Space Shuttles and Its Advancements Seminar Report

Space Shuttles and its Advancements
INTRODUCTION
The successful explortion of space requires a system that will
reliably transport payloads into space and return back to earth; without
subjecting them an uncomfortable or hazardous environment. In other
words, the space crafts and its pay loads have to be recovered safely
into the earth. The space shuttle used at older times were not re-usable.
So NASA invented re-usable space shuttle that could launch like a
rocket but deliver and land like an aeroplane. Now NASA is planning
to launch a series of air-breathing planes that would replace the space
shuttle.
Dept. of Mechanical Engg.
MESCE Kuttippuram
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE SPACE SHUTTLE

Near the end of the Apollo space program, NASA officials
were looking at the future of the American space program. At that
time, the rockets used to place astronauts and equipment in outer space
was one-shot disposable rockets. What they needed was a reliable, but
less expensive, rocket, perhaps one that was reusable. The idea of a
reusable "space shuttle" that could launch like a rocket but deliver and
land like an airplane was appealing and would be a great technical
achievement.
Photo courtesy NASA Liftoff of the space shuttle
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NASA began design, cost and engineering studies on a space

shuttle. Many aerospace companies also explored the concepts. In
1972 NASA announced that it would develop a reusable space shuttle
or space transportation programme (STS).NASA decided that the
shuttle would consist of an orbiter attached to solid rocket boosters
and an external fuel tank because this design was considered safer and
more cost effective.
At that time, spacecraft used ablative heat shields that would

burn away as the spacecraft re-entered the Earth's atmosphere.
However, to be reusable, a different strategy would have to be used.
The designers of the space shuttle came up with an idea to cover the
space shuttle with many insulating ceramic tiles that could absorb the
heat of re-entry without harming the astronauts.
Finally, after many years of construction and testing (i.e.

orbiter, main engines, external fuel tank, solid rocket boosters), the
shuttle was ready to fly. Four shuttles were made (Columbia,
Discovery, Atlantis, Challenger). The first flight was in 1981 with
the space shuttle Columbia, piloted by astronauts John Young and
Robert Crippen. Columbia performed well and the other shuttles
soon made several successful flights.
The space shuttle consists of the following major components:
Two solid rocket boosters (SRB) - critical for the launch
External fuel tank (ET) - carries fuel for the launch
Orbiter - carries astronauts and payload
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THE SPACE SHUTTLE MISSION

A typical shuttle mission lasts seven to eight days, but can
extend to as much as 14 days depending upon the objectives of the
mission.
A typical shuttle mission is as follows:
1.
Getting into orbit

Launch the shuttle lifts off the launching pad.
Ascent.
Orbital maneuvering burn.
2.
Orbit-life in space.
3.
Re-entry.
4.
Landing.
The difference between space shuttle and hypersonic planes is

mainly in the first function that is getting into orbit. We will study
only about the first function of the space shuttle.
1. GETTING INTO ORBIT
To lift the 4.5 million pound (2.05 million kg) shuttle from
the pad to orbit (115 to 400 miles/185 to 643 km) above the Earth, the
shuttle uses the following components:
Two solid rocket boosters (SRB)
Three main engines of the orbiter
The external fuel tank (ET)
Orbital maneuvering system (OMS) on the orbiter
Let's look at these components closely.
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Solid rocket boosters
The SRBs are solid rockets that provide most of the main
force or thrust (71 percent) needed to lift the space shuttle off the
launch pad. In addition, the SRBssupport the entire weight of the
space shuttle orbiter and fuel tank on the launchad. Each SRB has the
following dimensions.
Height - approximately 150 ft (46 m)
Diameter - 12 ft (3.7 m)
Weight:
o Empty
o Full
- 192,000 lb (87,090 kg)
- 1,300,000 lb(589,670 kg)
Thrust - 2.65 million lb (11.7

million N wing dimensions,
parameters and parts:
Because the SRBs are

solid rocket engines, once they
are ignited, they cannot be shut
down. Therefore, they are the
last component to light at launch.
Main engines
Photo courtesy NASA

