most habitats.  Hedera senticosa Rupr. &
The flowers are hermaphroditic and are pollinated Maxim.[1]
by insects.[3]

E. senticosus is a new addition to Western natural medicine, but has quickly gained a
reputation similar to that of the better known and more expensive Chinese Ginseng.
Though the chemical make-up of the two herbs differs, their effects seem to be similar.
An extensive list of research on E. senticosus with links to PubMed is available.[4]

The herb is an adaptogen, is anticholesteremic, is mildly anti-inflammatory, is

antioxidant, is a nervine and an immune tonic. It is useful when the hypothalamic-
pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) is depleted. Symptoms of this condition include fatigue,
stress, neurasthenia and sore muscles associated with the hypofunctioning of the
endocrine system, and adrenal exhaustion indicated by a quivering tongue, dark circles
under the eyes, and dilating/contracting pupils. Eleuthero may alleviate these
Ethnomedical use

Eleutherococcus senticosus leaves

E. senticosus is an adaptogen which has a wide range of health benefits attributed to its
use. Currently, most of the research to support the medicinal use of E. senticosus is in
Russian or Korean. E. senticosus contains eleutherosides, triterpenoid saponins which are
lipophilic and which can fit into hormone receptors. Supporters of E. senticosus as
medicine claim it possesses a variety of medicinal properties, such as:

 increased endurance
 memory improvement
 anti-inflammatory
 immunogenic
 chemoprotective
 radiological protection

Eleutherococcus senticosis is more tonifying than the true Ginsengs (Panax sp.)[citation
needed]
. Taken regularly, it enhances immune function, decreases cortisol levels and
inflammatory response, and it promotes improved cognitive and physical
performance[citation needed]. In human studies Eleuthero has been successfully used to treat
bone marrow suppression caused by chemotherapy or radiation, angina,
hypercholesterolemia, and neurasthenia with headache, insomnia, and poor appetite.[5][6][7]

The major constituents of E. senticosus are Ciwujianoside A-E, Eleutheroside B

(Syringin), Eleutherosides A-M, Friedelin and Isofraxidin.[2]

Eleutherococcus senticosus has been shown to have significant antidepressant effects in

rats.[8][9]

Interactions and side effects

 People with medicated high blood pressure should consult their doctor before
taking E. senticosus as it may reduce their need for medication.
 E. senticosus may cause light sleep in some people, principally those who are
"wired". Users are recommended not to take it in the evening.
 E. senticosus will enhance the effectiveness of mycin class antibiotics.
 E. senticosus when purchased from non-GMP sources has occasionally been
adulterated with Periploca graeca which can potentiate digoxin or similar drugs:
however this is not an interaction of E. senticosus.[2][unreliable source?]

References
1. ^ a b c d "Eleutherococcus senticosus information from NPGS/GRIN". www.ars-
grin.gov. http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?15004. Retrieved
2008-03-04.
2. ^ a b c d Winston, David & Maimes, Steven. “Adaptogens: Herbs for Strength,
Stamina, and Stress Relief,” Healing Arts Press, 2007.
3. ^ "Eleutherococcus senticosus". www.ibiblio.org. http://www.ibiblio.org/pfaf/cgi-
bin/arr_html?Eleutherococcus+senticosus#WEBREFS. Retrieved 2008-03-04.
4. ^ List of Research on Eleuthero in PubMed
5. ^ Halstead B, Hood L (1984). Eleutherococcus senticosis–Siberian Ginseng,
OHAI. p.7.
6. ^ Chen JK, Chen TT. Chinese Medical Herbology and Pharmacology, Art of
Medicine Press, City of Industry, CA 2004
7. ^ [David Winston. Native American, Chinese, and Ayurvedic Materia Medica,
HTSBM, pp. 1-1
8. ^ V. A. Kurkin et al.. "Antidepressant activity of some phytopharmaceuticals and
phenylpropanoids". Pharmaceutical Chemistry Journal.
http://www.springerlink.com/content/t6512435001n1418/. Retrieved 2008-03-04.
9. ^ "Constituents and pharmacological effects of Eucomm Acta Pharmacol Sin.
2001 - PubMed Result". www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez. Retrieved 2008-03-05.

 Brunner, R., Tabachnik, B. (1990). Soviet Training and Recovery Methods,

pp.217–21. Sport Focus Publishing.
  Bohn, B., Nebe, C.T. and Birr, C. (1987). Flow Cytometric Studies with
Eleutherococcus senticosus extract as an Immunomodulating Agent. Drug Res.
37(10): 1193-1196.
 Winston, David & Maimes, Steven. “ADAPTOGENS: Herbs for Strength,
Stamina, and Stress Relief,” Healing Arts Press, 2007. Contains Russian research
on E. senticosus and a monograph on the herb.

External links
 E. senticosus List of Chemicals (Dr. Duke's)
 Eleutherococcus senticosus Photos (PlantSystematics.org)
 Monographs on Selected Medicinal Plants - Volume 2: Radix Eleutherococci
(World Health Organization)
 Siberian ginseng article
 Eleuthero article
 http://dmd.aspetjournals.org/cgi/content/full/31/5/519
 University of Maryland Alternative Medicine Reference
 Effects of various Eleutherococcus senticosus cortex on swimming time, natural
killer activity and corticosterone level in forced swimming stressed mice.
 Sung Mun Jung et al., "Reduction of urate crystal-induced inflammation by root
extracts from traditional oriental medicinal plants: elevation of prostaglandin D2
levels", Arthritis Research & Therapy 2007, 9:R64 doi:10.1186/ar2222.
Considers anti-inflammatory properties of dried roots from the species Angelica
sinensis (Dong Quai), Acanthopanax senticosus (now known as Eleutherococcus
senticosus, or Siberian Ginseng), and Scutellaria baicalensis (Baikal Skullcap).

4.Kava kava
This article is about the kava plant. For the class of pharmacological derivatives, see
Kavalactone.
 Kava

Young Piper methysticum

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Magnoliids
Order: Piperales
Family: Piperaceae
Genus: Piper
Species: P. methysticum
Binomial name
Piper methysticum
G.Forst.

Kava or kava-kava (Piper methysticum) (Piper: Latin for 'pepper', methysticum:

(Latinized) Greek for 'intoxicating') is an ancient crop of the western Pacific. The name
kava(-kava) is from Tongan and Marquesan[1]; other names for kava include ʻawa
(Hawaiʻi), 'ava (Samoa), yaqona (Fiji), and sakau (Pohnpei). The word kava is used to
refer both to the plant and the beverage produced from its roots. Kava is consumed
throughout the Pacific Ocean cultures of Polynesia (including Hawaii), Vanuatu,
Melanesia and some parts of Micronesia and Australia. Kava is sedating and is primarily
consumed to relax without disrupting mental clarity. Its active ingredients are called
kavalactones. In some parts of the Western World, modern kava extract is used as an
effective nausea remedy. A Cochrane Collaboration systematic review of its evidence
concluded that it was likely to be more effective than placebo at treating short-term social
anxiety.[2] Safety concerns have been raised over liver toxicity largely due to the use of
stems and leaves by supplement makers, as opposed to solely the root of the plant as
dictated by traditional uses.[3][4]
Preparation and consumption

Traditional preparation

Kava is consumed in various ways throughout the Pacific Ocean cultures of Polynesia,
Vanuatu, Melanesia and some parts of Micronesia and Australia. Traditionally it is
prepared by either chewing, grinding or pounding the roots of the kava plant. Grinding is
done by hand against a cone-shaped block of dead coral; the hand forms a mortar and the
coral a pestle. The ground root/bark is combined with only a little water, as the fresh root
releases moisture during grinding. Pounding is done in a large stone with a small log. The
product is then added to cold water and consumed as quickly as possible.

The extract is an emulsion of kavalactone droplets in starch. The taste is slightly pungent,
while the distinctive aroma depends on whether it was prepared from dry or fresh plant,
and on the variety. The colour is grey to tan to opaque greenish. Often, Fijians will
slaughter small lambs for their stomach which serves as the "cup" for drinking out of.
This is a tradition that goes back thousands of years, the indigenous Fijians maintaining a
secret, ritual population of sheep which were then not present on any other Pacific island.

Kava prepared as described above is much more potent than processed kava. Chewing
produces the strongest effect because it produces the finest particles. Fresh, undried kava
produces a stronger beverage than dry kava. The strength also depends on the species and
techniques of cultivation. Many find mixing powdered kava with hot water makes the
drink stronger. However the active ingredients of kava, such as Kavalactone, are ruined at
140 degrees F (60 C).[citation needed] Most tea steeps at 180 degrees F (82.22 C) for at least a
couple minutes which will reduce the potency of the kava.

In Vanuatu, a strong kava drink is normally followed by a hot meal or tea. The meal
traditionally follows some time after the drink so that the psychoactives are absorbed into
the bloodstream quicker. Traditionally no flavoring is added.

Fijians commonly share a drink called "grog", due to its relaxing and groggy effects on
the drinker, made by pounding sun-dried kava root into a fine powder, straining and
mixing it with cold water. Traditionally, grog is drunk from the shorn half-shell of a
coconut, called a "bilo". Despite tasting very much like dirty water, grog is very popular
in Fiji, especially among young men, and often brings people together for storytelling and
socializing. Drinking grog for a few hours brings a numbing and relaxing effect to the
drinker, grog also numbs the tongue and so it is now a norm that these grog sessions have
a "chaser" or sweet or spicy snack to follow a bilo.[5]

Kava root being prepared for consumption in Asanvari village on Maewo Island, Vanuatu

Modern preparation

In modernized countries Kava beverage is usually made from Kava root powder. The root
is dried and then finely ground into powder before being exported. Generally one
tablespoon of powder is added per cup of water, but sometimes as much as a half a cup of
powder (eight tablespoons) is added per cup of water to increase potency. The powder is
then soaked in water for approximately 30 minutes to allow the water to completely soak
through the powdered fibers. Lecithin is often added to aid in the process of emulsifying
the kavalactones with water. The Kava powder, water, and lecithin are blended in a
blender for several minutes then strained into a straining cloth. Nylon, cheesecloth, and
silk screen are common materials for straining. The remaining liquid is squeezed from the
pulp and the rest is discarded. As an alternative to the blender method, with the powdered
pulp enclosed within the straining material, the pulp is massaged for five to thirty minutes
in water, then the liquid is wrung out. The more pressure that is applied to the wet
powdered pulp while wringing it out, the more kavalactones will be released from it.[citation
needed]
Finally the pulp resin is discarded and the beverage is enjoyed. Often coconut water,
coconut milk, lemongrass, cocoa, sugar, or soy milk is added to improve flavor.

Pills

Pharmaceutical companies and herbal supplement companies extract kavalactones from

the kava plant using solvents such as acetone and ethanol and produce pills standardized
with between 30% and 90% kavalactones. Some kava herbal supplements have been
accused of contributing to very rare but severe hepatotoxic reactions (see section on
safety) such may have been due to the use of plant parts other than the root, such as stems
or peelings that are known to have been exported to European manufacturers. A kava pill
usually has anywhere from 60 mg to 150 mg of kavalactones. By comparison the typical
bowl of traditionally prepared kava beverage has around 250 mg of kavalactones.
Herbal medicine

Commercial Kava beverage.

Kava is chewed by some to relieve symptoms of throat pain, as Kava produces a

"numbing" effect on the tongue and throat. The Kava is first chewed in the back of the
mouth for 5 to 10 minutes while swallowing the saliva and kavalactones released from
the process. The Kava produces an effect similar to that of a Chloraseptic spray.

Pharmacology

Kava's active principal ingredients are the kavalactones, of which at least 15 have been
identified and are all considered psychoactive. Only six of them produce noticeable
effects, and their concentrations in kava plants vary. Different ratios can produce
different effects.

Pharmacodynamics

Effects of kavalactones include mild sedation, a slight numbing of the gums and mouth,
and vivid dreams. Kava has been reported to improve cognitive performance and promote
a cheerful mood.[6] Muscle relaxant, anaesthetic, anticonvulsive and anxiolytic effects are
thought to result from direct interactions of kavalactones with voltage-gated ion channels.
[7]
Research currently suggests that kavalactones potentiate GABAA activity but do not
alter levels of dopamine and serotonin in the CNS.[8] Heavy, long-term kava use does not
cause any reduction of ability in saccade and cognitive tests but is associated with
elevated liver enzymes.[9]
Desmethoxyyangonin, one of the six major kavalactones, is a reversible MAO-B
inhibitor (Ki 280 nM)[10] and is able to increase dopamine levels in the nucleus
accumbens. This finding might correspond to the slightly euphoric action of kava.[11]

Kavain, in both enantiomeric forms, inhibits the reuptake of noradrenalin at the

transporter (NAT), but not of serotonin (SERT).[12] An elevated extracellular NA level in
the brain may account for the reported enhancement of attention and focus.

Effects

Contrary to coffee and alcohol, and many pharmaceuticals, Kava is known to be non-
addictive, and to have no tolerance buildup. Medical literature sometimes claim it has a
"potential for addiction" because "it produces mild euphoria and relaxation"[13]

In a traditional setting, a moderately potent kava drink causes effects within 20–30
minutes that last for about two and a half hours, but can be felt for up to eight hours.
Because of this, it is recommended to space out servings about fifteen minutes apart.
Some report longer term effects up to two days after ingestion, including a feeling of
mental clarity, patience, and an ease of acceptance. The effects of kava are most often
compared to alcohol, or a large dose of diazepam.[14]

The sensations, in order of appearance, are slight tongue and lip numbing (the lips and
skin surrounding may appear unusually pale); mildly talkative and sociable behavior;
clear thinking; calmness; relaxed muscles; and a sense of well-being. As with other drugs
that affect the GABA receptors, there can also be paradoxical dysphoria. The numbing of
the mouth is caused by the two kavalactones kavain and dihydrokavain which cause the
contraction of the blood vessels in these areas acting as a local topical anesthetic. These
anesthetics can also make one's stomach feel numb. Sometimes this feeling has been
mistaken for nausea. Some report that caffeine, consumed moderately in conjunction with
kava can significantly increase mental alertness.

The effects of a kava drink vary widely with the particular selection of kava plant(s) and
amount. A potent drink results in a faster onset with a lack of stimulation; the user's eyes
become sensitive to light, they soon become somnolent and then have deep, dreamless
sleep within 30 minutes. Sleep is often restful and there are pronounced periods of
sleepiness correlating to the amount and potency of kava consumed. Unlike with alcohol-
induced sleep, after wakening the drinker does not experience any mental or physical
after effects. However, this sleep has been reported as extremely restful and the user often
wakes up more stimulated than he or she normally would (though excessive consumption
of exceptionally potent brew has been known to cause pronounced sleepiness into the
next day). Although heavy doses can cause deep dreamless sleep, it is reported that many
people experience lighter sleep and rather vivid dreams after drinking moderate amounts
of kava.[14]
Adverse effects

Australian studies focused on populations with heavy concomitant consumption of

alcohol and overall poor health. In one study, heavy kava use in an Aboriginal
community in Arnhem Land was associated with overall poor health, a puffy face, scaly
rash, and a slight increase in patellar reflexes.[15] In Fiji, wives of heavy Kava drinkers
expressed in interviews that they felt deprived of basic needs due to the amount of money
that their husbands spent on Kava.[16]

Detection in biological fluids

Recent usage of kava has been documented in forensic investigations by quantitation of

kavain in blood specimens. The principal urinary metabolite, conjugated 4'-OH-kavain, is
generally detectable for up to 48 hours.[17]

Kava culture

A sign showing a "Kava license area" at Yirrkala, in the Northern Territory of Australia
Main article: Kava culture

Kava is used for medicinal, religious, political, cultural and social purposes throughout
the Pacific. These cultures have a great respect for the plant and place a high importance
on it. In Fiji, for example, a formal yaqona (kava) ceremony will often accompany
important social, political, religious, etc. functions, usually involving a ritual presentation
of the bundled roots as a sevusevu (gift), and drinking of the yaqona itself.[18]

A traditional Fijian yaqona bundle of roots

Correspondingly, the paraphernalia surrounding the traditional kava ceremony are
expertly crafted. Traditionally designed Kava bowls are bowls made from a single piece
of wood, with multiple legs. More modern examples are also highly decorated, often
carved and inlayed with mother of pearl and shell.

Kava is used primarily at social gatherings to increase amiability and to relax after work.
It has great religious significance, being used to obtain inspiration. Among some
fundamentalist Christian sects[who?] in the Western Pacific, the drink has been seen as a
vice, and young members of these religions often reject its traditional use. However,
among many mainline Christian denominations, i.e. the Roman Catholic, Methodist, and
Anglican churches, kava drinking is encouraged where it replaces alcohol.

Botany and agronomy

There are several cultivars of kava, with varying concentrations of primary and secondary
psychoactive substances. The largest number are grown in the Republic of Vanuatu, and
so it is recognised as the "home" of kava. Kava was historically grown only in the Pacific
islands of Hawaii, Federated States of Micronesia, Vanuatu, Fiji, the Samoas and Tonga.
Some is grown in the Solomon Islands since World War II, but most is imported. Kava is
a cash crop in Vanuatu and Fiji.

The kava shrub thrives in loose, well-drained soils where plenty of air reaches the roots.
It grows naturally where rainfall is plentiful (over 2,000 mm/yr). Ideal growing
conditions are 20 to 35 degrees Celsius (70 to 95 °F), and 70–100% relative humidity.
Too much sunlight is harmful, especially in early growth, so kava is an understory crop.

Kava cannot reproduce sexually. Female flowers are especially rare and do not produce
fruit even when hand-pollinated. Its propagation is entirely due to human efforts by the
method of striking.

Traditionally, plants are harvested around 4 years of age, as older plants have higher
concentrations of kavalactones. But in the past two decades farmers have been harvesting
younger and younger plants, as young as 18 months. After reaching about 2 m height,
plants grow a wider stalk and additional stalks, but not much taller. The roots can reach a
depth of 60 cm.

Strains and origins

A painting showing women preparing Kava.

One of the most potent strains is called "Isa" in Papua New Guinea, and also called
"Tuday" in Hawaii. In Vanuatu it is considered a type of "Tudei" kava, pronounced as
"two-day" because it is said to have effects lasting two days due to its chemical profile
being high in the kavalactone dihydromethysticin. The plant itself is a strong, very hardy,
fast-growing variety with multiple light to dark green stems covered with raised dark
spots.
In Vanuatu there are strict laws over the exportation of Kava. Only strains they deem as
"noble" varieties that are not too weak or too potent are allowed to be exported. Only the
most desirable strains for every day drinking are selected to be noble varieties in order to
maintain quality control. In addition their laws mandate that exported kava must be at
least five years old and farmed organically. Their most popular noble strains are
"Borogu" from Pentecost Island. "Melomelo" from Ambae island, (called 'sese' in North
Pentecost) and "Palarasul" kava from Espiritu Santo Island. In Vanuatu, Tudei (two-days)
kava is reserved for special ceremonial occasions and exporting it is not allowed. "Palisi"
is a popular Tudei variety.

