Wing Planform

The previous discussions on wings have dealt

only with airfoil section properties and two
dimensional airflow. Wing planform - the shape
of the wing as viewed from directly above deals with airflow in three dimensions, and is
very important to understanding wing
performance and airplane flight characteristics.
Aspect ratio, taper ratio, and sweepback are
factors in planform design that are very
important to the overall aerodynamic
characteristic of a wing (Fig. 17-13).
Aspect ratio is the ratio of wing span to wing
chord.
Taper ratio can be either in planform or
thickness, or both. In its simplest terms, it is a
decrease from wing root to wingtip in wing
chord or wing thickness.
Sweepback is the rearward slant of a wing,
horizontal tail, or other airfoil surface.
There are two general means by which the
designer can change the planform of a wing,
either of which will affect aerodynamic
characteristics of the wing. The first is to effect a
change in the aspect ratio. Aspect ratio is the
primary factor in determining the three
dimensional characteristics of the ordinary wing
and its lift/drag ratio. An increase in aspect ratio
with constant velocity will decrease the drag,
especially at high angles of attack, improving the
performance of the wing when in a climbing
attitude.
A decrease in aspect ratio will give a corresponding increase in drag. It should be noted, however, that with
an increase in aspect ratio there is an increase in the length of span, with a corresponding increase in the
weight of the wing structure, which means the wing must be heavier to carry the same load. For this reason,
part of the gain (due to a decrease in drag) is lost because of the increased weight, and a compromise in
design is necessary to obtain the best results from these two conflicting conditions. The second means of
changing the planform is by "tapering" (decreasing the length of chord from the root to the tip of the wing).
In general, tapering will cause a decrease in drag (most effective at high speeds) and an increase in lift.
There is also a structural benefit due to a saving in weight of the wing.
Most training and general aviation type airplanes are operated at high lift coefficients, and therefore
require comparatively high aspect ratios. Airplanes which are developed to operate at very high speeds
demand greater aerodynamic cleanness, and greater strength - therefore low aspect ratios. Very low aspect
ratios result in high wing loadings and high stall speeds. When sweepback is combined with low aspect
ratio, it results in flying qualities very different from a more "conventional" high aspect ratio airplane
configuration. Such airplanes require very precise and professional flying techniques, especially at slow
speeds, while airplanes with a high aspect ratio are usually more forgiving of improper pilot techniques.

The elliptical wing is the ideal subsonic planform since it provides for a minimum of induced drag for a
given aspect ratio, though as we shall see, its stall characteristics in some respects are inferior to the
rectangular wing. It is also comparatively difficult to construct. The tapered airfoil is desirable from the
standpoint of weight and stiffness, but again is not as efficient aerodynamically as the elliptical wing. In
order to preserve the aerodynamic efficiency of the elliptical wing, rectangular and tapered wings are
sometimes "tailored" through use of wing twist and variation in airfoil sections until they provide as nearly
as possible the elliptical wing's lift distribution.
While it is true that the elliptical wing provides the best lift coefficients before reaching an incipient stall,
it gives little advance warning of a complete stall, and lateral control may be difficult because of poor
aileron effectiveness.
In comparison, the rectangular wing has a tendency to stall first at the wing root and provides adequate
stall warning, adequate aileron effectiveness, and is usually quite stable. It is, therefore, favored in the design
of low cost, low speed airplanes.
Stall progression patterns for various wing planforms are graphically depicted in Figure 17-13. Note that it is
possible for the trailing edge of the inboard portion of the rectangular wing to be stalled while the rest of the
wing is developing lift. This is a very desirable characteristic, and along with simplicity of construction is
the reason why this type of wing is so popular in light airplanes, despite certain structural and aerodynamic
inefficiencies.