One of the space shuttle's main
engines
The orbiter has three main engines located in the aft (back)
fuselage (body of the spacecraft). Each engine is 14 feet (4.3 m) long,
7.5 feet (2. 3 m) in diameter at its widest point (the nozzle)
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The main engines provide the

remainder of the thrust (29 percent) to lift
the shuttle off the pad and into orbit.
The engines burn liquid hydrogen

and liquid oxygen, which are stored in the
Photo courtesy NASA
external tank(ET), at a ratio of 6:1. They

draw liquid hydrogen and oxygen from the ET at an amazing rate
equivalent to emptying a family swimming pool every 10 seconds!
The fuel is partially the burned in a pre-chamber to produce high
pressure, hot gases that drive fuel pumps. The fuel is then fully burned
in the main chamber and the exhaust gases (water vapor) leave the
nozzle at approximately 6,000 mph (10,000 km/h). Each engine can
generate between 375,000 and 470,000 lb (1,668,083 to 2,090,664 N)
of thrust; the rate of thrust can be controlled from 65 percent to 109
percent maximum thrust. The engines are mounted on round bearings
that control the direction of the exhaust, which controls the forward
direction of the rocket.
External fuel tank
As mentioned above, the fuel for the main engines is stored in

the ET. The ET is 158 ft (48 m) long and has a diameter of 27.6 ft (8.4
m). When empty, the ET weighs 66,000 lb (30,000 kg). It holds about
1.6 million lb (719,000 kg) of propellant with a total volume of about
526,000 gallons (2 million liters).
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The ET is made of aluminum and aluminum composite

materials. It has two separate tanks inside, the forward tank for
oxygen and the aft tank for hydrogen, separated by an intertank
region. Each tank has baffles to dampen the motion of fluid inside.
Fluid flows from each tank through a 17 in. (43 cm) diameter feed line
out of the ET through an umbilical line into the shuttle's main engines.
Through these lines, oxygen can flow at a maximum rate of 17,600
gallons/min (66,600 l/min) and hydrogen can flow at a maximum rate
of 47,400 gallons/min (179,000 l/min). During the first few shuttle
missions, the ET was painted white, but this was stopped to reduce the
weight.
Orbital maneuvering systems

The two orbital maneuvering systems' (OMS) engines are
located in pods on the aft section of the orbiter, one on either side of
the tail. These engines are used to place the shuttle into final orbit, to
change the shuttle's position from one orbit to another, and to slow the
shuttle down for re-entry.
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The OMS engines burn monomethyl hydrazine fuel

(CH3NHNH2) and nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer (N2O4). Interestingly,
when these two substances come in contact, they ignite and burn
automatically (i.e., no spark required) in the absence of oxygen. The
fuel and oxidizer are kept in separate tanks, each pressurized by
helium. The helium is used to push the fluids through the fuel lines
(i.e., no mechanical pump required). In each fuel line, there are two
spring-loaded solenoid valves that close the lines. Pressurized
nitrogen gas, from a small tank located near the engine, is used to
open the valves and allow the fuel and oxidizer to flow into the
combustion chamber of the engine. When the engines are shut off, the
nitrogen goes from the valves into the fuel lines momentarily to flush
the lines of any remaining fuel and oxidizer; this purge of the line
prevents any unwanted explosions. During a single flight, there is
enough nitrogen to open the valves and purge the lines 10 times.
Either one or both of the OMS engines can fire, depending

upon the orbital maneuver. Each OMS engine can produce 6,000 lb
(26,400 N) of thrust. The OMS engines together can accelerate the
shuttle by 2 ft/s2 (0.6 m/s2). This acceleration can change the shuttle's
velocity by as much as 1,000 ft/s (305 m/s). To place into orbit or to
de-orbit takes about 100-500 ft/s (31-153 m/s) change in velocity.
Orbital adjustments take about 2 ft/s (0.61 m/s) change in velocity.
The engines can start and stop 1,000 times and have a total of 15 h
burn time.
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As the shuttle rests on the pad fully fueled, it weighs about