In Hawaii there are many other strains of kava. Some of the most popular strains are the
"Mahakea," "Mo'i," and "Nene" varieties. The Ali'i (kings) of old Hawaii coveted the
special kava they called "Mo'i" that had a strong cerebral effect due to a predominant
amount of the kavalactone kavain. This sacred variety was so important to them that no
one but royalty could ever experience it, "lest they suffer an untimely death."

Other strains are found in Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa.

Composition

Fresh kava root contains on average 80% water. Dried root contains approximately 43%
starch, 20% fibers, 15% kavalactones[19], 12% water, 3.2% sugars, 3.6% proteins, and
3.2% minerals. Kavalactone content is greatest in the roots and decreases higher up the
plant. Relative concentrations of 15%, 10% and 5% have been observed in the root,
stump, and basal stems, respectively.

The mature roots of the kava plant are harvested after a minimum of 4 years (at least five
years ideally) for peak kavalactone content. Most kava plants produce around 50 kg
(110 lb) of root when they are harvested. Kava root is classified into two categories:
crown root (or chips) and lateral root. Crown roots are the large diameter pieces that look
like big (1.5 inches to 5 inches diameter) wooden poker chips. Most kava plants consist
of approximately 80% crown root upon harvesting. Lateral roots are smaller diameter
roots that look more like a typical root. A mature kava plant is approximately 20% lateral
roots. Kava lateral roots have the highest content of kavalactones in the kava plant.
"Waka" grade kava is kava that is made of lateral roots only.

Basic research on anti-cancer potential

On 15 February 2006, the Fiji Times and Fiji Live reported that researchers at the
University of Aberdeen in Scotland and the Laboratoire de Biologie Moleculaire du
Cancer in Luxembourg had discovered that kava may treat ovarian cancer and leukemia.
Kava compounds inhibited the activation of a nuclear factor that led to the growth of
cancer cells. The Aberdeen University researchers published in the journal The South
Pacific Journal of Natural Science that kava methanol extracts had been shown to kill
leukemia and ovarian cancer cells in test tubes.[20] The kava compounds were shown to
target only cancerous cells; no healthy cells were harmed. This may help explain why
kava consumption is correlated with decreased incidence of cancer.[21]

Fiji Kava Council Chairman Ratu Josateki Nawalowalo welcomed the findings, saying
that they would boost the kava industry. For his part, Agriculture Minister Ilaitia Tuisese
called on the researchers to help persuade members of European Union to lift their ban on
kava imports.

In November 2008, the EU announced its lifting of the kava trade ban, which had been
imposed due to accusations made in 2001 and since debunked through scientific review
of the facts.[22]

Side effects and safety

Skin rashes

Chronic and heavy use of kava for a period of three months or more has occasionally
been reported to cause a scaly, yellow skin rash and an eye irritation that disappears after
discontinuation of the herb. The rash resembles one brought on by a niacin (Vitamin B3)
deficiency; however, a double-blind, placebo-controlled study showed no change in the
rash after niacin supplementation.[citation needed] The 29 Tonga islanders who presented with
the rash after heavy kava consumption—more than 900 g/week—were given either
100 mg of oral niacinamide or placebo. No statistically significant improvement was seen
in the supplementing group, suggesting niacin deficiency may not cause the rash, which
is more characteristic of an acquired ichthyosis. Until more is known, however, people
taking kava regularly may also wish to take a multivitamin with at least 50 to 100 mg of
niacin daily.[citation needed]

Allegations of liver damage incidents and regulation

In 2001 concerns were raised about the safety of commercial kava products.[23] There
were allegations of liver toxicity in some people who had used dietary supplements
containing kava extract (but not in anyone who had drunk kava the traditional way). Out
of the 50 people worldwide taking kava pills and extracts that have had some type of
problem. Moreover, almost all patients in since debunked study had been consuming
alcohol and pharmaceuticals well known to have severe effects on the liver.[23]

The allegations of liver damage consequently prompted action of many regulatory

agencies in European countries where the legal precautionary principle so mandated. In
the UK, the Medicines for Human Use (Kava-kava) (Prohibition) Order 2002 prohibits
the sale, supply or import of most derivative medicinal products. Kava is banned in
Switzerland, France, and the Netherlands.[24] The health agency of Canada issued a stop-
sale order for kava in 2002. But legislation in 2004 made the legal status of kava murky
to many, especially since not everyone is aware that a stop-sale order does not constitute
a ban such as that applies in several European countries. Kava is neither illegal nor
legally banned in Canada, nor is it regulated and it doesn't fall under any of the Food and
Drugs Act & Regulations. Many retailers have been ignoring the no-sale order without
further consequence than having Health Canada issue warnings about the product's
safety. At least one US manufacturer of kava products who had suspended export to
Canada in 2002 has since lifted the restriction and resumed shipping kava to Canada after
obtaining confirmation that it wasn't illegal for Canadians to import kava.[25] The United
States CDC has released a report[26] expressing reservations about the use of kava and its
possibly adverse side effects (specifically severe liver toxicity), as has the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA).[27] In Australia, the supply of kava is regulated through the
National Code of Kava Management. The sale and supply of kava is prohibited in
western Australia and the Northern territory [28][29]. The Australian Therapeutic Goods
Administration has recommended that no more than 250 mg of kavalactones be taken in a
24 hour period.[30] According to the Medicines Control Agency in the U.K., there is no
safe dose of kava, as there is no way to predict which individuals would have adverse
reactions, if any.[31]

In a 2009 study by the University of Queensland, Australia, researchers found that the
study's participants did not show any signs of potential liver damage, contrary to
concerns that prompted European, British and Canadian authorities to ban kava sales in
2002. Kava products sold in those countries were based on ethanol or acetone extracts of
the kava plant, not the water-soluble extracts used traditionally by Pacific islanders and
approved for sale in Australia.[32]

Toxicology of pill from kava extracts with stems and leaves

Piperidine alkaloids from the kava plant

The legal intervention of several countries stimulated research, and hepatotoxic

substances were found in the stems and leaves of the plant. Researchers from the
University of Hawaii at Manoa found that an alkaloid called pipermethystine (formula 1),
contained in stem peelings and leaves but not in the roots, had toxic effects on liver cells
in vitro[33] and in vivo.[3] In rats fed with 10 mg/kg pipermethystine for two weeks,
indications of hepatic toxicity were found. Comparable signs of toxicity were not
detected with kava rhizome extracts (100 mg/kg, 2 weeks)[3], (73 mg/kg, 3 months).[4]
Flavokavain B, found in the plant's rhizome (large horizontal underground stem), may
also contribute to toxic effects.[34] And, it is known that some of the kavapyrones block
several subtypes of the enzyme cytochrome P450[35], which can result in adverse
interactions with other drugs used concomitantly.

Hawaiian researchers learned from a trader in Fijian kava that European pharmaceutical
companies eagerly bought up the stem and leaves peelings when demand for kava extract
soared in Europe in 2000 and 2001. Before 2002, substantial amounts of aerial parts of
the kava plant were being exported to North America and Europe and obviously used for
the production of commercial pill extracts. For traditional use in the South Pacific, stem
peelings and leaves are discarded, and only the rhizomes are used and extracted with
water. This may explain why native populations that make heavy use of kava experience
side effects that are mild, temporary, and confined to the skin, whereas industrialized
countries that have newly adopted kava occasionally show severe, acute responses.

A medical conference in Fiji determined that the high concentrations of kava resins in pill
form extracts alone could have been the culprit for the liver damage incidents[citation needed].

Toxicity of traditional kava beverage preparations

In April 2003, University of Hawaii scientists reported to have discovered that

traditionally discarded stem peelings and leaves of kava contain a toxic alkaloid--not
present in the plant's roots. European pharmaceutical companies are known to have
purchased such peelings when demand for kava extract soared in 2000-2001.[36]

Two studies still allege changes in liver function, with the first describing the effects as
temporary and reversible when discontinuing kava use.[37] There is evidence of health
concerns among heavy alcohol drinkers, including poor nutrition and a rise in liver
enzymes typically associated with liver damage.[38][39]

Nakamals (Kava bars)

Nakamals, or "Kava Bars", are establishments that sell the traditional kava beverage. This
concept originated in the Republic of Vanuatu, particularly the capital, Port Vila. A
typical scene at one these Nakamals would be one that, a patron comes to bar, orders his
kava and then proceeds to find a comfortable place to "listen to the Kava" (enjoy the
effects). The term Nakamal means "place of peace". A true Nakamal is an area where the
men from a village gather to drink kava after a working day. Traditional nakamals are a
men’s only domain and often do not not allow women or children even close to a
Nakamal[40].

As recently as 2002, there has been an explosion of Nakamals in South Florida[41].

Allergy

Literature suggests that <0.5% of people that take kava have an allergic reaction to it.
[citation needed]
Allergic reactions are usually mild and include itchy skin or itchy throat, and
hives on the skin usually prevalent on the user's belly region. If someone has an allergy to
any relative of the pepper family, such as black pepper, they have a higher chance of
having a kava allergy.[citation needed]
 5.Jasmine,
Jasmine (Jasminum, pronounced /ˈdʒæzmɨnəm/,[4] from Old French[5] Jasmine which is
from the Arabic yasmin, i.e. "gift from God",[6][7] [8]) is a genus of shrubs and vines in the
olive family (Oleaceae), with about 200 species, native to tropical and warm temperate
regions of the Old World. Most species grow as climbers on other plants or are trained in
gardens on chicken wire, trellis gates or fences, or made to scramble through shrubs of
open texture. The leaves can be either evergreen (green all year round) or deciduous
(falling in autumn).

jasmine Jasminum sambac Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae

(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
Order: Lamiales
Family: Oleaceae
Tribe: Jasmineae
Genus: Jasminum
L. (1753) Type species Jasminum officinale L.
Species

More than 200 species, see List of Jasminum species Sources: ING,[1] CPN,[2] UniProt[3]
6.Rose
For other uses, see Rose (disambiguation).
"Red rose" redirects here. For the tea company, see Red Rose Tea.
Rose

Closeup of a rose flower in full

bloom. This particular specimen
was from Hooghly near Bandel in
West Bengal, India
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order: Rosales
Family: Rosaceae
Subfamily: Rosoideae
Rosa
Genus:
L.
Species

See text.

A rose is a perennial flower shrub or vine of the genus Rosa, within the family Rosaceae,
that contains over 100 species and comes in a variety of colours. The species form a
group of erect shrubs, and climbing or trailing plants, with stems that are often armed
with sharp prickles. Most are native to Asia, with smaller numbers of species native to
Europe, North America, and northwest Africa. Natives, cultivars and hybrids are all
widely grown for their beauty and fragrance.[1]

The leaves are alternate and pinnately compound, with sharply toothed oval-shaped
leaflets. The plant's fleshy edible fruit, which ripens in the late summer through autumn,
is called a rose hip. Rose plants range in size from compact, miniature roses, to climbers
that can reach 7 meters in height. Species from different parts of the world easily
hybridize, which has given rise to the many types of garden roses.

The name rose comes from French, itself from Latin, rosa, which was borrowed from
Oscan, from Greek ρόδιόν rhodion (Aeolic υρόδιόν wrodion), from Old Persian wurdi
"flower" (cf. Avest. warda, Sogdian ward, Parthian wâr).[2][3]

Attar of rose is the steam-extracted essential oil from rose flowers that has been used in
perfumes for centuries. Rose water, made from the rose oil, is widely used in Asian and
Middle Eastern cuisine. The French are known for their rose syrup, most commonly
made from an extract of rose petals. In the United States, this French rose syrup is used to
make rose scones and marshmallows.

Rose hips are occasionally made into jam, jelly, and marmalade, or are brewed for tea,
primarily for their high Vitamin C content. They are also pressed and filtered to make
rose hip syrup. Rose hips are also used to produce Rose hip seed oil, which is used in skin
products and some makeup products.

Botany

Rose leaflets

The leaves of most species are 5–15 centimetres long, pinnate, with (3–) 5–9 (–13)
leaflets and basal stipules; the leaflets usually have a serrated margin, and often a few
small prickles on the underside of the stem. The vast majority of roses are deciduous but
a few (particularly in South east Asia) are evergreen or nearly so.

The flowers of most species of roses have five petals, with the exception of Rosa sericea,
which usually has only four. Each petal is divided into two distinct lobes and is usually
white or pink, though in a few species yellow or red. Beneath the petals are five sepals
(or in the case of some Rosa sericea, four). These may be long enough to be visible when
viewed from above and appear as green points alternating with the rounded petals. The
ovary is inferior, developing below the petals and sepals.
Rosa canina hips

The aggregate fruit of the rose is a berry-like structure called a rose hip. Rose species that
produce open-faced flowers are attractive to pollinating bees and other insects, thus more
apt to produce hips. Many of the domestic cultivars are so tightly petalled that they do not
provide access for pollination. The hips of most species are red, but a few (e.g. Rosa
pimpinellifolia) have dark purple to black hips. Each hip comprises an outer fleshy layer,
the hypanthium, which contains 5–160 "seeds" (technically dry single-seeded fruits called
achenes) embedded in a matrix of fine, but stiff, hairs. Rose hips of some species,
especially the Dog Rose (Rosa canina) and Rugosa Rose (Rosa rugosa), are very rich in
vitamin C, among the richest sources of any plant.The petals have waxy cuticals and it
works like a leaf. The hips are eaten by fruit-eating birds such as thrushes and waxwings,
which then disperse the seeds in their droppings. Some birds, particularly finches, also eat
the seeds.

Rose thorns are actually prickles - outgrowths of the epidermis.

While the sharp objects along a rose stem are commonly called "thorns", they are actually
prickles — outgrowths of the epidermis (the outer layer of tissue of the stem). True
thorns, as produced by e.g. Citrus or Pyracantha, are modified stems, which always
originate at a node and which have nodes and internodes along the length of the thorn
itself. Rose prickles are typically sickle-shaped hooks, which aid the rose in hanging onto
other vegetation when growing over it. Some species such as Rosa rugosa and R.
pimpinellifolia have densely packed straight spines, probably an adaptation to reduce
browsing by animals, but also possibly an adaptation to trap wind-blown sand and so
reduce erosion and protect their roots (both of these species grow naturally on coastal
sand dunes). Despite the presence of prickles, roses are frequently browsed by deer. A
few species of roses only have vestigial prickles that have no points.

Species
Further information: List of Rosa species

Some representative rose species

 Rosa banksiae: Lady Banks Rose

 Rosa californica: California Rose
 Rosa canina: Dog Rose, Briar Bush
 Rosa carolina: Pasture Rose

Rose-picking in the Rose Valley near the town of Kazanlak in Bulgaria, 1870s, engraving
by Austro-Hungarian traveller F. Kanitz

Cultivation

In horticulture roses are propagated by grafting or rooting cuttings. Cultivars are selected
for their flowers, growth habit, cold and/or disease resistance, and many other factors.
They may be grafted onto a rootstock that provides sturdiness, or (especially with Old
Garden Roses) allowed to develop their own roots. Roses require 5 hours of direct
sunlight a day during the growing season. Following blooming and exposure to frost
roses enter a dormant stage in winter.

Many thousands of rose hybrids and cultivars have been bred and selected for garden use;
most are double-flowered with many or all of the stamens having mutated into additional
petals. In the early 19th century the Empress Josephine of France patronized the
development of rose breeding at her gardens at Malmaison. As long ago as 1840 a
collection numbering over one thousand different cultivars, varieties and species was
possible when a rosarium was planted by Loddiges nursery for Abney Park Cemetery, an
early Victorian garden cemetery and arboretum in England.

Twentieth-century rose breeders generally emphasized size and colour, producing large,
attractive blooms with little or no scent. Many wild and "old-fashioned" roses, by
contrast, have a strong sweet scent.

Roses thrive in temperate climates. Those based on Asian species do well in their native
sub-tropical environments. Certain species and cultivars can even flourish in tropical
climates, especially when grafted onto appropriate rootstocks.

There is no single system of classification for garden roses. In general, however, roses are
placed in one of three main groups: Wild, Old Garden, and Modern Garden roses.

Wild Roses

The wild roses include the species listed above and some of their hybrids. Species roses
commonly grown in gardens include Rosa moschata, the Musk Rose; Rosa banksiae,
Lady Banks' Rose; Rosa pimpinellifolia, the Scots or Burnet Rose; Rosa rubiginosa, the
Sweetbriar or Eglantine; and Rosa foetida, in varieties Austrian Copper, Persian Double
and Harison's Yellow.

Old Garden Roses

An Old Garden Rose is defined as any rose belonging to a class which existed before the
introduction of the first Modern Rose, La France, in 1867. In general, Old Garden Roses
of European or Mediterranean origin are once-blooming woody shrubs, with notably
fragrant, double-flowered blooms primarily in shades of white, pink and red. The shrubs'
foliage tends to be highly disease-resistant, and they generally bloom only on two-year-
old canes. The introduction of China and Tea roses from East Asia around 1800 led to
new classes of Old Garden Roses which bloom on new growth, often repeatedly from
spring to fall. Most Old Garden Roses are classified into one of the following groups.

'Maiden's Blush', an Alba rose (before 1400)

Alba
Literally "white roses", derived from R. arvensis and the closely allied R. alba. These are
some of the oldest garden roses, probably brought to Great Britain by the Romans. The
shrubs flower once yearly in the spring with blossoms of white or pale pink. The shrubs
frequently feature gray-green foliage and a climbing habit of growth . Examples: 'Alba
Semiplena', 'White Rose of York'.

Gallica

Gallica rose 'Charles de Mills,' before 1790

The gallica or Provins roses are a very old class developed from R. gallica, which is a
native of central and southern Europe. The Apothecary's Rose, R. gallica officinalis, was
grown in monastic herbiaries in the Middle Ages, and became famous in English history
as the Red Rose of Lancaster. Gallicas flower once in the summer over low shrubs rarely
over 4' tall. Unlike most other once-blooming Old Garden Roses, the gallica class
includes shades of red, maroon and deep purplish crimson. Examples: 'Cardinal de
Richelieu', 'Charles de Mills', 'Rosa Mundi' (R. gallica versicolour).