The modern aircraft has five basic structural components: fuselage, wings, empennage (tail structures),
power plant (propulsion system) and the undercarriage.
The fuselage is the main body structure to which all
other components are attached. The fuselage contains
the cockpit or flight deck, passenger compartment
and cargo compartment. While wings produce most
of the lift, the fuselage also produces a little lift. A
bulky fuselage can also produce a lot of drag. For this
reason, a fuselage is streamlined to decrease the drag.
We usually think of a streamlined car as being sleek and compact - it does not present a bulky obstacle to the
oncoming wind. A streamlined fuselage has the same attributes. It has a sharp or rounded nose with sleek,
tapered body so that the air can flow smoothly around it.

The wings are the most important lift-producing part of the aircraft. Wings
vary in design depending upon the aircraft type and its purpose. Most airplanes
are designed so that the outer tips of the wings are higher than where the wings
are attached to the fuselage. This upward angle is called the dihedral and helps
keep the airplane from rolling unexpectedly during flight. Wings also carry the
fuel for the airplane.

All planes have wings. The wings are shaped with smooth surfaces. There is a curve to the
wings which helps push the air over the top more quickly than it goes under the wing. As the
wing moves, the air flowing over the top has farther to go and it moves faster than the air
underneath the wing. So the air pressure above the wing is less than below it. This produces
the upward lift. The shape of the wings determines how fast and high the plane can fly. Wings
are called airfoils. The hinged control surfaces are used to steer and control the airplane.
The flaps and ailerons are connected to the backside of the wings. The flaps slide back and
down to increase the surface of the wing area. They also tilt down to increase the curve of the
wing. The slats move out from the front of the wings to make the wing space larger. This helps
to increase the lifting force of the wing at slower speeds like takeoff and landing.
The ailerons are hinged on the wings and move downward to push the air down and make the
wings tilt up. This moves the plane to the side and helps it turn during flight. After landing, the
spoilers are used like air brakes to reduce any remaining lift and slow down the airplane.

Aripa
n zborul aerodinamic, bazat pe fora portant, cea mai important parte a avionului este aripa. mpreun un
ampenajele, aripa asigur sustentaia, stabilitatea i manevrabilitatea avionului. n general aripa este
compus din structura de rezisten, nveli exterior, rezervoarele integrate de combustibil, aparatura hidropneumatic aferent comenzilor. Sub arip se instaleaz trenul principal de aterizare al avionului, sistemul
de propulsie, acroaje speciale rachete, bombe sau rezervoare lrgabile.
Forma n plan a aripii este extrem de diversificat, n funcie de destinaia, rolul, dimensiunile, forma sau
viteza avionului: aripa dreapt (An-2, Cessna 172), arip trapezoidal (F-22 Raptor), arip n sgeat (A300,
BAC 1-11, Su-27), arip n sgeat cu geometrie variabil (Tornado, B-1), arip triunghiular (F-16, Saab37 Viggen), arip delta gotic (Concorde), etc.

Triplan Fokker Dr.I

Biplan Pitts S1s

Biplan An-2 cu arip dreapt

F-22:arip trapezoidal

Su-27 in aerobatics show.jpg

Su-27:arip n sgeat

F-111:arip n sgeat cu geometrie variabil

Concorde:arip delta gotic

Elementele constructive ale unei aripi de avion obinuite sunt: lonjeroanele, lisele, nervurile, panourile de
nveli i alte piese componente, de rigidizare (ex: montani) folosite pentru transmiterea eforturile ntre
arip i fuzelaj sau ntre tronsoanele aripii.
Aripile cu cel puin dou lonjeroane mpreun cu nveliul formeaz chesonul de rezisten, care are
sarcina de a prelua eforturile aerodinamice i mecanice la care este supus aripa.