4.5 million pounds or 2 million kg. The shuttle rests on the SRBs as
pre-launch and final launch preparations are going on through T minus
31 seconds:
1. T minus 31 s - the on-board computers take over the launch

sequence.
2. T minus 6.6 s - the shuttles main engines are ignited one at a
time (0.12 s apart). The engines build up to more than 90 percent
of their maximum thrust.
3. T minus 3 s - shuttle main engines are in lift-off position.
4. T minus 0 s -the SRBs are ignited and the shuttle lifts off the
pad.
5. T plus 20 s - the shuttle rolls right (180 degree roll, 78 degree
pitch).
6. T plus 60 s - shuttle engines are at maximum throttle.
7. T plus 2 min - SRBs separate from the orbiter and fuel tank at
an altitude of 28 miles (45 km). Main engines continue firing.
Parachutes deploy from the SRBs.
SRBs will land in the ocean (about 140 miles (225 km) off the
coast of Florida.
Ships will recover the SRBs and tow them back to Cape
Canaveral for processing and re-use.
1. T plus 7.7 min - main engines throttled down to keep
acceleration below 3g's so that the shuttle does not break
apart.
2. T plus 8.5 min - main engines shut down.
3. T plus 9 min - ET separates from the orbiter. The ET will
burn up upon re-entry.
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4. T plus 10.5 min - OMS engines fire to place you in a low

orbit.
5. T plus 45 min - OMS engines fire again to place you in a
higher, circular orbit (about 250 miles/400 km).
SPACE PLANES AND REPLACEMENT OF SPACE

SHUTTLE
To replace the space shuttle NASA is planning to launch a
series of space planes that named as X series planes. Some X series
planes are given below
The X-37, which will test many space plane technologies,

including re-entry capabilities.
The X-34, a sub orbital vehicle that will test technologies to

reduce cost, time and personnel for space launches.
The X-33, a reusable launch vehicle (RLV) that is a prototype

for a space shuttle replacement.
In this the third one that is X-33 is the one that will replace
the space shuttle in the future. Despite the shuttle's many
accomplishments, the fact remains that it is extremely expensive to
launch into space. Each pound of payload in the shuttle's bay costs
$10,000 to launch. According to NASA, each of the space shuttle's
two solid rocket boosters carries about 1 million pounds (453,592 kg)
of solid propellant. The large external tanks hold another 500,000
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gallons of super cold liquid oxygen and liquid hydrogen. These two
liquids are mixed and burned to form the fuel for the shuttle's three
main rocket engines. The cost of this huge amount of propellant, and
of recovering and replacing the solid rocket boosters for every mission
is extremely expensive. NASA's solution to the problem is the X-33.
The X-33 is a prototype for a unique single-stage-to-orbit

vehicle. Its wedge-like shape is unlike any spacecraft that has
preceded it. At its base, the X-33 is 77 feet (23.5 m) wide, and the
vehicle is 69 feet (21 m) long. The purpose of this design is to allow
the spacecraft to hold all of the needed propellant onboard the ship,
thus eliminating the need for solid rocket boosters. By eliminating the
boosters and the main fuel tank, NASA will trim much of the liftoff
weight that makes space shuttle missions so expensive. Launch costs
for the X-33, or a derivative of the X-33, are expected to be only a
tenth of the cost of launching the space shuttle.
Two more tests will follow, and successful testing could lead
to a
more efficient space-access vehicle. NASA officials say that
the scramjet engine would be a major step forward for NASA and
would arguably provide a safer, more flexible, less expensive way to
get people and cargo to space.
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HYPER SONIC PLANES WITH AIR BREATHING