'Autumn Damask' ('Quatre Saisons')

Damask

Named for Damascus in Syria, damasks originated in ancient times with a natural cross
of (Rosa moschata x Rosa gallica) x Rosa fedtschenkoana.[4] Robert de Brie is given
credit for bringing damask roses from the Middle East to Europe sometime between 1254
and 1276, although there is evidence from ancient Roman frescoes that at least one
damask rose existed in Europe for hundreds of years prior. Summer damasks bloom once
in summer. Autumn or Four Seasons damasks bloom again later, in the fall: the only
remontant Old European roses. Shrubs tend to have rangy to sprawly growth habits and
vicious thorns. The flowers typically have a more loose petal formation than gallicas, as
well as a stronger, tangy fragrance. Examples: 'Ispahan', 'Madame Hardy'.

Centifolia or Provence

Centifolia roses, raised in the seventeenth century in the Netherlands, are named for their
"one hundred" petals; they are often called "cabbage" roses due to the globular shape of
the flowers. The result of damask roses crossed with albas, the centifolias are all once-
flowering. As a class, they are notable for their inclination to produce mutations of
various sizes and forms, including moss roses and some of the first miniature roses (see
below) . Examples: 'Centifolia', 'Paul Ricault'.

Moss

Mutations of primarily centifolia roses (or sometimes damasks), moss roses have a mossy
excrescence on the stems and sepals that often emits a pleasant woodsy or balsam scent
when rubbed. Moss roses are cherished for this unique trait, but as a group they have
contributed nothing to the development of new rose classifications. Moss roses with
centifolia background are once-flowering; some moss roses exhibit repeat-blooming,
indicative of Autumn Damask parentage. Example: 'Common Moss' (centifolia-moss),
'Alfred de Dalmas' (Autumn Damask moss).

Portland

The Portland roses were long thought to be the first group of crosses between China roses
and European roses; recent DNA analysis at the University of Lyons, however, has
demonstrated that the original Portland Rose has no Chinese ancestry, but rather
represents an autumn damask/gallica lineage.[5] They were named after the Duchess of
Portland who received (from Italy about 1775) a rose then known as R. paestana or
'Scarlet Four Seasons' Rose' (now known simply as 'The Portland Rose'). The whole class
of Portland roses was thence developed from that one rose. The first repeat-flowering
class of rose with fancy European-style blossoms, the plants tend to be fairly short and
shrubby, with proportionately short flower stalks. Example: 'James Veitch', 'Rose de
Rescht', 'Comte de Chambourd'.

China
'Parson's Pink China' or 'Old Blush,' one of the "stud Chinas"

The China roses, based on Rosa chinensis, were cultivated in East Asia for centuries and
finally reached Western Europe in the late 1700s. They are the parents of many of today's
hybrid roses,[6] and they brought a change to the form of the flower.[7] Compared with the
aforementioned European rose classes, the Chinese roses had less fragrant, smaller
blooms carried over twiggier, more cold-sensitive shrubs. Yet they possessed the
amazing ability to bloom repeatedly throughout the summer and into late autumn, unlike
their European counterparts. This made them highly desirable for hybridisation purposes
in the early 1800s. The flowers of China roses were also notable for their tendency to
"suntan," or darken over time — unlike the blooms of European roses, which tended to
fade after opening.[7] Today's exhibition rose owes its form to the China genes, and the
China Roses also brought slender buds which unfurl when opening.[7] According to
Graham Stuart Thomas, China Roses are the class upon which modern roses are built.[7]
Tradition holds that four "stud China" roses ('Slater's Crimson China', 1792; 'Parsons'
Pink China', 1793; 'Hume's Blush Tea-scented China', 1809; and 'Parks' Yellow Tea-
Scented China', 1824) were brought to Europe in the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries; in fact there were rather more, at least five Chinas not counting the Teas having
been imported.[8] This brought about the creation of the first classes of repeat-flowering
Old Garden Roses, and later the Modern Garden Roses. Examples: 'Old Blush China',
'Mutabilis' (butterfly rose).

Tea rose 'Mrs Dudley Cross' (Paul 1907)

Tea
The original "Tea-scented Chinas" (Rosa x odorata) were Oriental cultivars thought to
represent hybrids of R. chinensis with R. gigantea, a large Asian climbing rose with pale-
yellow blossoms. Immediately upon their introduction in the early 1800s breeders went to
work with them, especially in France, crossing them first with Chinas and then with
Bourbons and Noisettes. The Teas are repeat-flowering roses, named for their fragrance
being reminiscent of Chinese black tea (although this is not always the case). The colour
range includes pastel shades of white, pink and (a novelty at the time) yellow to apricot.
The individual flowers of many cultivars are semi-pendent and nodding, due to weak
flower stalks. In a "typical" Tea, pointed buds produce high-centred blooms which unfurl
in a spiral fashion, and the petals tend to roll back at the edges, producing a petal with a
pointed tip; the Teas are thus the originators of today's "classic" florists' rose form.
According to rose historian Brent Dickerson, the Tea classification owes as much to
marketing as to botany; 19th century nurserymen would label their Asian-based cultivars
as "Teas" if they possessed the desirable Tea flower form, and "Chinas" if they did not.[9]
Like the Chinas, the Teas are not hardy in colder climates. Examples: 'Lady Hillingdon',
'Maman Cochet'.

Bourbon rose 'Climbing Souvenir de la Malmaison' (Béluze 1843 / Bennett 1893)

Bourbon

Bourbons originated on l'Île de Bourbon (now called Réunion) off the coast of
Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. They are most likely the result of a cross between the
Autumn Damask and the 'Old Blush' China rose, both of which were frequently used as
hedging materials on the island. They flower repeatedly over vigorous, frequently semi-
climbing shrubs with glossy foliage and purple-tinted canes. They were first Introduced
in France in 1823. Examples: 'Louise Odier', 'Mme. Pierre Oger', 'Zéphirine Drouhin'.
Noisette rose 'Desprez à fleurs jaunes' (Desprez 1830)

Noisette

The first Noisette rose was raised as a hybrid seedling by a South Carolina rice planter
named John Champneys. Its parents were the China Rose 'Parson's Pink' and the autumn-
flowering musk rose (Rosa moschata), resulting in a vigorous climbing rose producing
huge clusters of small pink flowers from spring to fall. Champneys sent seedlings of his
rose (called 'Champneys' Pink Cluster') to his gardening friend, Philippe Noisette, who in
turn sent plants to his brother Louis in Paris, who then introduced 'Blush Noisette' in
1817. The first Noisettes were small-blossomed, fairly winter-hardy climbers, but later
infusions of Tea rose genes created a Tea-Noisette subclass with larger flowers, smaller
clusters, and considerably reduced winter hardiness. Examples: 'Blush Noisette', 'Mme.
Alfred Carriere' (Noisette), 'Marechal Niel' (Tea-Noisette). (See French and German
articles on Noisette roses)

Hybrid Perpetual

Hybrid Perpetual rose 'La Reine' (Laffay 1844)

The dominant class of roses in Victorian England, hybrid perpetuals (a misleading

translation of hybrides remontants, 'reblooming hybrids') emerged in 1838 as the first
roses which successfully combined Asian remontancy with the Old European lineages.
Since re-bloom is a recessive trait, the first generation of Asian/European crosses (Hybrid
Chinas, Hybrid Bourbons, Hybrid Noisettes) were stubbornly once-blooming, but when
these roses were recrossed with themselves or with Chinas or teas, some of their
offspring flowered more than once. The Hybrid Perpetuals thus were something of a
miscellany, a catch-all class derived to a great extent from the Bourbons but with
admixtures of Chinas, teas, damasks, gallicas, and to a lesser extent Noisettes, albas and
even centifolias.[10] They became the most popular garden and florist roses of northern
Europe at the time, as the tender tea roses would not thrive in cold climates, and the
Hybrid Perpetuals' very large blooms were well-suited to the new phenomenon of
competitive exhibitions. The "perpetual" in the name hints at repeat-flowering, but many
varieties of this class had poor re-flowering habits; the tendency was for a massive spring
bloom, followed by either scattered summer flowering, a smaller autumn burst, or
sometimes nothing at all until next spring. Due to a limited colour palette (white, pink,
red) and lack of reliable repeat-bloom, the hybrid perpetuals were ultimately
overshadowed by their own descendants, the Hybrid Teas. Examples: 'Ferdinand
Pichard', 'Reine Des Violettes', 'Paul Neyron'.

Hybrid Musk rose 'Moonlight' (Pemberton 1913)

Hybrid Musk

Although they arose too late to qualify technically as Old Garden Roses, the hybrid
musks are often informally classed with them, since their growth habits and care are
much more like the OGRs than Modern Roses. The hybrid musk group was primarily
developed by Rev. Joseph Pemberton, a British rosarian, in the first decades of the 20th
century, based upon 'Aglaia', a 1896 cross by Peter Lambert. A seedling of this rose,
'Trier', is considered to the foundation of the class. The genetics of the class are
somewhat obscure, as some of the parents are unknown. Rose multiflora, however, is
known to be one parent, and R. moschata (the musk rose) also figures in its heritage,
though it is considered to be less important than the name would suggest. Hybrid musks
are disease-resistant, remontant and generally cluster-flowered, with a strong,
characteristic "musk" scent.[11][12] Examples include 'Buff Beauty' and 'Penelope'.

Hybrid Rugosa
Rugosa rose 'Blanc Double de Coubert' (Cochet 1893)

The Rugosas likewise are not officially Old Garden Roses, but tend to be grouped with
them. Derived from the R. rugosa species of Japan and Korea beginning in the 1880s,
these vigorous roses are extremely hardy with excellent disease resistance. Most are
extremely fragrant, repeat bloomers with moderately double flat flowers. The defining
characteristic of a Hybrid Rugosa rose is its wrinkly leaves, but some hybrids do lack this
trait. These roses will often set hips. Examples include 'Hansa' and 'Roseraie de l'Häy'.

Bermuda "Mystery" Roses

A group of several dozen "found" roses that have been grown in Bermuda for at least a
century. The roses have significant value and interest for those growing roses in tropical
and semi-tropical regions, since they are highly resistant to both nematode damage and
the fungal diseases that plague rose culture in hot, humid areas, and capable of blooming
in hot and humid weather. Most of these roses are likely Old Garden Rose cultivars that
have otherwise dropped out of cultivation, or sports thereof. They are "mystery roses"
because their "proper" historical names have been lost. Tradition dictates that they are
named after the owner of the garden where they were rediscovered.

Miscellaneous

There are also a few smaller classes (such as Scots, Sweet Brier) and some climbing
classes of old roses (including Ayrshire, Climbing China, Laevigata, Sempervirens,
Boursault, Climbing Tea, and Climbing Bourbon). Those classes with both climbing and
shrub forms are often grouped together.
Modern Garden Roses

A modern garden rose at University of the Pacific (United States).

Classification of modern roses can be quite confusing because many modern roses have
old garden roses in their ancestry and their form varies so much. The classifications tend
to be by growth and flowering characteristics, such as "large-flowered shrub", "recurrent,
large-flowered shrub", "cluster-flowered", "rambler recurrent", or "ground-cover non-
recurrent". The following includes the most notable and popular classifications of
Modern Garden Roses:

A 'Memoriam' hybrid tea rose (von Abrams 1962)

Hybrid Tea

The favourite rose for much of the history of modern roses, hybrid teas were initially
created by hybridising Hybrid Perpetuals with Tea roses in the late 1800s. 'La France,'
created in 1867, is universally acknowledged as the first indication of a new class of
roses. Hybrid teas exhibit traits midway between both parents: hardier than the teas but
less hardy than the hybrid perpetuals, and more ever-blooming than the hybrid perpetuals
but less so than the teas. The flowers are well-formed with large, high-centred buds, and
each flowering stem typically terminates in a single shapely bloom. The shrubs tend to be
stiffly upright and sparsely foliaged, which today is often seen as a liability in the
landscape. Hybrid teas became the single most popular class of garden rose of the 20th
century; today, their reputation as being more high maintenance than many other rose
classes has led to a decline in hybrid tea popularity among gardeners and landscapers in
favour of lower-maintenance "landscape" roses. The hybrid tea remains the standard rose
of the floral industry, however, and is still favoured in small gardens in formal situations.
Examples: 'Peace' (yellow), 'Mister Lincoln (red), 'Double Delight' (bi-colour cream and
red).and all colors

Pernetiana

Pernetiana rose 'Soleil d'Or,' the first of its class (Pernet 1900)

The French breeder Joseph Pernet-Ducher initiated the first class of roses to include
genes from the old Austrian brier rose (Rosa foetida) with his 1900 introduction of 'Soleil
d'Or.' This resulted in an entirely new colour range for roses: shades of deep yellow,
apricot, copper, orange, true scarlet, yellow bicolours, lavender, gray, and even brown
were now possible. Originally considered a separate class, the Pernetianas or Hybrid
Foetidas were officially merged into the Hybrid Teas in 1930. The new colour range did
much to skyrocket hybrid tea popularity in the 20th century, but these colours came at a
price: Rosa foetida also passed on a tendency toward disease-susceptibility, scentless
blooms, and an intolerance of pruning to its descendants.

Polyantha

Literally "many-flowered" roses, from the Greek "poly" (many) and "anthos" (flower).
Originally derived from crosses between two East Asian species (Rosa chinensis and R.
multiflora), polyanthas first appeared in France in the late 1800s alongside the hybrid
teas. They featured short plants — some compact, others spreading in habit — with tiny
blooms (1" in diameter on average) carried in large sprays, in the typical rose colours of
white, pink and red. Their main claim to fame was their prolific bloom: From spring to
fall, a healthy polyantha shrub might be literally covered in flowers, creating a strong
colour impact in the landscape. Polyantha roses are still regarded as low-maintenance,
disease-resistant garden roses today, and remain popular for that reason. Examples:
"Cecile Brunner", "The Fairy", "Red Fairy","Pink Fairy".

Floribunda
Rosa 'Borussia', a modern Floribunda rose

Rose breeders quickly saw the value in crossing polyanthas with hybrid teas, to create
roses that bloomed with the polyantha profusion, but with hybrid tea floral beauty and
colour range. In 1909, the first polyantha/hybrid tea cross, 'Gruss an Aachen,' was
created, with characteristics midway between both parent classes. As the larger, more
shapely flowers and hybrid-tea like growth habit separated these new roses from
polyanthas and hybrid teas alike, a new class was created and named Floribunda, Latin
for "many-flowering." Typical floribundas feature stiff shrubs, smaller and bushier than
the average hybrid tea but less dense and sprawling than the average polyantha. The
flowers are often smaller than hybrid teas but are carried in large sprays, giving a better
floral effect in the garden. Floribundas are found in all hybrid tea colours and with the
classic hybrid tea-shaped blossom, sometimes differing from hybrid teas only in their
cluster-flowering habit. Today they are still used in large bedding schemes in public
parks and similar spaces. Examples: 'Dainty Maid', 'Iceberg', 'Tuscan Sun'.

Grandiflora

Grandifloras (Latin for "large-flowered") were the class of roses created in the mid 1900s
to designate back-crosses between hybrid teas and floribundas that fit neither category —
specifically, the 'Queen Elizabeth' rose, which was introduced in 1954.[13] Grandiflora
shrubs are typically larger than either hybrid teas or floribundas, and feature hybrid tea-
style flowers borne in small clusters of three to five, similar to a floribunda. Grandifloras
maintained some popularity from about the 1950s to the 1980s but today they are much
less popular than either the hybrid teas or the floribundas. Examples: 'Queen Elizabeth',
'Comanche,' 'Montezuma.
Meillandine (a miniature rose) in a terracotta flowerpot

Miniature

All of the classes of Old Garden Roses—gallicas, centifolias, etc.—had corresponding

miniature forms, although these were once-flowering just as their larger forms were. As
with the standard-sized varieties, miniature Old Garden roses were crossed with repeat-
blooming Asian species to produce everblooming miniature roses. Today, miniature roses
are represented by twiggy, repeat-flowering shrubs ranging from 6" to 36" in height, with
most falling in the 12"–24" height range. Blooms come in all the hybrid tea colours;
many varieties also emulate the classic high centred hybrid tea flower shape. Miniature
roses are often marketed and sold by the floral industry as houseplants, but it is important
to remember that these plants are largely descended from outdoor shrubs native to
temperate regions; thus, most miniature rose varieties require an annual period of cold
dormancy to survive. (Examples: Petite de Hollande (Miniature Centifolia, once-
blooming), Cupcake (Modern Miniature, repeat-blooming). Miniature garden roses only
grow in the summer.

Climbing and rambling

Rosa 'Zéphirine Drouhin', a climbing Bourbon rose (Bizot 1868)

As is the case with Miniature roses, all aforementioned classes of roses, both Old and
Modern, have "climbing" forms, whereby the canes of the shrubs grow much longer and
more flexible than the normal ("bush") forms. In the Old Garden Roses, this is often
simply the natural growth habit of many cultivars and varieties; in many Modern roses,
however, climbing roses are the results of spontaneous mutations. For example,
'Climbing Peace' is designated as a "Climbing Hybrid Tea," for it is genetically identical
to the normal "shrub" form of the 'Peace' hybrid tea rose, except that its canes are long
and flexible, i.e. "climbing." Most Climbing roses grow anywhere from 8'–20' in height
and exhibit repeat-bloom. Rambler roses, although technically a separate class, are often
lumped together with climbing roses. They also exhibit long, flexible canes, but are
distinguished from true climbers in two ways: A larger overall size (20'–30' tall is
common), and a once-blooming habit. Both climbing roses and rambling roses are not
true vines such as ivy, clematis or wisteria; they lack the ability to cling to supports on
their own, and must be manually trained and tied over structures such as arbors and
pergolas. Examples: 'Blaze' (repeat-blooming climber), 'American Pillar' (once-blooming
rambler).

English / David Austin

Although not officially recognized as a separate class of roses by any established rose
authority, English (aka David Austin) roses are often set aside as such by consumers and
retailers alike. Development started in the 1960s by David Austin of Shropshire, England,
who wanted to rekindle interest in Old Garden Roses by hybridizing them with modern
hybrid teas and floribundas. The idea was to create a new group of roses that featured
blooms with old-fashioned shapes and fragrances, evocative of classic gallica, alba and
"damask" roses, but with modern repeat-blooming characteristics and the larger modern
colour range as well. Austin mostly succeeded in his mission; his tribe of "English" roses,
now numbering hundreds of varieties, has been warmly embraced by the gardening
public and are widely available to consumers. David Austin roses are still actively
developed, with new varieties released regularly. It should be noted that the typical
winter-hardiness and disease-resistance of the classic Old Garden Roses has largely been
compromised in the process; many English roses are susceptible to the same disease
problems that plague modern hybrid teas and floribundas, and many are not hardy north
of USDA Zone 5. Examples: 'Mary Rose,' 'Graham Thomas', 'Tamora'.