Cheson de rezisten

Componentele principale ale chesonului

Lonjeroanele sunt elemente de rigidizare aezate de-a lungul aripii, care preiau cea mai mare parte din
forele i momentele ce acioneaz asupra acesteia. Au aspectul unei grinzi consolidate alctuite din tlpi
(profile corniere) i inim (platband), mbinate ntre ele cu nituri. Sunt realizate de regul din materiale
rezistente la ncovoiere i rsucire: duraluminiu, titan, oeluri speciale.
Nervurile sunt elemente de rigidizare transversal a aripii, montate de obicei perpendicular pe bordul de
atac al aripii. Nervurile au rolul de a pstra forma aripii i de a transmite solicitrile aerodinamice la
lonjeroane i lise. Pot fi nervuri simple sau nervuri de for, acestea din urm avnd rolul suplimentar de a
prelua forele concentrate datorate diverselor echipamente i instalaii acroate de aripi.
Lisele sunt elemente de rigidizare montate n lungul aripii cu rolul de a prelua solicitrile axiale datorate
ncovoierii aripii. Ele trebuie s fie rezistente la ntindere i compresiune i mresc rezistena nveliului la
deformaie. Sunt obinute tehnologic prin extrudare sau ndoire i sunt alctuite din duraluminiu, aliaje pe
baz de titan sau oel inoxidabil.
nveliul aripii are rolul de a menine forma sa i este realizat din tabl de duraluminiu sau aliaje pe baz de
titan, magneziu etc. nveliul este solicitat la eforturi de ncovoiere i rsucire. Ele este prins de celelalte
elemente prin nituri. Dac distana dintre lise este mic se folosete pentru rigidizarea nveliului tabl
ondulat. mbinarea tablei ondulate cu inveliul se poate face prin metoda suduri, nu prin nituire. Dac aripa
are grosime mic, nveliul se poate realiza prin panouri monolit. Construcia unei astfel de aripi se
realizeaz prin mbinarea panourilor dintr-o singur bucat. La aripile cu grosime foarte mic, spaiul
interior nu mai cuprinde elemente de rigidizare, ci este umplut cu structur de tip fagure sau cu alt material
compozit, rezultnd o structur compact, cu rezisten mecanic mare.

[modificare] Fuzelajul
Fuzelajul (din francez fuselage) este partea aeronavei n care este plasat cabina piloilor, cabina
pasagerilor, ncrctura de transport i cea mai mare parte a echipamentelor i instalaiilor de bord. El
reprezint corpul central de care se leag aripa, ampenajele i trenul de aterizare. Fuzelajul trebuie s aib o
rezisten la naintare minim. De aceea forma sa trebuie s fie aerodinamic, s aib ct mai puine
proeminene, suprafaa "splat" de curentul de aer s fie bine finisat i cu ct mai puine ondulaii.
Fuzelajele tip coc sunt cele mai folosite n prezent n construcia aerospaial, ele s-au impus definitiv odat
cu apariia motoarelor turboreactoare. Elementele principale ale fuzelajelor de tip coc sunt: structura
longitudinal format din lonjeroane i lise, structura transversal format din cadre, i nveliul
rezistent.

Structura fuzelajului
Se folosesc n prezent la aeronave dou tipuri de fuzelaje tip coc:

semimonococ cu structur format din lonjeroane puternice i dintr-o reea rar de lise i nveli
subire
semicoc, structura constnd dintr-o reea deas de lise, lonjeroane false (lise rigidizate) i nveli
subire.

Fuzelajele tip coc sunt rigidizate cu ajutorul unor perei i podele care formeaz mpreun cu restul
structurii diverse compartimente folosite pentru amplasarea echipamentelor i instalaiilor de bord, pentru
depozitarea ncrcturii de transport.

[modificare] Ampenajele

Structura unui ampenaj orizontal vzut "de sus"

Ampenajele sunt elemente care reprezint pentru aeronav organele de echilibru, stabilitate i comand.
Dup modul cum sunt construite depinde n mare msur capacitatea de manevr a aeronavei. Se compun de
regul din ampenajul orizontal format din stabilizator (partea fix) i profundor (partea mobil) i ampenajul
vertical format din direcie (partea fix) i deriv (partea mobil). La aeronavele supersonice se instaleaz
cteodat dou ampenaje verticale, iar stabilizatorul are numai parte mobil, fiind realizat dintr-o singur
bucat. n configuraia clasic stabilizatorul este plasat n spatele aripii, dar la avioanele de vntoare
moderne poate apare n faa sa, rezultnd aa-zisa configuraie "canard" (ra) (de exemplu la Eurofighter).