ENGINES
Living in air
The futuristic X-43A prototype looks like a flying surfboard.
Its thin, has a wingspan of 5 feet (1.5 m), measures 12 ft (3.7 m) long
and 2 ft (0.61 m) thick and weighs 2,800 pounds (1,270 kg). A
working version of the X-43A will be about 200 ft (61 m) in length
but still relatively lightweight, en most unique feature of the X-43A is
its engine.
abling it to carry heavier loads into space. But the most unique feature
of the X-43A is its engine.
Photo courtesy NASA

The dimensions and views of the X-43A
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The best way to understand an X-43As air-breathing engine

is to first look at a conventional rocket engine. A typical rocket engine
is propelled by the combustion created when a liquid oxidizer and a
hydrogen fuel are burned in a combustion chamber. These gases create
a high-pressure, high-velocity stream of hot gases. These gases flow
through a nozzle that further accelerates them to speeds of 5,000 to
10,000 mph (8,047 to 16,093 kph) and provides thrust.
The disadvantage of a conventional rocket engine is that it

requires a lot of onboard oxygen. For example, the space shuttle needs
143,000 gallons of liquid oxygen, which weighs 1,359,000 pounds
(616,432 kg). Without the liquid oxygen, the shuttle weighs a mere
165,000 pounds 74,842 kg .
NASA has determined that it can easily
drop the weight of a vehicle at launch if they were to take away the
liquid oxidizer, which would quickly drop the weight of the vehicle to
about 3.1 million pounds. That's still a heavy vehicle, but it would
mean a huge reduction in cost of launching a vehicle into orbit.
Solution to this is its air-breathing engine. An air-breathing

engine requires no onboard oxygen. The X-43A will scoop up oxygen
as it flies through the atmosphere. In an Earth-to-orbit mission, the
vehicle would store extra oxygen onboard, but less than what a space
shuttle requires. The scramjet engine is a simple design with no
moving parts. The X-43A craft itself is designed to be a part of the
engine system: The front of the vehicle acts as the intake for the
airflow, and so, if you remove the liquid oxygen, wouldn't the fuel be
unable to combust and provide thrust? You have to think outside the
normal operation of a conventional rocket engine. Instead of using
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liquid oxidizer, an air-breathing rocket, as its name suggests, will take

in air from the atmosphere. It will then combine it with the fuel to
create combustion and provide thrust.
An air-breathing rocket engine, also called a rocket-based,

combined cycle engine, is very similar to a jet engine. In a jet engine,
the compressor sucks in air. The engine then compresses the air,
combines it with a fuel, and burns the product, which expands and
provides thrust. A jet engine can only be used for up to Mach 3 or 4
before its parts will begin to overheat. In a supersonic combustion
ramjet, or scramjet, an air inlet draws in air. The air is slowed and
compressed as the vehicle speeds through the atmosphere. Fuel is
added to the supersonic airflow, where the two mix and burn. Fuels
most likely to be used with the air-breathing rockets include liquid
hydrogen or hydrocarbon fuel
Taking flight
As mentioned before, scramjet-powered aircraft dont carry
oxygen onboard. That means that they cant lift off like conventional
spacecraft. The X-43A will require a booster rocket to get it up to a
hypersonic speed, at which point it will be released and sent flying on
its own. This rocket boost is necessary for the scramjet engine to
work.
As efficient as air-breathing rockets are, they can't provide the