Canadian Hardy Roses

Developed for the extreme weather conditions of Canadian winters, these roses were
developed by Agriculture Canada at the Morden Research Station in Morden, Manitoba
and the Experimental Farm in Ottawa (and later at L'Assomption, Québec). These two
main lines are called the Parkland series and the Explorer series. These programs have
now been discontinued; however the remaining plant stock has been taken over by
private breeders via the Canadian Artists series. Derived mostly from crosses of native
Canadian species and more tender roses, these plants are extremely tolerant of cold
weather, some down to -35C. A wide diversity of forms and colours were achieved.
Examples include 'Morden Centennial', 'Morden Sunrise, 'Winnipeg Parks' and 'Cuthbert
Grant'.

Other notable Canadian breeders include Frank Skinner,Percy Wright,Isabella Preston,

Georges Bugnet and Robert Erskine.

Landscape Roses

An example of a shrub rose

These are a modern category of rose developed mainly for mass amenity planting. They
are collectively known as shrub roses. In the late 20th century, traditional hybrid tea and
floribunda rose varieties fell out of favour amid gardeners and landscapers, as they are
often labour and chemical intensive plants susceptible to a myriad of pest and disease
problems. So-called "landscape" roses have thus been developed to fill the consumer
desire for a garden rose that offers colour, form and fragrance, but is also low
maintenance and easy to care for. Most landscape roses having the following
characteristics:

 Lower growing habit, usually under 60 cm (24 inches)

 Repeat flowering
 Disease and pest resistance
 Non suckering, growing on their own roots.

Principal parties involved in the breeding of new Landscape Roses varieties are: Werner
Noak (Germany), Meidiland Roses (France), Boot & Co. (Netherlands), and William
Radler (USA).

Flower Carpet roses, or Carpet roses as they are also known, have changed the whole
spectrum of the landscape roses group. First introduced by Werner Noack in 1990, they at
the time received the highest award given by the All Deutschland Rose testers in
Germany, one of the toughest rose tests in the world. Of the 43 varieties in this test - and
of which on average of all tests, is judged about 200 times in regard to the resistance to
sickness, it was the only variety that passed the test, but also with the highest points ever
given to a rose at that time, 85.5 out of a possible 100, with the disease resistance of 18.3
out of 20. Available globally, they are now regarded as one of the best landscape rose
groups ever bred.

Carpet Roses

Again, like David Austin, these may not be officially recognized as a separate class of
roses by any established rose authority, Carpet roses ( also known as Flower Carpet) are
recognized by consumers, landscapers and industry alike. Werner Noack (Germany)
started his breeding of disease resistant roses in 1965. He was passionate about roses, but
did not believe that with all the diseases in roses that they would appeal to gardeners over
the long term. In 1989 he introduced his first Flower Carpet rose, Flower Carpet Pink.
Besides unprecedented disease tolerance, it had longest flowering of nearly any roses
(from 5–9 months depending on climate) did not require any fancy pruning, could be cut
back with shears, clippers or by tractor slashing (doesn't matter whether cut back 1/3, or
to soil level) and all of this on nice lush bright green foliage.

Continual development and a strong breeding program saw different colours of Flower
Carpet roses become available: White, Appleblossom, Red, Yellow, Gold, and Coral.
During this time breeding has continued under his son, Reinhard Noack. Further breeding
saw in 2007 the introduction of his Next Generation breeding with Flower Carpet Pink
Supreme, Scarlet, and Amber. In addition to all the aforementioned attributes, these are at
home in even warmer climatic conditions up to 42C.

Pruning
This rosebush has been pruned to its current form

Rose pruning, sometimes regarded as a horticultural art form, is largely dependent on the
type of rose to be pruned, the reason for pruning, and the time of year it is at the time of
the desired pruning.

Most Old Garden Roses of strict European heritage (albas, damasks, gallicas, etc.) are
shrubs that bloom once yearly, in late spring or early summer, on two-year-old (or older)
canes. As such, their pruning requirements are quite minimal, and are overall similar to
any other analogous shrub, such as lilac or forsythia. Generally, only old, spindly canes
should be pruned away, to make room for new canes. One year old canes should never be
pruned because doing so will remove next year's flower buds. The shrubs can also be
pruned back lightly, immediately after the blooms fade, to reduce the overall height or
width of the plant. In general, pruning requirements for OGRs are much less laborious
and regimented than for Modern hybrids.

Modern hybrids, including the hybrid teas, floribundas, grandifloras, modern miniatures,
and English roses, have a complex genetic background that almost always includes China
roses (R. chinensis). China roses were evergrowing, everblooming roses from humid
subtropical regions that bloomed constantly on any new vegetative growth produced
during the growing season. Their modern hybrid descendants exhibit similar habits;
unlike Old European Roses, modern hybrids bloom continuously (until stopped by frost)
on any new canes produced during the growing season. They therefore require pruning
away of any spent flowering stem in order to divert the plant's energy into producing new
growth and hence new flowers.

Additionally, Modern Hybrids planted in cold winter climates will almost universally
require a "hard" annual pruning (reducing all canes to 8"–12" in height) in early spring.
Again, because of their complex China rose background, modern hybrids are typically
not as cold hardy as European OGRs, and low winter temperatures often desiccate or kill
exposed canes. In spring, if left unpruned, these damaged canes will often die back all the
way to the shrub's root zone, resulting in a weakened, disfigured plant. The annual "hard"
pruning of hybrid teas, floribundas, etc. should generally be done in early spring; most
gardeners coincide this pruning with the blooming of forsythia shrubs. Canes should be
cut about 1/2" above a vegetative bud (identifiable as a point on a cane where a leaf once
grew).
For both Old Garden Roses and Modern Hybrids, any weak, damaged or diseased growth
should be pruned away completely, regardless of the time of year. Any pruning of any
rose should also be done so that the cut is made at a forty five degree angle above a
vegetative bud. This helps the pruned stem callus over more quickly, and also mitigates
moisture buildup over the cut, which can lead to disease problems.

For all general rose pruning (including cutting flowers for arrangements), sharp secateurs
(hand-held, sickle-bladed pruners) should be used to cut any growth 1/2" or less in
diameter. For canes of a thickness greater than 1/2", pole loppers or a small handsaw are
generally more effective; secateurs may be damaged or broken in such instances.

Deadheading

"Deadheading" is the simple practice of manually removing any spent, faded, withered,
or discoloured flowers from rose shrubs over the course of the blooming season. The
purpose of deadheading is to encourage the plant to focus its energy and resources on
forming new offshoots and blooms, rather than in fruit production. Deadheading may also
be performed, if spent flowers are unsightly, for aesthetic purposes. Roses are particularly
responsive to deadheading. Deadheading should be done by taking the stem down to the
first 5-leaflet leaf, not just the base of the flower. This encourages further branching and
flower production.

Deadheading causes different effects on different varieties of roses. For continual

blooming varieties, whether Old Garden roses or more modern hybrid varieties,
deadheading allows the rose plant to continue forming new shoots, leaves, and blooms.
For "once-blooming" varieties (that bloom only once each season), deadheading has the
effect of causing the plant to form new green growth, even though new blooms will not
form until the next blooming season.

For most rose gardeners, deadheading is used to refresh the growth of the rose plants to
keep the rose plants strong, vibrant, and productive.

Species roses such as Rosa glauca or Rosa moyesii - those which produce good hips -
should not be deadheaded.

Pests and diseases

Main articles: Pests and diseases of roses and List of rose diseases

Roses are subject to several diseases, such as rose rust (Phragmidium mucronatum), rose
black spot, and powdery mildew. Fungal diseases in the Rose are best solved by a
preventative fungicidal spray program rather than by trying to cure an infection after it
emerges on the plant. After the disease is visible, its spread can be minimized through
pruning and the use of fungicides, although the actual infection cannot be reversed.
Certain rose varieties are considerably less susceptible than others to fungal diseases.
The main pest affecting roses is the aphid (greenfly), which sucks the sap and weakens
the plant. (Ladybugs are a predator of aphids and should be encouraged in the rose
garden.) In areas where they are endemic Japanese beetles (Popillia japonica) take a
heavy toll on rose flowers and foliage; rose blooms can also be destroyed by infestations
of thrips (Thysanoptera spp). Roses are also used as food plants by the larvae of some
Lepidoptera (butterfly and moth) species; see list of Lepidoptera that feed on roses. The
spraying with insecticide of roses is often recommended but should be done with care to
minimize the loss of beneficial insects.

Uses

Roses are best known for their flowers. Roses are popular garden shrubs, as flowering
shrubs. They are also grown as cut flowers, as one of the most popular and commonly
sold florists' flowers.

A few roses are grown for scented foliage (such as Rosa rubiginosa, ornamental thorns,
Rosa sericea or their ornamental fruit Rosa moyesii).

The rose hip, the fruit of some species, is used as a minor source of Vitamin C. Roses
may also be planted as hedging, and for game cover.

Perfume
Main article: Rose oil

Rose perfumes are made from attar of roses or rose oil, which is a mixture of volatile
essential oils obtained by steam distilling the crushed petals of roses. The technique
originated in Persia (the word Rose itself is from Persian) then spread through Arabia and
India, but nowadays about 70% to 80% of production is in the Rose Valley near
Kazanluk in Bulgaria, with some production in Qamsar in Iran and Germany.[citation needed]
The Kaaba in Mecca is annually washed by the Iranian rose water from Qamsar. In
Bulgaria, Iran and Germany, damask roses (Rosa damascena 'Trigintipetala') are used. In
the French rose oil industry Rosa centifolia is used. The oil is transparent pale yellow or
yellow-grey in colour. 'Rose Absolute' is solvent-extracted with hexane and produces a
darker oil, dark yellow to orange in colour. The weight of oil extracted is about one three-
thousandth to one six-thousandth of the weight of the flowers; for example, about two
thousand flowers are required to produce one gram of oil.

Geraniol (C10H18O)

The main constituents of attar of roses are the fragrant alcohols geraniol and l-citronellol;
and rose camphor, an odourless paraffin. β-Damascenone is also a significant contributor
to the scent.
Renoir's painting of cabbage roses, Roses in a vase

Art

Roses are often portrayed by artists. The Luxembourg born Belgian artist Pierre-Joseph
Redouté produced some of the most detailed paintings of roses.

Henri Fantin-Latour was also a prolific painter of still life, particularly flowers including
roses. The Rose 'Fantin-Latour' was named after the artist.

Other impressionists including Claude Monet, Paul Cézanne and Pierre-Auguste Renoir
have paintings of roses among their works.

Symbolism

Further information: Rose (symbolism)

Red Roses
Selling roses on St. George's day in Catalonia

The rose has always been valued for its beauty and has a long history of symbolism.
Roses are ancient symbols of love and beauty. 'Rose' means pink or red in a variety of
languages (such as Romance languages, Greek, and Polish). The rose was sacred to a
number of goddesses (including Isis and Aphrodite), and is often used as a symbol of the
Virgin Mary. The ancient Greeks and Romans identified the rose with their goddesses of
love referred to as Aphrodite and Venus. In Rome a wild rose would be placed on the
door of a room where secret or confidential matters were discussed. The phrase sub rosa,
or "under the rose", means to keep a secret — derived from this ancient Roman practice.

Early Christians identified the five petals of the rose with the five wounds of Christ.
Despite this interpretation, their leaders were hesitant to adopt it because of its
association with Roman excesses and pagan ritual. The red rose was eventually adopted
as a symbol of the blood of the Christian martyrs. Roses also later came to be associated
with the Virgin Mary.

Rose culture came into its own in Europe in the 1800s with the introduction of perpetual
blooming roses from China. There are currently thousands of varieties of roses developed
for bloom shape, size, fragrance and even for lack of prickles.

The rose is the national flower of England and the United States,[14] as well as being the
symbol of England Rugby, and of the Rugby Football Union. It is also the provincial
flower of Yorkshire and Lancashire in England (the white rose and red rose respectively),
of Alberta (the wild rose) in Canada, and of Islamabad Capital Territory in Pakistan. It is
the state flower of four US states: Iowa and North Dakota (R. arkansana), Georgia (R.
laevigata), and New York[15] (Rosa generally). Portland, Oregon counts "City of Roses"
among its nicknames, and holds an annual Rose Festival.

Roses are occasionally the basis of design for rose windows, such windows comprising
five or ten segments (the five petals and five sepals of a rose) or multiples thereof;
however most Gothic rose windows are much more elaborate and were probably based
originally on the wheel and other symbolism.
A red rose (often held in a hand) is a symbol of socialism or social democracy: it is used
as a symbol by British, Irish, French, Spanish, Portuguese, Norwegian, Danish, Swedish,
Finnish, Brazilian, Dutch, Bulgarian and other European labour, socialist or social
democratic parties, mostly adopted in the period after World War II.[16]

The White Rose was a World War II non violent resistance group in Germany.

A bouquet of red roses is often used to show love. It is used as a Valentine's Day gift in
many countries.

On St George's Day in Catalonia people offer dark red roses as gifts, especially between
lovers. The Virolai, a hymn to the Virgin of Montserrat, one of the black Madonnas of
Europe, begins with the words: "Rosa d’abril, Morena de la serra..." (April rose, dusky
lady of the mountain chain...). Therefore this virgin is sometimes known as “Rosa
d’abril”. The red rose is thus widely accepted as an unofficial symbol of Catalonia.[17]

Quotes
 What's in a name? That which we call a rose/By any other name would smell as
sweet. — William Shakespeare, Romeo and Juliet act II, sc. ii
 Gather ye rosebuds while ye may,/Old Time is still a-flying — Robert Herrick, To
the Virgins, to Make Much of Time
 O, my love's like a red, red rose/That's newly sprung in June — Robert Burns, A
Red, Red Rose
 Information appears to stew out of me naturally, like the precious ottar of roses
out of the otter. Mark Twain, Roughing It
 Hearts starve as well as bodies; give us bread, but give us roses. — James
Oppenheim, "Bread and Roses"
 Rose is a rose is a rose is a rose — Gertrude Stein, Sacred Emily (1913), a poem
included in Geography and Plays.
 The optimist sees the rose and not its thorns; the pessimist stares at the thorns,
oblivious to the rose - Kahlil Gibran
 'I love to see you at my table, Nick. You remind me of a- of a rose, an absolute
rose.' - Daisy Buchanan, The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald.

7.Poppy Flower,
Opium poppy

Opium poppy, Papaver somniferum var. album, Opium poppy

is the species of plant from which opium and poppy
seeds are extracted. Opium is the source of many
opiates, including morphine, thebaine, codeine,
papaverine, and noscapine. The Latin botanical
name means, loosely, the "sleep-bringing poppy,
white form", referring to the sedative properties of
some of these opiates.

The poppy is the only species of Papaveraceae that

is an agricultural crop grown on a large scale. Other Scientific classification
species, Papaver rhoeas and Papaver argemone, Kingdom: Plantae
are important agricultural weeds, and may be Division: Magnoliophyta
mistaken for the crop.
Class: Magnoliopsida
The plant itself is also valuable for ornamental Order: Ranunculales
purposes, and has been known as the "common Family: Papaveraceae
garden poppy", referencing all the group of poppy Genus: Papaver
plants. Species: P. somniferum
Binomial name
Poppy seeds of Papaver somniferum are an Papaver somniferum
important food item and the source of poppyseed L.
oil, a healthy edible oil that has many uses. It is
widely grown as an ornamental flower throughout Europe, North America, South
America, and Asia.

Varieties

Papaver somniferum has many sub-species or varieties and cultivars. Colors of the flower
vary widely, as do other physical characteristics such as number and shape of petals,
number of flowers and fruits, number of seeds, color of seeds, production of opium, etc.

Papaver somniferum Paeoniflorum Group (sometimes called Papaver paeoniflorum) is a

sub-type of opium poppy whose flowers are highly double, and are grown in many
colors. Papaver somniferum Laciniatum Group (sometimes called Papaver laciniatum) is
a sub-type of opium poppy whose flowers are highly double and deeply lobed, to the
point of looking like a ruffly pompon.

A few of the varieties, notably the Norman and Przemko varieties, have low morphine
content (less than one percent), but have much higher concentrations of other alkaloids.
Most varieties, however, including those most popular for ornamental use or seed
production, have a higher morphine content, with the average content being 10%.[1][2]

Opiates
The opium poppy is the principal source of all natural opiates. Opiates are extracted from
opium and poppy straw. Opium (also called “raw opium”) is the latex harvested by
making incisions on the green capsules (seed pods). Poppy straw is the dried mature plant
except the seeds, harvested by mowing.

From opium and poppy straw are extracted alkaloids such as morphine, thebaine, codeine
and oripavine. Morphine is the predominant alkaloid found in the varieties of opium
poppy plant cultivated in most producing countries.[3]

Legality

Opium poppy cultivation in the United Kingdom does not need a licence, however, a
licence is required for those wishing to extract opium for medicinal products.[4]

In the United States, opium is listed as a Schedule II controlled substance by the Drug
Enforcement Administration. In addition, "Opium poppy and poppy straw" are also
prohibited.[5] However, this is not typically enforced for poppies grown or sold for
ornamental or food purposes.[1] There is a common misconception that there is a clear
distinction between poppies useful for opium extraction and ornamental or food poppies.
It is not difficult to manufacture opium tea with a high morphine content from poppies
readily available at flower shops.[6][7]

The seeds themselves contain very low levels of opiates.[1] However, the television show
MythBusters demonstrated that one could test positive for narcotics after consuming four
poppy seed bagels. The show Brainiac: Science Abuse had subjects who tested positive
with only two poppy seed bagels. As a result, the U.S. standard for urinalysis raised the
threshold for a positive result by a considerable amount.[citation needed] However, many labs
have not implemented the increased detection threshold and many[who?] believe that the
new threshold is still too low.[citation needed]

In the United Arab Emirates, where the drug law is especially stern, at least one man was
reported to have been imprisoned for possessing poppy seeds obtained from a bread roll.
[8]

Poppies as medicine

Capsule of Papaver somniferum showing latex (opium) exuding from incision

Australia, Turkey and India are the major producers of poppy for medicinal purposes and
poppy-based drugs, such as morphine or codeine.[9] The USA has a policy of sourcing
80% of its narcotic raw materials from the traditional producers, India and Turkey.[10]

A recent initiative to extend opium production for medicinal purposes called Poppy for
Medicine was launched by The Senlis Council which proposes that Afghanistan could
produce medicinal opium under a scheme similar to that operating in Turkey and India.[11]
The Council proposes licensing poppy production in Afghanistan, within an integrated
control system supported by the Afghan government and its international allies, to
promote economic growth in the country, create vital drugs and combat poverty and the
diversion of illegal opium to drug traffickers and terrorist elements. Interestingly, Senlis
is on record advocating reintroduction of poppy into areas of Afghanistan, specifically
Kunduz, which has been poppy free for some time.

The Senlis proposal is based in part on the assertion that there is an acute global shortage
of opium poppy-based medicines some of which (morphine) are on the World Health
Organisation's list of essential drugs as they are the most effective way of relieving
severe pain. This assertion is contradicted by the International Narcotics Control Board
(INCB), the "independent and quasi-judicial control organ monitoring the
implementation of the United Nations drug control conventions". INCB reports that the
supply of opiates is greatly in excess of demand.[12]

The British government has given the go-ahead to the pharmaceutical company
Macfarlan Smith (a Johnson Matthey company) to cultivate opium poppies in England
for medicinal reasons. This move is well-received by British farmers, with a major opium
poppy field based in Didcot, England.[13]

In March 2010, researchers from the Department of Biological Sciences at the University
of Calgary published an article in Nature Chemical Biology about their discovery of two
enzymes and their encoding genes, thebaine 6-O-demethylase (T6ODM) and codeine O-
demethylase (CODM), involved in morphine biosynthesis derived from the opium poppy.
[14]
The enzymes were identified as non-heme dioxygenases, and were isolated using
functional genomics.[14] Codeine O-demethylase produces the enzyme that converts
codeine into morphine.[15]

Use as food

Polish makowiec, a nut roll filled with poppy seed paste

The opium poppy is the source of two food ingredients: poppy seed and poppyseed oil.
The seeds contain very low levels of opiates,[1] and the oil extracted from them contains
even less. Both the oil and the seed residue also have commercial uses.

Poppy Seeds

Poppy seeds are commonly used in both North and South Indian Cusine. Its called
Khuskhus in Hindi, Gasagasalu in Telugu, Gasagasa in Kannada, Posto dana in Bengali.
Its dry roasted and ground to be used in wet curry (curry paste) or dry curry. It has
creamy and nut like flavor. When used with ground coconut, its provides a unique and
flavour rich curry base. [1]

Ornamental cultivation

A red opium poppy flower used for ornamental purposes

Once known as the "common garden poppy", live plants and seeds of the opium poppy
are widely sold by seed companies and nurseries in most of the western world, including
the United States. Poppies are sought after by gardeners for the vivid coloration of the
blooms, the hardiness and reliability of the poppy plants, the exotic chocolate-vegetal
fragrance note of some cultivars, and the ease of growing the plants from purchased flats
of seedlings or by direct sowing of the seed. Poppy seed pods are also sold for dried
flower arrangements.

It has been suggested that, since "opium poppy and poppy straw" are listed in Schedule II
of the United States' Controlled Substances Act, a DEA license may be required to grow
poppies in ornamental or display gardens. In fact the legal status of strictly ornamental
poppy gardens is more nuanced, with destruction of ornamental poppy installations or
prosecution of gardeners (except those caught extracting opium via capsule scarification
or tea extraction) virtually unheard of.[1] During the early spring, opium poppies will be
seen flowering in gardens throughout North America and Europe, with beautiful
installations being found in many private planters, as well as public botanical and
museum gardens (e.g. United States Botanical Garden, Missouri Botanical Garden, North
Carolina Botanical Garden, residential garden, Seattle, WA, and residential garden,
Hartford, CT).
Many countries grow the plants; some of which rely heavily on the commercial
production of the drug as a major source of income. As an additional source of profit, the
same seeds are sold in the culinary trade shortly thereafter, making cultivation of the
plant a significant source of income. This international trade in seeds of Papaver
somniferum was addressed by a UN resolution "to fight the international trade in illicit
opium poppy seeds" on July 28, 1998.

Popular culture

What may be the most well known literary use of the poppy occurs both in L. Frank
Baum's The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and in MGM's classic 1939 film based on the novel.

In the novel, while on their way to the Emerald City, Dorothy, the Scarecrow, the Tin
Man, and the Cowardly Lion walk through a field of poppies, and both Dorothy and the
Lion mysteriously fall asleep. The Scarecrow and the Tin Man, not being made of flesh
and blood, are unaffected. They carry Dorothy to safety and place her on the ground
beyond the poppy field. While they are considering how to help the Lion, a field mouse
runs in front of them, fleeing a cougar. The Tin Man beheads the cougar with his axe, and
the field mouse pledges her eternal gratitude. Being the Queen of the Field Mice, she
gathers all her subjects together. The Tin Man cuts down several trees, and builds a
wagon. The Lion is pushed onto it, and the mice pull the wagon safely out of the poppy
field.

In the 1939 film, the sequence is considerably altered. The poppy field is conjured up by
the Wicked Witch of the West, and it appears directly in front of the Emerald City,
preventing the four travelers from reaching it. As in the novel, Dorothy and the Cowardly
Lion fall asleep, but in a direct reversal of the book, the Scarecrow and the Tin Man are
unable to carry Dorothy. Glinda, who has been watching over them, conjures up a
snowfall which kills the poppies' narcotic power and enables Dorothy and the Lion to
awaken. Unfortunately, the Tin Man has been weeping in despair, and the combination of
his tears and the wet snow has caused him to rust. After he is oiled by Dorothy, the four
skip happily toward the Emerald City.

In Baum's other Oz books, Oz's ruler, Princess Ozma, is often shown wearing poppies in
her hair as decoration.

History

Use of the opium poppy predates written history. Images of opium poppies have been
found in ancient Sumerian artifacts (ca. 4000 BC). The opium poppy was also known to
the ancient Greeks, from whom it gained its modern name of opium. Remains have been
discovered at sites such as Kalapodi and Kastanas.[citation needed]

Opium was used for treating asthma, stomach illnesses, and bad eye sight. The Opium
Wars between China and the British Empire took place in the late 1830s when the
Chinese attempted to stop the sale of opium by Britain, in China.
Many modern writers, particularly in the nineteenth century, have written on the opium
poppy and its effects, notably L. Frank Baum in The Wonderful Wizard of Oz and
Thomas de Quincey in Confessions of an English Opium Eater

The French Romantic composer Hector Berlioz used an opium hallucination for the
program of his Symphonie Fantastique. In this work, a young artist overdoses on opium
and experiences a series of visions of his unrequited love.

Opium poppies (flower and fruit) appear on the coat of arms of the Royal College of
Anaesthetists.

Poppy dilemma in Afghanistan

After the ousting of the Taliban from the town of Marja in the Southern Afghan province
Helmand by the Operation Moshtarak, the American and NATO commanders were
confronted with the dilemma of on the one hand the need for "winning the hearts and
minds" of the local population as well as on the other hand the necessity of the
eradication of poppies and the destruction of the opium economy, that allegedly financed
the Taliban insurgency. Since opium is the main source of existence of 60 to 70 percent
of the farmers in Marja, American Marines were ordered to -preliminary- ignore the
crops to avoid trampling their livelihood. [16] [17]

Inline citations
1. ^ a b c d e "Poppy law" on Erowid.org
2. ^ Ayatollah (2006-02-25). "How potent are the major culinary (spicerack)
varieties such as McCormick?". Poppies.
http://www.poppies.org/faq/introduction/how-potent-are-the-major-culinary-
spicerack-varieties-such-as-mccormick/#more. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
3. ^ "International Narcotics Control Bureau, Technical Reports, 2008, Part IV,
Statistical information on narcotic drugs"
4. ^ Phillip, Rhodri, & Barry Wigmore (2007-07-14). "The painkilling fields:
England's opium poppies that tackle the NHS morphine crisis". Evening Standard.
http://www.thisislondon.co.uk/news/article-23404311-details/The%20painkilling
%20fields:%20England's%20opium%20poppies%20that%20tackle%20the
%20NHS%20morphine%20crisis/article.do. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
5. ^ Ayatollah. "Drug Scheduling". Drug Enforcement Administration.
http://www.usdoj.gov/dea/pubs/scheduling.html. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
6. ^ Hogshire, Jim. Opium for the Masses: A Practical Guide to Growing Poppies
and Making Opium. Port Townsend, Wash: Loompanics Unlimited, 1994. ISBN
1559501146. Reprinted as Opium for the Masses: Harvesting Nature's Best Pain
Medication. Port Townsend, Wash.: Feral House, 2009. ISBN 9781932595468.
7. ^ "Opium poppy tea a concern in northeast Calgary". CBC News. 2009-08-24.
http://www.cbc.ca/health/story/2009/08/24/calgary-opium-doda-tea-sales.html.
Retrieved 2009-09-02.
8. ^ McGrath, Ginny (2008-02-08). "Travellers who 'smuggle' poppy seeds face
Dubai jail". The Times.
 http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/travel/news/article3333905.ece. Retrieved 2009-
09-02.
9. ^ Dicker, Jason. "The Poppy Industry in Tasmania". University of Tasmania.
http://www.launc.tased.edu.au/online/sciences/agsci/alkalo/popindus.htm.
Retrieved 2009-09-02.
10. ^ Braund, Claire (2001). "Research driving the Tasmanian poppy industry".
Australian Society of Agronomy.
http://www.regional.org.au/au/asa/2001/news.htm#P54_6133. Retrieved 2009-09-
02.
11. ^ "Poppy for Medicine". Poppy for Medicine. http://www.poppyformedicine.net/.
Retrieved 2009-09-02.
12. ^ International Narcotics Control Board, 2004, Report 2004, Vienna:
International Narcotics Control Board: 23.
13. ^ "Review of undertakings by Macfarlan Smith Limited". Department for
Business Innovation & Skills. March 2006.
http://www.berr.gov.uk/whatwedo/businesslaw/competition/market-
studies/opium/page33834.html. Retrieved 2009-09-02.
14. ^ a b Jillian M Hagel and Peter J Facchini (2010-03-14). "Dioxygenases catalyze
the O-demethylation steps of morphine biosynthesis in opium poppy". Nature
Chemical Biology (Nature Publishing Group). doi:10.1038/nchembio.317.
http://www.nature.com/nchembio/journal/vaop/ncurrent/full/nchembio.317.html.
Retrieved 2010-03-15.
15. ^ "Genetic secrets of poppies' painkillers unlocked". The Canadian Press, Toronto
Star. 2010-03-15.
http://www.healthzone.ca/health/newsfeatures/research/article/779869--genetic-
secrets-of-poppies-painkillers-unlocked. Retrieved 2010-03-15.
16. ^ "U.S. Turns a Blind Eye to Opium in Afghan Town"
17. ^ [http://www.bangkokpost.com/news/asia/172276/afghan-drug-cartels-squeeze-
poppy-farmers "Afghan drug cartels squeeze poppy farmers"

General references
 The Heroin Harvest
 Comprehensive profile for Papaver somniferum from MaltaWildPlants.com
 Opium FAQ v1.0 from Opioids.com
 Opium Poppy Cultivation and Heroin Processing in Southeast Asia from the
School of Pacific and Asian Studies
 "Downward Spiral - Banning Opium in Afghanistan and Burma", Transnational
Institute TNI, Debate Paper, June 2005
 "Withdrawal Symptoms in the Golden Triangle - A Drugs Market in Disarray"
TNI Paper by Tom Kramer et al.
 Chouvy P.A., 2009, "Opium. Uncovering the Politics of the Poppy", London, I.B.
Tauris (Cambridge, Harvard University Press: 2010)

Photos
 The Papaver somniferum Photo Gallery
 Photos of opium poppy fields in France on www.geopium.org
  Photos of opium poppies (in bloom, lanced, dried, with seeds) on
www.geopium.org
 Opium Poppy fields of North Tasmania

Mugwort

8.Artemisia vulgaris Scientific classification

"Mugwort" redirects here. For the other plants
named "mugwort", see Mugwort (disambiguation). Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
Artemisia vulgaris (mugwort or common (unranked): Eudicots
wormwood) is one of several species in the genus (unranked): Asterids
Artemisia which have common names that include Order: Asterales
the word mugwort. This species is also occasionally Family: Asteraceae
Genus: Artemisia
Species: A. vulgaris
Binomial name
Artemisia vulgaris
L.
known as Felon Herb, Chrysanthemum Weed, Wild Wormwood, Old uncle Henry,
Sailor's Tobacco, Naughty Man, Old Man or St. John's Plant (not to be confused with St
John's wort).

It is native to temperate Europe, Asia and northern Africa, but is also present in North
America where it is an invasive weed. It is a very common plant growing on nitrogenous
soils, like weedy and uncultivated areas, such as waste places and roadsides.

It is a tall herbaceous perennial plant growing 1–2 m (rarely 2.5 m) tall, with a woody
root. The leaves are 5–20 cm long, dark green, pinnate, with dense white tomentose hairs
on the underside. The erect stem often has a red-purplish tinge. The rather small flowers
(5 mm long) are radially symmetrical with many yellow or dark red petals. The narrow
and numerous capitula (flower heads) spread out in racemose panicles. It flowers from
July to September.

A number of species of Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths) feed on the leaves and
flowers; see List of Lepidoptera that feed on Artemisia for details.

Nomenclature and taxonomy

Etymology

Mugwort is often said to derive from the word "mug" because it was used in flavoring
drinks. However, this may be a folk etymology. Other sources say Mugwort is derived
from the old Norse muggi, meaning "marsh", and Germanic "wuertz", meaning "root",
which refers to its use since ancient times to repel insects, especially moths.[1] The Old
English word for mugwort is "mucgwyrt" where "mucg-" could be a variation of the Old
English word for midge "mycg". Wort comes from the Old English "wyrt"
(root/herb/plant) which stems from the Old High Germany "wurz" (root) and the Old
Norse "urt" (plant).[2] Mugwort is called chornobylnik in Ukrainian, and has given its
name to the abandoned city of Chernobyl (Chornobyl in Ukrainian). The name chornobyl
has an interesting history, meaning "place where mugwort grows" in the related Indo-
European languages.[citation needed]

Related species

There are other species in the genus Artemisia called mugwort:

 Artemisia douglasiana – Douglas' Mugwort

 Artemisia glacialis – Alpine Mugwort
 Artemisia norvegica – Norwegian Mugwort
 Artemisia princeps – Japanese Mugwort ("Yomogi")
 Artemisia stelleriana – Hoary Mugwort
 Artemisia verlotiorum – Chinese Mugwort

Uses
19th century illustration

Mugwort contains thujone, which is toxic in large amounts or under prolonged intake.
Thujone is also present in Thuja plicata (western red cedar), from which the name is
derived. Pregnant women, in particular, should avoid consuming large amounts of
mugwort. The species has a number of recorded historic uses in food, herbal medicine,
and as a smoking herb. It is also used by many before sleeping, as it is thought that
placing the herb inside the cover of a pillow and sleeping on the pillow can induce vivid
dreams.[citation needed]

Food

The leaves and buds, best picked shortly before the plant flowers in July to September,
were used as a bitter flavoring agent to season fat, meat and fish. In Germany, known as
Beifuß, it is mainly used to season goose, especially the roast goose traditionally eaten for
Christmas. From the German, ancient use of a sprig of mugwort inserted into the goose
cavity, comes the saying "goosed" or "is goosed".[citation needed]

In the Middle Ages Mugwort was used as part of a herbal mixture called gruit, used in the
flavoring of beer before the widespread introduction of hops. Once again, it is possible
that drinkers of the beer were not only intoxicated from the beer, but also from the
hallucinogenic properties of the plant.

There are several references to the Chinese using mugwort in cuisine. The famous
Chinese poet Su Shi (苏轼） in the 11th century mentioned it in one of his poems. There
are even older poems and songs that can be tracked back to 3 BC. Mainly it was called
Lou Hao (蒌蒿） in Mandarin. Mugwort can be prepared as a cold dish or can be stir
fried with fresh or smoked meat.
Korea

Mugwort is also used in Korea to give festive rice cakes a greenish color. It is a common
seasoning in Korean soups and pancakes. Known as a blood cleanser, it is believed to
have different medicinal properties depending on the region it is collected. In some
regions, mugwort thins the blood, while in another region, it is proposed to have
hallucigenic properties, leading to some bonneted grandmothers passing out from direct
skin contact (dermal absorption) with the active chemicals. For this reason, Koreans also
wear a silk sleeve when picking mugwort plants.

In Korea, this herb is often used as a flavouring for soft ricecakes (called "sook-dok" or
so-ok in current Korean common usage), soups, and other foods. Once cooked, the plant's
hallucinogenic chemicals are neutralized.

Japan

Mugwort or yomogi is used in a number of Japanese dishes, including yōkan, a dessert,

or kusa mochi, also known as yomogi mochi.

Mugwort rice cakes, or kusa mochi are used for Japanese sweets called Daifuku (which
literally translated means 'great luck'). To make these take a small amount of mochi and
stuff it or wrap it round a filling of fruit or sweetened azuki (red bean) paste. Traditional
Daifuku can be pale green, white or pale pink and are covered in a fine layer of potato
starch to prevent sticking.

Ingredients for kusa mochi[3]: Whole-grain sweet brown rice and Japanese mugwort
(yomogi) herb.

Mugwort is a vital ingredient of kusa mochi (rice cake with mugwort) and hishi mochi
(lozenge rice cake) which is served at the Doll Festival in March. In addition, the fuzz on
the underside of the mugwort leaves is gathered and used in moxibustion. In some
regions in Japan[4], there is an ancient custom of hanging yomogi and iris leaves together
outside homes in order to keep evil spirits away. It is said that evil spirits dislike their
smell. The juice is said to be effective at stopping bleeding, lowering fevers and purging
the stomach of impurities. It can also be boiled and taken to relieve colds and coughs.

Allergen

Mugwort pollen is one of main sources of hay fever and allergic asthma, in North
Europe, North America and in parts of Asia.[5][6]. Mugwort pollen generally travels less
than 2000 meters[7]. The highest concentration of mugwort pollen is generally found
between 9 and 11 am. The Finnish allergy association recommends tearing as method of
eradicating mugwort[7]. Tearing mugwort is known to lessen the effect of the allergy,
since the pollen flies only short distance[7]].
Cooking is known to decrease the allergenicity of mugwort, but not enough to make the
plant palatable.