thrust for liftoff. For that, there are two options being considered.
NASA may use turbojets or air-augmented rockets to get the vehicle
off the ground. An air-augmented rocket is like a normal rocket
engine, except that when it gets a high enough speed, maybe at Mach
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two or three, it will augment the oxidization of the fuel with air in the
atmosphere, and maybe go up to Mach 10 and then change back to
normal rocket function. These air-augmented rockets are placed in a
duct that capture air, and could boost performance about 15 percent
over conventional rockets. Further out, NASA is developing a plan to
launch the air-breathing rocket vehicle by using magnetic levitation
(maglev) tracks. Using maglev tracks, the vehicle will accelerate to
speeds of up to 600 mph before lifting into the air.
Following liftoff and after the vehicle reaches twice the speed
of sound, the air-augmented rockets would shut off. Propulsion would
then be provided by the air-breathing rocket vehicle, which will inhale
oxygen for about half of the flight to burn fuel. The advantage of this
is it won't have to store as much oxygen on board the spacecraft as
past spacecraft have, thus reducing launch costs. Once the vehicle
reaches 10 times the speed of sound, it will switch back to a
conventional rocket-powered system for a final push into orbit.
Because it will cut the weight of the oxidizer, the vehicle will
be easier to maneuver than current spacecraft. This means that
traveling on an air-breathing rocket-powered vehicle will be safer.
Eventually, the public could be traveling on these vehicles into space
as space tourists.
Two more tests will follow, and successful testing could lead
to a more efficient space-access vehicle. NASA officials say that the
scramjet engine would be a major step forward for NASA and would
arguably provide a safer, more flexible, less expensive way to get
people and cargo to space.
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Photo courtesy NASA

Magnetic levitation tracks could one day be used to
launch vehicles into space.
The Marshall Center and NASA's Glenn research center

Cleveland are planning to design a flight-weight air-breathing rocket
engine in-house for flight demonstration by 2005.
That project will determine if air-breathing rocket engines can

be built light enough for a launch vehicle.
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ADVANTAGES
Reduces launch cost
Vehicle will be easier to maneuver the current spacecraft.
Air-breathing rocket-powered vehicle will be safer
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CONCLUSION
By using air breathing engine we can reduce the launch cost.
Moreover air breathing rocket vehicle
safer as compaired to
conventional rocket.
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REFERENCES
1.
www.howstuffworks.com
2.
www.howspaceshuttleworks.com
3.
spacecraft system engineering- Peter Fortescue and John
Stoaark
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ABSTRACT
In its 23 year history, the NASA space shuttle program has
seen exhilarating highs and devastating lows. The fleet has taken
astronauts on dozens of successful missions, resulting in immeasurable
scientific gains. But this success has had a serious cost. In 1986, the
challenger exploded during launch procedures, and on February 1st of
2003, the Columbia broke up during re-entry over Texas.
This seminar report would be covering the following points:
A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE SPACE SHUTTLE.
THE SPACE SHUTTLE MISSION.
SPACE PLANES AND THE REPLACEMENT OF SPACE

SHUTTLES.
This seminar will be taking a brief look into the latest space
planes namely the HYPER SONIC PLANES WITH AIR
BREATHING ENGINES that are being planned to be rolled out by
NASA for space exploration purpose.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all I thank the almighty for providing me with the
strength and courage to present the seminar.
I avail this opportunity to express my sincere gratitude

towards
Dr. T.N. Sathyanesan, head of mechanical engineering department,
for permitting me to conduct the seminar. I also at the outset thank and
express my profound gratitude to my seminar guide Mr. Mohan C.C.
and staff incharge Asst. Prof. Mrs. Jumailath Beevi. D., for their
inspiring assistance, encouragement and useful guidance.
I am also indebted to all the teaching and non- teaching staff

of the department of mechanical engineering for their cooperation and
suggestions, which is the spirit behind this report. Last but not the
least, I wish to express my sincere thanks to all my friends for their
goodwill and constructive ideas.
Aju S.S.
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CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION
2. A BRIEF HISTORY OF THE SPACE SHUTTLE
3. THE SPACE SHUTTLE MISSION
4. SPACE PLANES AND REPLACEMENT OF SPACE SHUTTLE
10
5. HYPER SONIC PLANES WITH AIR BREATHING ENGINES
12
6. ADVANTAGES
17
7. CONCLUSION
18
8. REFERENCES
19
MESCE Kuttippuram

Space Shuttles and Its Advancements Seminar Report

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Space Shuttles and its Advancements

Dept. of Mechanical Engg.