Herbal Medicine

A mugwort leaf with the pointed leaves characteristic of a mature plant

The mugwort plant contains essential oils (such as cineole, or wormwood oil, and
thujone), flavonoids, triterpenes, and coumarin derivatives. It was also used as an
anthelminthic, so it is sometimes confused with wormwood (Artemisia absinthium). The
plant, called nagadamni in Sanskrit, is used in Ayurveda for cardiac complaints as well as
feelings of unease, unwellness and general malaise.[8]

Mugwort is used in the practice of traditional Chinese medicine in a pulverized and aged
form called moxa from which we derive the English word "moxy"[citation needed]. The British
RCT yielded results that indicate that moxibustion of mugwort was indeed effective at
increasing the cephalic positioning of fetuses who were in a breech position before the
intervention[citation needed]. In contrast, a Cochrane review in 2005 found that moxibustion
may be beneficial in reducing the need for ECV, but stressed a need for well-designed
randomised controlled trials to evaluate this usage[9]. Since it also causes uterine
contractions, it has been used to cause abortion. It also plays a role in Asian traditional
medicine as a method of correcting breech presentation. A study of 260 Chinese women
at 33 weeks of pregnancy demonstrated cephalic version within two weeks in 75% of
fetuses carried by patients who were treated with moxibustion, as opposed to 48% in the
control group.[10] It has also been shown that acupuncture plus moxibustion slows fetal
heart rates while increasing fetal movement.[11] Two recent studies of Italian patients
produced conflicting results. In the first, involving 226 patients, there was cephalic
presentation at delivery in 54% of women treated between 33 and 35 weeks with
acupuncture and moxibustion, vs. 37% in the control group.[12] The second was
terminated prematurely because of numerous coital treatment interruptions.[13]
In rats, Mugwort shows efficacy against trichinellosis.[14]

Folklore & Witchcraft

In the Middle Ages, mugwort was used as a magical protective herb. Mugwort was used
to repel insects, especially moths, from gardens. Mugwort has also been used from
ancient times as a remedy against fatigue and to protect travelers against evil spirits and
wild animals. Roman soldiers put mugwort in their sandals to protect their feet against
fatigue.[15] Mugwort is one of the nine herbs invoked in the pagan Anglo-Saxon Nine
Herbs Charm, recorded in the 10th century.[citation needed]

Much used in witchcraft, mugwort is said to be useful in inducing lucid dreaming and
astral travel/astral projection. Consumption of the plant, or a tincture thereof, prior to
sleeping is said to increase the intensity of dreams, the level of control, and to aid in the
recall of dreams upon waking. One common method of ingestion is to smoke the plant.[16]

References

1. ^ Lust, J. (2005) The Herb Book 604.

2. ^ Merriam Webster Dictionary
3. ^ Mitoku http://www.goodnessdirect.co.uk/cgi-
local/frameset/detail/415726_Mitoku_Brown_Rice_Mochi_With_Mugwort___25
0g.html
4. ^ http://www.shejapan.com/jtyeholder/jtye/living/wagashi/wagashi3.html
5. ^ [1]
6. ^ [2]
7. ^ a b c [3]
8. ^ Ramawat, K. G., Ed. (2004). Biotechnology of Medicinal Plants: Vitalizer and
Therapeutic Enfield, New Hampshire: Science Publishers, Inc. 5.
9. ^ Meaghan E Coyle, Caroline A Smith and Brian Peat (16 February 2005).
"Cephalic version by moxibustion for breech presentation".
http://mrw.interscience.wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD003928/frame.ht
ml. Retrieved 2010-01-21.
10. ^ Cardini, F., and W. X. Huang. JAMA 280(18): 1580-1584, November 1998
11. ^ Neri, I., et al. Journal of the Society for Gynecological Investigation 9(3): 158-
162, May-June 2002
12. ^ Neri, I., et al. Journal of Maternal-Fetal and Neonatal Medicine 15(4): 247-252
13. ^ Cardini, F., et al. BJOG 112(6): 743-747, June 2005
14. ^ Caner A, Döşkaya M, Değirmenci A, et al. (May 2008). "Comparison of the
effects of Artemisia vulgaris and Artemisia absinthium growing in western
Anatolia against trichinellosis (Trichinella spiralis) in rats". Exp. Parasitol. 119
(1): 173–9. doi:10.1016/j.exppara.2008.01.012. PMID 18325496.
15. ^ Wright, Colin, Ed. (2002). Artemisia. London; New York: Taylor & Francis.
pp. 144. ISBN 0-415-27212-2. http://books.google.com/books?
id=t0MtnKDvLLwC&pg=PA144&lpg=PA144&dq=roman+soldiers+mugwort&s
 ource=web&ots=DqA5fkbz4W&sig=wHxgVLH6bu_ytzvSj5CpLGmzLws#PPA1
45,M1.
16. ^ Hanrahan, Clare. "Mugwort".
http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_g2603/is_0005/ai_2603000533/. Retrieved 15
October 2009.

External links

 Erowid's Mugwort Vault

 Plants for a Future: Artemisia vulgaris
 Mugwort in Culpeper's 'The complete herbal'
 Mugwort in Mrs Grieve's 'A modern herbal'
 Mugwort at Liber Herbarum II

9.Artemisia A.,
Artemisia annua
Artemisia annua
 Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Genus: Artemisia
Species: A. annua
Binomial name
Artemisia annua
L.

Artemisia annua, also known as Sweet Wormwood, Sweet Annie, Sweet Sagewort or
Annual Wormwood (Chinese: 青蒿; pinyin: qīnghāo), is a common type of wormwood
that is native to temperate Asia, but naturalized throughout the world.

Characteristics

It has fern-like leaves, bright yellow flowers, and a camphor-like scent. Its height
averages about 2 m tall, and the plant has a single stem, alternating branches, and
alternating leaves which range 2.5–5 cm in length. It is cross-pollinated by wind or
insects. It is a diploid plant with chromosome number, 2n=18.[1][2]

Medicinal uses

Sweet Wormwood was used by Chinese herbalists in ancient times to treat fever, but had
fallen out of common use, but was rediscovered in 1970 when the Chinese Handbook of
Prescriptions for Emergency Treatments (340 AD) was found. This pharmacopeia
contained recipes for a tea from dried leaves, prescribed for fevers (not specifically
malaria).

Extractions

In 1971, scientists demonstrated that the plant extracts had antimalarial activity in
primate models, and in 1972 the active ingredient, artemisinin (formerly referred to as
arteannuin), was isolated and its chemical structure described. Artemisinin may be
extracted using a low boiling point solvent such as diethylether and is found in the
glandular trichomes of the leaves, stems, and inflorescences, and it is concentrated in the
upper portions of plant within new growth.[3]

Parasite treatment

It is commonly used in tropical nations which can afford it, preferentially as part of a
combination-cocktail with other antimalarials in order to prevent the development of
parasite resistance.

Malaria treatment

Qinghao (Artemisia annua) has been long used as antimalarial herb in China

Artemisinin itself is a sesquiterpene lactone with an endoperoxide bridge and has been
produced semi-synthetically as an antimalarial drug. The efficacy of tea made from
A. annua in the treatment of malaria is contentious. According to some authors,
artemesinin is not soluble in water and the concentrations in these infusions are
considered insufficient to treatment malaria.[4][5][6] Other researchers have claimed that
Artemisia annua contains a cocktail of anti-malarial substances, and insist that clinical
trials be conducted to demonstrate scientifically that artemisia tea is effective in treating
malaria.[7] This simpler use may be a cheaper alternative to commercial pharmaceuticals,
and may enable health dispensaries in the tropics to be more self-reliant in their malaria
treatment.[8] In In 2004, the Ethiopian Ministry of Health changed Ethiopia’s first line
anti-malaria drug from Fansidar, a Sulfadoxine agent which has an average 36%
treatment failure rate, to CoArtem, an agent created from A. annua and which is 100%
effective when used correctly, despite a worldwide shortage at the time of the needed
derivative from A. annua.[9]

Cancer treatment

The plant has also been shown to have anti-cancer properties. It is said to have the ability
to be selectively toxic to some breast cancer cells [Cancer Research 65:(23).Dec 1, 2005]
and some form of prostate cancer, there have been exciting preclinical results against
leukemia,[10] and other cancer cells.

Mechanism

The proposed mechanism of action of artemisinin involves cleavage of endoperoxide

bridges by iron producing free radicals (hypervalent iron-oxo species, epoxides,
aldehydes, and dicarbonyl compounds) which damage biological macromolecules
causing oxidative stress in the cells of the parasite.[citation needed] Malaria is caused by the
Apicomplexan, Plasmodium falciparum, which largely resides in red blood cells and
itself contains iron-rich heme-groups (in the from of hemozoin).[11]

Other uses

In modern-day central China, specifically Hubei Province, the stems of this wormwood
are used as food in a salad-like form. The final product, literally termed "cold-mixed
wormwood", is a slightly bitter salad with strong acid overtones from the spiced rice
vinegar used as a marinade. It is considered a delicacy and is typically more expensive to
buy than meat.

Artemisia annua: detail of a Seeds

Artemisia annua inflorescense
habitus

References
 1. ^ Kreitschitz, A.; J. Vallès (September 2003). "New or rare data on chromosome
numbers in several taxa of the genus Artemisia (Asteraceae) in Poland". Folia
Geobotanica 38 (3): 333–343. doi:10.1007/BF02803203.
2. ^ Rotreklová, O.; P. Bure and V. Grulich (2004). "Chromosome numbers for
some species of vascular plants from Europe". Biologia, Bratislava 59 (4): 425–
433. http://biologia.savba.sk/59_4_04/Rotreklova_O.pdf.
3. ^ Duke SO, Paul RN (1993). "Development and Fine Structure of the Glandular
Trichomes of Artemisia annua L.". Int. J Plant Sci. 154 (1): 107–18.
doi:10.1086/297096. http://www.jstor.org/pss/2995610.
Ferreira JFS, Janick J (1995). "Floral Morphology of Artemisia annua with
Special Reference to Trichomes". Int. J Plant Sci. 156 (6): 807.
doi:10.1086/297304. http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/abs/10.1086/297304.
4. ^ Mueller MS, Runyambo, Wagner I, et al. (2004). "Randomized controlled trial
of a traditional preparation of Artemisia annua L. (Annual Wormwood) in the
treatment of malaria". Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 98 (5): 318–21.
doi:10.1016/j.trstmh.2003.09.001. PMID 15109558.
5. ^ Räth K, Taxis K, Walz GH, et al. (1 February 2004). "Pharmacokinetic study of
artemisinin after oral intake of a traditional preparation of Artemisia annua L.
(annual wormwood)". Am J Trop Med Hyg 70 (2): 128–32. PMID 14993622.
http://www.ajtmh.org/cgi/content/full/70/2/128.
6. ^ Jansen FH (2006). "The herbal tea approach for artemesinin as a therapy for
malaria?". Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 100 (3): 285–6.
doi:10.1016/j.trstmh.2005.08.004. PMID 16274712.
7. ^ "Anamed Artemisia programme", Anamed International website (accessed 12
March 2009)
8. ^ Duke J, Benge M, et al. (May 2, 2005). "Letters". Chemical and Engineering
News 83 (18): 4–5.
http://pubs.acs.org/isubscribe/journals/cen/83/i18/html/8318lett.html.
9. ^ "Malaria Update", Focus on Ethiopia, April 2005, UN-OCHA website
(accessed 12 March 2009)
10. ^ Efferth T, Davey M, Olbrich A, Rücker G, Gebhart E, Davey R (2002).
"Activity of drugs from traditional Chinese medicine toward sensitive and
MDR1- or MRP1-overexpressing multidrug-resistant human CCRF-CEM
leukemia cells". Blood Cells Mol. Dis. 28 (2): 160–8.
doi:10.1006/bcmd.2002.0492. PMID 12064912.
http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1079979602904924.
11. ^ Gary H. Posner & Paul M. O’Neil (2004). "Knowledge of the Proposed
Chemical Mechanism of Action and Cytochrome P450 Metabolism of
Antimalarial Trioxanes Like Artemisinin Allows Rational Design of New
Antimalarial Peroxides". Acc. Chem. Res. 37: 397–404. doi:10.1021/ar020227u.

[edit] External links

 Scientific information about the plant

 University of Washington article regarding anti-cancer properties
  Anamed.net Charity that trains people in the Tropics to cultivate Artemisia annua
and to use their harvest in the form of tea to treat malaria and other diseases, as
practiced in China for centuries.
 Distribution of Artemisinin in Artemisia annua
 Singh NP, Lai HC (2004). "Artemisinin induces apoptosis in human cancer cells".
Anticancer Res. 24 (4): 2277–80. PMID 15330172.
http://ar.iiarjournals.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=15330172.
 Project to improve artemesinin yield at the University of York (UK)

10.Salvia Officinales,
Salvia officinalis

Salvia officinalis (Sage, Common sage, Garden Salvia officinalis

sage, Kitchen sage, Culinary sage, Dalmatian
sage, Purple sage, Broadleaf sage, Red sage) is a
small perennial evergreen subshrub, with woody
stems, grayish leaves, and blue to purplish flowers.
It is a member of the mint family, Lamiaceae. It is
native to the Mediterranean region and commonly
grown as a kitchen and medicinal herb or as an
ornamental garden plant. The word sage or derived
names are also used for a number of related and
unrelated species. Flowers
Scientific classification
Uses Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
Common sage is also grown in parts of Europe, (unranked): Eudicots
especially the Balkans for distillation of an essential (unranked): Asteroids
oil, though other species, such as Salvia fruticosa Order: Lamiales
may also be harvested and distilled with it.
Family: Lamiaceae
Genus: Salvia
Species: S. officinalis
Binomial name
Salvia officinalis
L.

Painting from Koehler's Medicinal Plants (1887)

Culinary

As an herb, sage has a slight peppery flavor. In Western cooking, it is used for flavoring
fatty meats (especially as a marinade), cheeses (Sage Derby), and some drinks. In the
United States, Britain and Flanders, sage is used with onion for poultry or pork stuffing
and also in sauces. In French cuisine, sage is used for cooking white meat and in
vegetable soups. Germans often use it in sausage dishes, and sage forms the dominant
flavoring in the English Lincolnshire sausage. Sage is also common in Italian cooking.
Sage is sautéed in olive oil and butter until crisp, then plain or stuffed pasta is added
(burro e salvia). In the Balkans and the Middle East, it is used when roasting mutton.

Medicinal

Sage leaves

The top side of a sage leaf - trichomes are visible.

The underside of a sage leaf - more trichomes are visible on this side.

The Latin name for sage, salvia, means “to heal". Although the effectiveness of Common
Sage is open to debate, it has been recommended at one time or another for virtually
every ailment. Modern evidence supports its effects as an anhidrotic, antibiotic,
antifungal, astringent, antispasmodic, estrogenic, hypoglycemic, and tonic.[1] In a double
blind, randomized and placebo-controlled trial, sage was found to be effective in the
management of mild to moderate Alzheimer's disease.[2]

The strongest active constituents of Sage are within its essential oil, which contains
cineole, borneol, and thujone. Sage leaf contains tannic acid, oleic acid, ursonic acid,
ursolic acid, cornsole, cornsolic acid, fumaric acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid, niacin,
nicotinamide, flavones, flavonoid glycosides, and estrogenic substances.[1]

Caution is indicated when used in conjunction with central nervous system stimulants or
depressants.[1] Sage is used as a nootropic for its acetylcholinesterase inhibitor properties.

History

Salvia officinalis has been used since ancient times for warding off evil, snakebites,
increasing women's fertility, and more. The Romans likely introduced it to Europe from
Egypt as a medicinal herb.[3] Theophrastus wrote about two different sages, a wild
undershrub he called sphakos, and a similar cultivated plant he called elelisphakos. Pliny
the Elder said that the latter plant was called "Salvia" by the Romans, and used as a
diuretic, a local anesthetic for the skin, a styptic, and for other uses. Charlemagne
recommended the plant for cultivation in the early Middle Ages and during the
Carolingian Empire it was cultivated in monastery gardens.[3] Walafrid Strabo described it
in his poem Hortulus as having a sweet scent and being useful for many human ailments
—he went back to the Greek root for the name and called it Lelifagus.[4]

The plant had a high reputation throughout the Middle Ages, with many sayings referring
to its healing properties and value.[5] It was sometimes called S. salvatrix (Sage the
Savior), and was one of the ingredients of Four Thieves Vinegar, a blend of herbs which
was supposed to ward off the plague. Dioscorides, Pliny, and Galen all recommended
sage as a diuretic, hemostatic, emmenagogue, and tonic.[4]

Cultivars

There are a number of cultivars, with the majority grown as ornamentals rather than for
their herbal properties. All are valuable as small ornamental flowering shrubs, and for
their use as a low ground cover, especially in sunny dry environments. They are easily
propagated from summer cuttings, and some cultivars are produced from seeds. Named
cultivars include:

 'Purpurascens', a purple-leafed cultivar, considered by some to be strongest of the

garden sages,
 'Tricolor', a cultivar with white, yellow and green variegated leaves,
 'Berggarten', a cultivar with large leaves,
 'Icterina', a cultivar with yellow-green variegated leaves,
 'Alba', a white-flowered cultivar,
 'Extrakta', has leaves with higher oil concentrations.
 'Lavandulaefolia', a small leaved cultivar.
References

1. ^ a b c "Sage". OBeWise Nutriceutica. Applied Health.

http://www.appliedhealth.com/nutri/page8453.php. Retrieved 2008-02-04.
2. ^ Akhondzadeh S, Noroozian M, Mohammadi M, Ohadinia S, Jamshidi AH,
Khani M. (2003). "Salvia officinalis extract in the treatment of patients with mild
to moderate Alzheimer's disease: a double blind, randomized and placebo-
controlled trial". J Clin Pharm Ther 28 (1): 53–9. doi:10.1046/j.1365-
2710.2003.00463.x. PMID 12605619.
3. ^ a b Watters, L. L. (1901). An Analytical Investigation of Garden Sage (Salvia
officinalis, Linne). Columbia University.
4. ^ a b Kintzios, Spiridon E. (2000). Sage: The Genus Salvia. CRC Press. pp. 10–11.
ISBN 9789058230058.
5. ^ An anglo-saxon manuscript read "Why should man die when he has sage?"
Kintzios, p. 10

Sources

 The Herb Society of America New Encyclopedia of Herbs & Their Uses, Deni
Bown (New York: DK, 2001)

11.DongQuai,
Angelica sinensis
Angelica sinensis
 Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
Order: Apiales
Family: Apiaceae
Genus: Angelica
Species: A. sinensis
Binomial name
Angelica sinensis
(Oliv.) Diels[1]

Angelica sinensis, commonly known as "dong quai" or "female ginseng" is a herb from
the family Apiaceae, indigenous to China.

Chinese

Its dried root is commonly known in Chinese as Radix Angelicae Sinensis, or Chinese
angelica (simplified Chinese: 当归; traditional Chinese: 當歸; pinyin: dāngguī) and is
widely used in Chinese traditional medicine to treat gynecological ailments, fatigue, mild
anemia and high blood pressure. It has analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic and
sedative effects. The plant's phytochemicals consist of coumarins, phytosterols,
polysaccharides, ferulate, and flavonoids.[2] It has antioxidant activity.[3]

It is also used as an aphrodisiac.

Korean

A. sinensis is also used in traditional Korean medicine, where it is called danggwi

(Hangul: 당귀, Hanja: 當歸).

Prohibition

This herb is used by herbalists for the female reproductive system, as they believe that it
is a uterine tonic and hormonal regulator. It is often used in premenstrual syndrome
formulas as well as menopausal formulas. However, this herb is not recommended during
pregnancy due to possible hormonal, anticoagulant, and antiplatelet properties. Animal
research has noted conflicting effects on the uterus, with reports of both stimulation and
relaxation. Dong quai is traditionally viewed as increasing the risk of miscarriage.[4]

Adverse effects

There is one case report of gynaecomastia following consumption of dong quai root
powder pills.[5]

It prolongs INR

Drug Interactions

Dong quai may increase the anticoagulant effects of the drug Warfarin and consequently
increase the risk of bleeding.[6]

References

1. ^ "Angelica sinensis information from NPGS/GRIN". www.ars-grin.gov.

http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?406655. Retrieved 2008-03-
17.
2. ^ Zhao KJ, Dong TT, Tu PF, Song ZH, Lo CK, Tsim KW (April 2003).
"Molecular genetic and chemical assessment of radix Angelica (Danggui) in
China". J. Agric. Food Chem. 51 (9): 2576–83.
doi:10.1021/jf026178h10.1021/jf026178h. PMID 12696940.
3. ^ Jia M, Yang TH, Yao XJ, Meng J, Meng JR, Mei QB (February 2007). "[Anti-
oxidative effect of Angelica polysaccharide sulphate]" (in Chinese). Zhong Yao
Cai 30 (2): 185–8. PMID 17571770.
4. ^ Medline Plus Dong Quai
5. ^ Goh SY, Loh KC (March 2001). "Gynaecomastia and the herbal tonic "Dong
Quai"". Singapore Med J 42 (3): 115–6. PMID 11405562.
6. ^ Page RL, Lawrence JD (July 1999). "Potentiation of warfarin by dong quai".
Pharmacotherapy 19 (7): 870–6. PMID 10417036.

 Jung SM, Schumacher HR, Kim H, Kim M, Lee SH, Pessler F (2007). "Reduction
of urate crystal-induced inflammation by root extracts from traditional oriental
medicinal plants: elevation of prostaglandin D2 levels". Arthritis Res. Ther. 9 (4):
R64. doi:10.1186/ar2222. PMID 17612394. PMC 2206389. http://arthritis-
research.com/content/9/4/R64. Considers anti-inflammatory properties of dried
roots from the species Angelica sinensis (Dong Quai), Acanthopanax senticosus
(now known as Eleutherococcus senticosus, or Siberian Ginseng), and Scutellaria
baicalensis (Baikal Skullcap).
12.Nepeta Cataria,
Nepeta cataria
Nepeta cataria
 Catnip
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
Order: Lamiales
Family: Lamiaceae
Genus: Nepeta
Species: N. cataria
Binomial name
Nepeta cataria
Lamiaceae[1]

Nepeta cataria is a plant in the Lamiaceae family.

Uses
Flowers

Nepeta cataria ("catnip", "catswort" or "catmint") is mostly used as a recreational

substance for feline enjoyment. Around 2 out of every 3 cats will be affected by the plant,
and approximately 2 hours after an exposure, the feline will be sensitive to another dose.
Whether it is growing in the wild or harvested and dried, felines will be affected by the
plant. The common behaviors that are observed are: rubbing on the plant, rolling on the
ground, drooling, or consuming much of the plant. It is said that felines are affected by
the smell of the plant more than anything. Felines have such a strong sense of smell that
they can detect the chemical nepetalactone, which is the main active ingredient in Nepeta
cataria. This chemical enters the feline's nose, and produces semi-hallucinogenic[2]
effects on the cat. Catnip has a history of human medicinal use for its soothing effects.
The plant has been consumed as a tea, juice, tincture, infusion, or poultice and has been
smoked [3]. Also, when the active oils in the plant are isolated and refined, they
supposedly work as a mosquito repellant[4]. Catnip can also be smoked recreationally, and
when combined with tobacco and other herbs, provides a "minty" taste and mild
intoxicating effects [3].

References

1. ^ "Nepeta cataria information from NPGS/GRIN". www.ars-grin.gov.

http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?25165. Retrieved 2008-04-
07.
2. ^ Siegel, Ronald K.. Intoxication: the universal drive for mind-altering
substances. Inner Traditions / Bear & Company. p. 63. ISBN 9781594770692.
3. ^ a b Grognet, Jeff. 1990. Catnip: Its uses and effects, past and present. Canadian
Veterinary Journal 31:455-456.
4. ^ Kingsley, Danny (September 3, 2001). "Catnip sends mozzies flying". ABC
Science Online.
http://www.abc.net.au/science/news/health/HealthRepublish_355524.htm.
Retrieved February 14, 2009.

13.Artemisia Dracumculus.
arragon
"Dragon's wort" redirects here. For other uses, see Dragonwort.
This article is about the perennial herb. For the 1999 power metal album, see Taragon.
For the Canadian theatre company, see Tarragon Theatre.
Tarragon
 Scientific classification
Kingdom: Plantae
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Asterids
Order: Asterales
Family: Asteraceae
Tribe: Anthemideae
Genus: Artemisia
Species: A. dracunculus
Binomial name
Artemisia dracunculus
L.

Tarragon or dragon's-wort (Artemisia dracunculus L.) is a perennial herb in the family

Asteraceae related to wormwood. Corresponding to its species name, a common term for
the plant is "dragon herb." It is native to a wide area of the Northern Hemisphere from
easternmost Europe across central and eastern Asia to India, western North America, and
south to northern Mexico. The North American populations may, however, be naturalised
from early human introduction.

Tarragon grows to 120-150 cm tall, with slender branched stems. The leaves are
lanceolate, 2-8 cm long and 2-10 mm broad, glossy green, with an entire margin. The
flowers are produced in small capitulae 2-4 mm diameter, each capitulum containing up
to 40 yellow or greenish-yellow florets. (French tarragon, however, seldom produces
flowers.[1])

Cultivation
Dried tarragon leaves

French tarragon is the variety generally considered best for the kitchen, but cannot be
grown from seed[citation needed]. It is normally purchased as a plant, and some care must be
taken to ensure that true French tarragon is purchased[citation needed]. A perennial, it normally
goes dormant in winter.[1] It likes a hot, sunny spot, without excessive watering.[1]

Russian tarragon (A. dracunculoides L.) can be grown from seed but is much weaker in
flavor when compared to the French variety.[1] However, Russian tarragon is a far more
hardy and vigorous plant, spreading at the roots and growing over a meter tall. This
tarragon actually prefers poor soils and happily tolerates drought and neglect. It is not as
strongly aromatic and flavorsome as its French cousin, but it produces many more leaves
from early spring onwards that are mild and good in salads and cooked food. The young
stems in early spring can be cooked as an asparagus substitute. Grow indoors from seed
and plant out in the summer. Spreading plant can be divided easily.

Health

Tarragon has an aromatic property reminiscent of anise, due to the presence of estragole,
a known carcinogen and teratogen in mice. The European Union investigation revealed
that the danger of estragole is minimal even at 100-1,000 times the typical consumption
seen in humans.[2]

Culinary use

Tarragon is one of the four fines herbes of French cooking, and particularly suitable for
chicken, lasagna, fish and egg dishes. Tarragon is one of the main components of
Béarnaise sauce. Fresh, lightly bruised sprigs of tarragon may be steeped in vinegar to
impart their flavor.

Tarragon is used to flavor a popular carbonated soft drink in the countries of Armenia,
Georgia and, by extension, Russia and Ukraine. The drink—named Tarhun (թարխուն,
pronounced [tarˈxuːn]; Тархун), which is the Armenian, Persian and Russian word for
tarragon is made out of sugary tarragon concentrate and colored bright green.
Cis-Pellitorin, an isobutylamide eliciting a pungent taste, has been isolated from Tarragon
plant.[3]

In Slovenia, tarragon is used as a spice for sweet pastry called potica.

Etymology

The plant's common name and Latin name originate from the belief in the Doctrine of
Signatures which suggested that a plant's appearance reflected its possible uses. The
serpentine shape of Tarragon's root made herbalists believe it could cure snake bites.
From this came the Greek name drakon (dragon), the Arabic tarkhum (little dragon), and
the Latin name dracunculus (little dragon).[4]

References

1. ^ a b c d McGee, Rose Marie Nichols; Stuckey, Maggie (2002). The Bountiful

Container. Workman Publishing.
2. ^ Surburg, Horst; Johannes Panten (2006). Common Fragrance and Flavor
Materials: Preparation, Properties and Uses. Wiley-VCH. pp. 233.
ISBN 9783527607891.
3. ^ Gatfield IL, Ley JP, Foerstner J, Krammer G, Machinek A. Production of cis-
pellitorin and use as a flavouring. World Patent WO2004000787 A2
4. ^ Tarragon at Sally's Place

14.Tobacco & Nicotine Free.

Tobacco

Tobacco is an agricultural product processed from the  

leaves of plants in the genus Nicotiana. It can be consumed,
used as an organic pesticide and, in the form of nicotine Part of a series on
tartrate, it is used in some medicines.[1] In consumption it
most commonly appears in the forms of smoking, chewing, Tobacco
snuffing, or dipping tobacco, or snus. Tobacco has long
been in use as an entheogen in the Americas. However,
upon the arrival of Europeans in North America, it quickly
became popularized as a trade item and as a recreational
drug. This popularization led to the development of the
southern economy of the United States until it gave way to
cotton. Following the American Civil War, a change in
demand and a change in labor force allowed for the
development of the cigarette. This new product quickly led HISTORY
to the growth of tobacco companies, until the scientific
controversy of the mid-1900s.
History of tobacco
There are many species of tobacco, which are all
encompassed by the plant genus Nicotiana. The word BIOLOGY
nicotiana (as well as nicotine) was named in honor of Jean
Nicot, French ambassador to Portugal, who in 1559 sent it
Nicotiana
as a medicine to the court of Catherine de Medici.[2]
List of tobacco diseases
Because of the addictive properties of nicotine, tolerance Types of tobacco
and dependence develop. Absorption quantity, frequency,
and speed of tobacco consumption are believed to be
directly related to biological strength of nicotine SOCIAL IMPACT
dependence, addiction, and tolerance.[3][4] The usage of
tobacco is an activity that is practiced by some 1.1 billion Demographics
people, and up to 1/3 of the adult population.[5] The World Health effects
Health Organization reports it to be the leading preventable Tobacco industry
cause of death worldwide and estimates that it currently
causes 5.4 million deaths per year.[6] Rates of smoking have Tobacco advertising
leveled off or declined in developed countries, however they Tobacco politics
continue to rise in developing countries.

Tobacco is cultivated similarly to other agricultural

products. Seeds are sown in cold frames or hotbeds to
prevent attacks from insects, and then transplanted into the
fields. Tobacco is an annual crop, which is usually harvested
mechanically or by hand. After harvest, tobacco is stored for
curing, which allows for the slow oxidation and degradation of carotenoids. This allows
for the agricultural product to take on properties that are usually attributed to the
"smoothness" of the smoke. Following this, tobacco is packed into its various forms of
consumption, which include smoking, chewing, sniffing, and so on.

Etymology

The Spanish word "tabaco" is thought to have its origin in Arawakan language,
particularly, in the Taino language of the Caribbean. In Taino, it was said to refer either
to a roll of tobacco leaves (according to Bartolome de Las Casas, 1552), or to the tabago,
a kind of Y-shaped pipe for sniffing tobacco smoke (according to Oviedo; with the leaves
themselves being referred to as cohiba).[7]

However, similar words in Spanish and Italian were commonly used from 1410 to define
medicinal herbs, originating from the Arabic tabbaq, a word reportedly dating to the 9th
century, as the name of various herbs.[8]

Early developments

Tobacco had already long been used in the Americas when European settlers arrived and
introduced the practice to Europe, where it became popular. At high doses, tobacco can
become hallucinogenic[citation needed]; accordingly, Native Americans never used the drug
recreationally. Instead, it was often consumed as an entheogen; among some tribes, this
was done only by experienced shamans or medicine men.[citation needed] Eastern North
American tribes would carry large amounts of tobacco in pouches as a readily accepted
trade item, and would often smoke it in pipes, either in defined ceremonies that were
considered sacred, or to seal a bargain,[9] and they would smoke it at such occasions in all
stages of life, even in childhood.[10] It is believed that tobacco is a gift from the Creator
and that the exhaled tobacco smoke carries one's thoughts and prayers to heaven.[11]

An Illustration from Frederick William Fairholt's Tobacco, its History and Association,
1859.
Popularization

Following the arrival of the Europeans, tobacco became increasingly popular as a trade
item. It fostered the economy for the southern United States until it was replaced by
cotton. Following the American civil war, a change in demand and a change in labor
force allowed inventor James Bonsack to create a machine which automated cigarette
production.

This increase in production allowed tremendous growth in the tobacco industry until the
scientific revelations of the mid-1900s.

Contemporary

Following the scientific revelations of the mid-1900s, tobacco became condemned as a

health hazard, and eventually became encompassed as a cause for cancer, as well as other
respiratory and circulatory diseases. This led to the Tobacco Master Settlement
Agreement (MSA) which settled the lawsuit in exchange for a combination of yearly
payments to the states and voluntary restrictions on advertising and marketing of tobacco
products.

In the 1970s, Brown & Williamson cross-bred a strain of tobacco to produce Y1. This
strain of tobacco contained an unusually high amount of nicotine, nearly doubling its
content from 3.2-3.5% to 6.5%. In the 1990s, this prompted the Food and Drug
Administration (FDA) to use this strain as evidence that tobacco companies were
intentionally manipulating the nicotine content of cigarettes.

In 2003, in response to growth of tobacco use in developing countries, the World Health
Organization (WHO)[12] successfully rallied 168 countries to sign the Framework
Convention on Tobacco Control. The Convention is designed to push for effective
legislation and its enforcement in all countries to reduce the harmful effects of tobacco.
This led to the development of tobacco cessation products.

Biology

Nicotiana
Nicotine is the compound responsible for the addictive nature of Tobacco use.

Tobacco flower, leaves, and buds

Main article: Nicotiana
See also: List of tobacco diseases

There are many species of tobacco, which are encompassed by the genus of herbs
Nicotiana. It is part of the nightshade family (Solanaceae) indigenous to North and South
America, Australia, south west Africa and the South Pacific.

Many plants contain nicotine, a powerful neurotoxin, that is particularly harmful to

insects. However, tobaccos contain a higher concentration of nicotine than most other
plants. Unlike many other Solanaceae, they do not contain tropane alkaloids, which are
often poisonous to humans and other animals.

Despite containing enough nicotine and other compounds such as germacrene and
anabasine and other piperidine alkaloids (varying between species) to deter most
herbivores,[13] a number of such animals have evolved the ability to feed on Nicotiana
species without being harmed. Nonetheless, tobacco is unpalatable to many species, and
therefore some tobacco plants (chiefly tree tobacco, N. glauca) have become established
as invasive weeds in some places.

Types
Main article: Types of tobacco

There are a number of types of tobacco including, but are not limited to:

 Aromatic fire-cured, it is cured by smoke from open fires. In the United States,
it is grown in northern middle Tennessee, central Kentucky and in Virginia. Fire-
cured tobacco grown in Kentucky and Tennessee are used in some chewing
 tobaccos, moist snuff, some cigarettes, and as a condiment in pipe tobacco blends.
Another fire-cured tobacco is Latakia, which is produced from oriental varieties
of N. tabacum. The leaves are cured and smoked over smoldering fires of local
hardwoods and aromatic shrubs in Cyprus and Syria.
 Brightleaf tobacco, Brightleaf is commonly known as "Virginia tobacco", often
regardless of the state in which they are planted. Prior to the American Civil War,
most tobacco grown in the US was fire-cured dark-leaf. This type of tobacco was
planted in fertile lowlands, used a robust variety of leaf, and was either fire cured
or air cured. Most Canadian cigarettes are made from 100% pure Virginia
tobacco.[14]
 Burley tobacco, is an air-cured tobacco used primarily for cigarette production.
In the U.S., burley tobacco plants are started from palletized seeds placed in
polystyrene trays floated on a bed of fertilized water in March or April.
 Cavendish is more a process of curing and a method of cutting tobacco than a
type. The processing and the cut are used to bring out the natural sweet taste in
the tobacco. Cavendish can be produced from any tobacco type, but is usually one
of, or a blend of Kentucky, Virginia, and burley, and is most commonly used for
pipe tobacco and cigars.
 Criollo tobacco is a type of tobacco, primarily used in the making of cigars. It
was, by most accounts, one of the original Cuban tobaccos that emerged around
the time of Columbus.
 Dokham, is a tobacco originally grown in Iran, mixed with leaves, bark, and
herbs for smoking in a midwakh.
 Turkish tobacco, is a sun-cured, highly aromatic, small-leafed variety (Nicotiana
tabacum) that is grown in Turkey, Greece, Bulgaria, and Macedonia. Originally
grown in regions historically part of the Ottoman Empire, it is also known as
"oriental". Many of the early brands of cigarettes were made mostly or entirely of
Turkish tobacco; today, its main use is in blends of pipe and especially cigarette
tobacco (a typical American cigarette is a blend of bright Virginia, burley and
Turkish).
 Perique, a farmer called Pierre Chenet is credited with first turning this local
tobacco into the Perique in 1824 through the technique of pressure-fermentation.
Considered the truffle of pipe tobaccos, it is used as a component in many
blended pipe tobaccos, but is too strong to be smoked pure. At one time, the
freshly moist Perique was also chewed, but none is now sold for this purpose. It is
typically blended with pure Virginia to lend spice, strength, and coolness to the
blend.
 Shade tobacco, is cultivated in Connecticut and Massachusetts. Early
Connecticut colonists acquired from the Native Americans the habit of smoking
tobacco in pipes, and began cultivating the plant commercially, even though the
Puritans referred to it as the "evil weed". The industry has weathered some major
catastrophes, including a devastating hailstorm in 1929, and an epidemic of brown
spot fungus in 2000, but is now in danger of disappearing altogether, given the
value of the land to real estate speculators.
 White burley, in 1865, George Webb of Brown County, Ohio planted red burley
seeds he had purchased, and found that a few of the seedlings had a whitish,
 sickly look. The air-cured leaf was found to be more mild than other types of
tobacco.
 Wild tobacco, is native to the southwestern United States, Mexico, and parts of
South America. Its botanical name is Nicotiana rustica.
 Y1 is a strain of tobacco cross-bred by Brown & Williamson in the 1970s to
obtain an unusually high nicotine content. In the 1990s, the United States Food
and Drug Administration (FDA) used it as evidence that tobacco companies were
intentionally manipulating the nicotine content of cigarettes.[15]

Impact

Social
This section requires expansion with:
information expanding the effects of tobacco on cultural practices.

Smoking in public was for a long time something reserved for men, and when done by
women was sometimes associated with promiscuity.[citation needed] In Japan during the Edo
period, prostitutes and their clients would often approach one another under the guise of
offering a smoke, and the same was true for 19th century Europe.[16]

Following the American Civil War the usage of tobacco, primarily in cigarettes, became
associated with masculinity and power, and is an iconic image associated with the
stereotypical capitalist. Today, tobacco is often rejected; this has spawned quitting
associations and anti-smoking campaigns. Bhutan is the only country in the world where
tobacco sales are illegal.[17]

Demographic
Main article: Prevalence of tobacco consumption

Research is limited mainly to tobacco smoking, which has been studied the more
extensively than any other form of consumption. As of 2000, smoking is practiced by
some 1.22 billion people, of which men are more likely to smoke than women[18]
(however the gender gap declines with age),[19][20] poor more likely than rich, and people
in developing countries or transitional economies are more likely than people in
developed countries.[21] As of 2004, the World Health Organization (WHO) reports that
of the 58.8 million deaths to occur globally,[22] 5.4 million are tobacco-attributed.[23]

Health

The risks associated with tobacco use include diseases affecting the heart and lungs, with
smoking being a major risk factor for heart attacks, strokes, chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD), emphysema, and cancer (particularly lung cancer, cancers of
the larynx and mouth, and pancreatic cancer).

The World Health Organization estimates that tobacco caused 5.4 million deaths in
2004[24] and 100 million deaths over the course of the 20th century.[25] Similarly, the
United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention describes tobacco use as "the
single most important preventable risk to human health in developed countries and an
important cause of premature death worldwide."[26]

Rates of smoking have leveled off or declined in the developed world. Smoking rates in
the United States have dropped by half from 1965 to 2006, falling from 42% to 20.8% in
adults.[27] In the developing world, tobacco consumption is rising by 3.4% per year.[28]

When the market for tobacco reduced in the West, the industry looked to India and China
for 'emerging markets'. Dr. Sharad Vaidya, a cancer surgeon worked tirelessly to fight
this, through research, advocacy and passion. He successfully raised awareness,
introduced it in the curriculum of children and managed to establish legislation banning
public smoking, stopping sports sponsorship, sale to minors (<21 years) - an age
suggested by Jayant Vaidya [2], starting in Goa.

Economic
This section requires expansion with:
discussion of the impact on the poor, taxation, and so forth.

"Much of the disease burden and premature mortality attributable to tobacco use
disproportionately affect the poor", and of the 1.22 billion smokers, 1 billion of them live
in developing or transitional economies.[21]

In Indonesia, the lowest income group spends 15% of its total expenditures on tobacco. In
Egypt, more than 10% of households expediture in low-income homes is on tobacco. The
poorest 20% of households in Mexico spend 11% of their income on tobacco.[29]

Cultivation
Main article: Cultivation of tobacco
Tobacco plants growing in a field in Intercourse, Pennsylvania

Tobacco is cultivated similar to other agricultural products. Seeds were at first quickly
scattered onto the soil. However, young plants came under increasing attack from flea
beetles (Epitrix cucumeris or Epitrix pubescens), which caused destruction of half the
tobacco crops in United States in 1876. By 1890 successful experiments were conducted
that placed the plant in a frame covered by thin fabric. Today, tobacco is sown in cold
frames or hotbeds, as their germination is activated by light.

In the United States, tobacco is often fertilized with the mineral apatite, which partially
starves the plant of nitrogen, to produce a more desired flavor. Apatite, however, contains
radium, lead 210, and polonium 210 — which are known radioactive carcinogens.

After the plants have reached relative maturity, they are transplanted into the fields, in
which a relatively large hole is created in the tilled earth with a tobacco peg. Various
mechanical tobacco planters were invented in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries to
automate the process: making the hole, fertilizing it, guiding the plant in — all in one
motion.

Tobacco is cultivated annually, and can be harvested in several ways. In the oldest
method, the entire plant is harvested at once by cutting off the stalk at the ground with a
sickle. In the nineteenth century, bright tobacco began to be harvested by pulling
individual leaves off the stalk as they ripened. The leaves ripen from the ground upwards,
so a field of tobacco may go through several so-called "pullings," more commonly known
as topping (topping always refers to the removal of the tobacco flower before the leaves
are systematically removed and, eventually, entirely harvested. As the industrial
revolution took hold, harvesting wagons used to transport leaves were equipped with
man-powered stringers, an apparatus which used twine to attach leaves to a pole. In
modern times, large fields are harvested mechanically or by hand, although topping the
flower and in some cases the plucking of immature leaves is still done by hand.

Curing
Main article: Curing of tobacco

Sun-cured tobacco, Bastam, Iran.

Curing and subsequent aging allow for the slow oxidation and degradation of carotenoids
in tobacco leaf. This produces certain compounds in the tobacco leaves, and gives a sweet
hay, tea, rose oil, or fruity aromatic flavor that contributes to the "smoothness" of the
smoke. Starch is converted to sugar, which glycates protein, and is oxidized into
advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs), a caramelization process that also adds flavor.
Inhalation of these AGEs in tobacco smoke contributes to atherosclerosis and cancer.[30]
Levels of AGE's is dependent on the curing method used.

Tobacco can be cured through several methods which include but are not limited to:

 Air cured tobacco is hung in well-ventilated barns and allowed to dry over a
period of four to eight weeks. Air-cured tobacco is low in sugar, which gives the
tobacco smoke a light, sweet flavor, and high in nicotine. Cigar and burley
tobaccos are air cured.
 Fire cured tobacco is hung in large barns where fires of hardwoods are kept on
continuous or intermittent low smoulder and takes between three days and ten
weeks, depending on the process and the tobacco. . Fire curing produces a tobacco
low in sugar and high in nicotine. Pipe tobacco, chewing tobacco, and snuff are
fire cured.
 Flue cured tobacco was originally strung onto tobacco sticks, which were hung
from tier-poles in curing barns (Aus: kilns, also traditionally called Oasts). These
barns have flues which run from externally fed fire boxes, heat-curing the tobacco
without exposing it to smoke, slowly raising the temperature over the course of
the curing. The process will generally take about a week. This method produces
cigarette tobacco that is high in sugar and has medium to high levels of nicotine.
 Sun-cured tobacco dries uncovered in the sun. This method is used in Turkey,
Greece and other Mediterranean countries to produce oriental tobacco. Sun-cured
tobacco is low in sugar and nicotine and is used in cigarettes.
Consumption
Further information: Tobacco products

Tobacco is consumed in many forms and through a number of different methods. Below
are examples including, but not limited to, such forms and usage.

 Beedi are thin, often flavored, south Asian cigarettes made of tobacco wrapped in
a tendu leaf, and secured with colored thread at one end.
 Chewing tobacco is one of the oldest ways of consuming tobacco leaves. It is
consumed orally, in two forms: through sweetened strands, or in a shredded form.
When consuming the long sweetened strands, the tobacco is lightly chewed and
compacted into a ball. When consuming the shredded tobacco, small amounts are
placed at the bottom lip, between the gum and the teeth, where it is gently
compacted, thus it can oftentimes be called dipping tobacco. Both methods
stimulate the saliva glands, which led to the development of the spittoon.
 Cigars are tightly rolled bundle of dried and fermented tobacco which is ignited
so that its smoke may be drawn into the smoker's mouth.
 Cigarettes are a product consumed through the inhalation of smoke and
manufactured from cured and finely cut tobacco leaves and reconstituted tobacco,
often combined with other additives, then rolled or stuffed into a paper-wrapped
cylinder.
 Creamy snuffs are tobacco paste, consisting of tobacco, clove oil, glycerin,
spearmint, menthol, and camphor, and sold in a toothpaste tube. It is marketed
mainly to women in India, and is known by the brand names Ipco (made by Asha
Industries), Denobac, Tona, Ganesh. It is locally known as "mishri" in some parts
of Maharashtra.
 Dipping tobaccos are a form of smokeless tobacco. Dip is occasionally referred
to as "chew", and because of this, it is commonly confused with chewing tobacco,
which encompasses a wider range of products. A small clump of dip is 'pinched'
out of the tin and placed between the lower or upper lip and gums.
 Electronic cigarette is an alternative to tobacco smoking, although no tobacco is
consumed. It is a battery-powered device that provides inhaled doses of nicotine
by delivering a vaporized propylene glycol/nicotine solution.
 Gutka is a preparation of crushed betel nut, tobacco, and sweet or savory
flavorings. It is manufactured in India and exported to a few other countries. A
mild stimulant, it is sold across India in small, individual-size packets.
 Hookah is a single or multi-stemmed (often glass-based) water pipe for smoking.
Originally from India, the hookah has gained immense popularity, especially in
the Middle East. A hookah operates by water filtration and indirect heat. It can be
used for smoking herbal fruits or cannabis.
 Kreteks are cigarettes made with a complex blend of tobacco, cloves and a
flavoring "sauce". It was first introduced in the 1880s in Kudus, Java, to deliver
the medicinal eugenol of cloves to the lungs.
 Roll-Your-Own, often called rollies or roll ups, are very popular, particularly in
European countries. These are prepared from loose tobacco, cigarette papers and
filters all bought separately. They are usually much cheaper to make.
  Pipe smoking typically consists of a small chamber (the bowl) for the combustion
of the tobacco to be smoked and a thin stem (shank) that ends in a mouthpiece
(the bit). Shredded pieces of tobacco are placed into the chamber and ignited.
 Snuff is a generic term for fine-ground smokeless tobacco products. Originally
the term referred only to dry snuff, a fine tan dust popular mainly in the
eighteenth century. Snuff powder originated in the UK town of Great Harwood,
and was famously ground in the town's monument prior to local distribution and
transport further up north to Scotland. There are two major varieties which
include European (dry) and American (moist); although American snuff is often
referred to as dipping tobacco.
 Snus is steam-cured moist powder tobacco product that is not fermented, and
does not induce salivation. It is consumed by placing it in the mouth against the
gums for an extended period of time. It is a form of snuff that is used in a manner
similar to American dipping tobacco, but does not require regular spitting.
 Topical tobacco paste is sometimes recommended as a treatment for wasp,
hornet, fire ant, scorpion, and bee stings.[31] An amount equivalent to the contents
of a cigarette is mashed in a cup with about a 0.5 to 1 teaspoon of water to make a
paste that is then applied to the affected area.
 Tobacco water is a traditional organic insecticide used in domestic gardening.
Tobacco dust can be used similarly. It is produced by boiling strong tobacco in
water, or by steeping the tobacco in water for a longer period. When cooled, the
mixture can be applied as a spray, or 'painted' on to the leaves of garden plants,
where it will prove deadly to insects.

Notes
1. ^ [1]
2. ^ colonia 13 509 Heading: 1550–1575 Tobacco, Europe.
3. ^ "Tobacco Facts - Why is Tobacco So Addictive?". Tobaccofacts.org.
http://www.tobaccofacts.org/tob_truth/soaddictive.html. Retrieved 2008-09-18.
4. ^ "Philip Morris Information Sheet". Stanford.edu.
http://www.stanford.edu/group/SICD/PhilipMorris/pmorris.html. Retrieved 2008-
09-18.
5. ^ Saner L. Gilman and Zhou Xun, "Introduction" in Smoke; p. 26
6. ^ (PDF) WHO Report on the global tobacco epidemic, 2008 (foreword and
summary). World Health Organization. 2008. pp. 8.
http://www.who.int/tobacco/mpower/mpower_report_forward_summary_2008.pd
f. "Tobacco is the single most preventable cause of death in the world today.".
7. ^ "World Association of International Studies, Stanford University".
http://wais.stanford.edu/Cuba/cuba_ColumbusDiscoversCuba(110503).html.
8. ^ "Online Etymological Dictionary". http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?
term=tobacco.
9. ^ eg. Heckewelder, History, Manners and Customs of the Indian Nations who
Once Inhabited Pennsylvania, p. 149 ff.
10. ^ "They smoke with excessive eagerness ... men, women, girls and boys, all find
their keenest pleasure in this way." - Dièreville describing the Mi'kmaq, c. 1699 in
Port Royal.
 11. ^ Tobacco: A Study of Its Consumption in the United States, Jack Jacob
Gottsegen, 1940, p. 107.
12. ^ "WHO | WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control (WHO FCTC)".
Who.int. http://www.who.int/fctc/en/index.html. Retrieved 2008-09-18.
13. ^ Panter et al. (1990)
14. ^ Imperial Tobacco Canada - Our products
15. ^ "Inside the Tobacco Deal - interview with David Kessler". PBS. 2008.
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/settlement/interviews/kessler.ht
ml. Retrieved 2008-06-11.
16. ^ Timon Screech, "Tobacco in Edo Period Japan" in Smoke, pp. 92-99
17. ^ The First Nonsmoking Nation, Slate.com
18. ^ "Guindon & Boisclair" 2004, pp. 13-16.
19. ^ Women and the Tobacco Epidemic: Challenges for the 21st Century 2001, pp.5-
6.
20. ^ Surgeon General's Report — Women and Smoking 2001, p.47.
21. ^ a b "WHO/WPRO-Tobacco". World Health Organization Regional Office for the
Western Pacific. 2005. http://www.wpro.who.int/NR/exeres/978BE0FD-AE30-
46C6-8F75-1F40AE7B57BC.htm. Retrieved 2009-01-01.
22. ^ The Global Burden of Disease 2004 Update 2008, p.8.
23. ^ The Global Burden of Disease 2004 Update 2008, p.23.
24. ^ WHO global burden of disease report 2008
25. ^ WHO Report on the Global Tobacco Epidemic, 2008
26. ^ "Nicotine: A Powerful Addiction." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
27. ^ Cigarette Smoking Among Adults - United States, 2006
28. ^ WHO/WPRO-Smoking Statistics
29. ^ MPOWER p. 26
30. ^ Cerami C, Founds H, Nicholl I, Mitsuhashi T, Giordano D, Vanpatten S, Lee A,
Al-Abed Y, Vlassara H, Bucala R, Cerami A (1997). "Tobacco smoke is a source
of toxic reactive glycation products". Proceedings Of The National Academy Of
Sciences Of The United States Of America (Pnas) 94 (25): 13915–20.
doi:10.1073/pnas.94.25.13915. PMID 9391127.
31. ^ Beverly Sparks, "Stinging and Biting Pests of People" Extension Entomologist
of the University of Georgia College of Agricultural & Environmental Sciences
Cooperative Extension Service.

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Organization. 2008.
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 G. Emmanuel Guindon, David Boisclair (2003). "Past, current and future trends
in tobacco use" (PDF). Washington DC: The International Bank for
 Reconstruction and Development / The World Bank.
http://www1.worldbank.org/tobacco/pdf/Guindon-Past,%20current-
%20whole.pdf. Retrieved 2008-01-02.
 The World Health Organization, and the Institute for Global Tobacco Control,
Johns Hopkins School of Public Health (2001). "Women and the Tobacco
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02.
 "Surgeon General's Report — Women and Smoking". Centers for Disease
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http://www.cdc.gov/tobacco/data_statistics/sgr/sgr_2001/sgr_women_chapters.ht
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 Richard Peto, Alan D Lopez, Jillian Boreham, and Michael Thun (2006).
"Mortality from Smoking in Developed Countries 1950-2000: indirect estimates
from national vital statistics" (PDF). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
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 Janet E. Ash, Maryadele J. O'Neil, Ann Smith, Joanne F. Kinneary (June 1997)
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Further reading

 Breen, T. H. (1985). Tobacco Culture. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-

00596-6. Source on tobacco culture in eighteenth-century Virginia pp. 46–55
 Burns, Eric. The Smoke of the Gods: A Social History of Tobacco. Philadelphia:
Temple University Press, 2007.
 W.K. Collins and S.N. Hawks. "Principles of Flue-Cured Tobacco Production"
1st Edition, 1993
 Fuller, R. Reese (Spring 2003). Perique, the Native Crop. Louisiana Life.
 Gately, Iain. Tobacco: A Cultural History of How an Exotic Plant Seduced
Civilization. Grove Press, 2003. ISBN 0-8021-3960-4.
 Graves, John. "Tobacco that is not Smoked" in From a Limestone Ledge (the
sections on snuff and chewing tobacco) ISBN 0-394-51238-3
 Grehan, James. “Smoking and “Early Modern” Sociability: The Great Tobacco
Debate in the Ottoman Middle East (Seventeenth to Eighteenth Centuries)”. The
American Historical Review, Vol. III, Issue 5. 2006. 22 March 2008
http://www.historycooperative.org.myaccess.library.utoronto.ca/journals/ahr/111.
5/grehan.html
 Killebrew, J. B. and Myrick, Herbert (1909). Tobacco Leaf: Its Culture and Cure,
Marketing and Manufacture. Orange Judd Company. Source for flea beetle
typology (p. 243)
 Murphey, Rhoads. Studies on Ottoman Society and Culture: 16th-18th Centuries.
Burlington, VT: Ashgate: Variorum, 2007 ISBN 978-0-7546-5931-0 ISBN 0-
7546-5931-3
 Price, Jacob M. “Tobacco Use and Tobacco Taxation: A battle of Interests in
Early Modern Europe”. Consuming Habits: Drugs in History and Anthropology.
Jordan Goodman, et al. New York: Routledge, 1995 166-169 ISBN 0-415-09039-
3
 Poche, L. Aristee (2002). Perique tobacco: Mystery and history.
 Tilley, Nannie May The Bright Tobacco Industry 1860–1929 ISBN 0-405-04728-
2. Source on flea beetle prevention (pp. 39–43), and history of flue-cured tobacco
 Rivenson A., Hoffmann D., Propokczyk B. et al. Induction of lung and pancreas
exocrine tumors in F344 rats by tobacco-specific and areca-derived N-
nitrosamines. Cancer Res (48) 6912–6917, 1988. (link to abstract; free full text
pdf available)
 Schoolcraft, Henry R. Historical and Statistical Information respecting the Indian
Tribes of the United States (Philadelphia, 1851–57)
 Shechter, Relli. Smoking, Culture and Economy in the Middle East: The Egyptian
Tobacco Market 1850–2000. New York: I.B. Tauris & Co. Ltd., 2006 ISBN 1-
84511-137-0