Eurofighter:stabilizator configuraie "canard" (ra)

Se observ diferena dintre avionul-cistern KC-10 Extender cu ampenaje standard i bombardierul

fr ampenaje (BWB - Blended Wing Body) B-2 Spirit
La alte avioane moderne ambele ampenaje pot lipsi, aripa prelund n totalitate rolurile de stabilizare i
comand (de exemplu la B-2) prin folosirea suprafeelor de comand numite elevoane.
Construcia ampenajelor respect n general schemele de construcie ale aripii.
Wings
The wings are airfoils attached to each side of the fuselage and are the main lifting surfaces
that support the airplane in flight. There are numerous wing designs, sizes, and shapes used
by the various manufacturers. Wings may be attached at the top, middle, or lower portion of
the fuselage. These designs are referred to as high-, mid-, and low-wing, respectively. The
number of wings can also vary. Airplanes with a single set of wings are referred to as
monoplanes, while those with two sets are called biplanes.

The principal structural parts of the wing are spars, ribs, and stringers. These are reinforced
by trusses, I-beams, tubing, or other devices, including the skin. The wing ribs determine the
shape and thickness of the wing (airfoil). In most modern airplanes, the fuel tanks either are
an integral part of the wings structure, or consist of flexible containers mounted inside of the
wing.

Attached to the rear or trailing edges of the wings are two types of control surfaces referred
to as ailerons and flaps. Ailerons extend from about the midpoint of each wing outward
toward the tip, and move in opposite directions to create aerodynamic forces that cause the
airplane to roll. Flaps extend outward from the fuselage to near the midpoint of each wing.
The flaps are normally flush with the wings surface during cruising flight. When extended, the
flaps move simultaneously downward to increase the lifting force of the wing for takeoffs and
landings.
________

An airplane in flight is the center of a continuous tug of war between four forces: lift, gravity force or
weight, thrust, and drag. Lift and Drag are considered aerodynamic forces because they exist due to
the movement of the aircraft through the air. The weight pulls down on the plane opposing the lift
created by air flowing over the wing. Thrust is generated by the propeller and opposes drag caused by air
resistance to the frontal area of the airplane. During take off, thrust must overcome drag and lift must
overcome the weight before the airplane can become airborne. In level flight at constant speed, thrust
exactly equals drag and lift exactly equals the weight or gravity force. For landings thrust must be reduced
below the level of drag and lift below the level of the gravity force or weight.

Lift
Lift is produced by a lower pressure created on the upper surface of an airplane's wing compared to the
pressure on the wing's lower surface, causing the wing to be "lifted" upward. The special shape of the
airplane wing (airfoil) is designed so that air flowing over it will have to travel a greater distance faster,
resulting in a lower pressure area (see illustration) thus lifting the wing upward. Lift is that force which
opposes the force of gravity (or weight).

Who invented it?

Many people tried to invent a wing that would let people fly. Even the famous inventor, Leonardo da Vinci
drew up plans for different ways of flying with wings like a bird. The first wing that let a person fly was in
ancient China in the year 559. It was really just a large kite. In 877, long before Marco Polo and other
explorers brought back information about Chinese kites to Europe, an Arab inventor in Spain named Abbas
Ibn Firnas made the first hang glider, and tested it himself.
Sir George Cayley and later Otto Lilienthal created working gliders that allowed people to fly as long ago as
the 1800s. The Wright Brothers were famous for the airplane that they first demonstrated in 1903 in Kitty
Hawk, North Carolina, but their airplane's wings worked in the same way as Otto Lilienthal's glider wings
from 1891.

[edit] How does it get power?

The only power that a wing needs is to be moved forward through the air. In a glider the wing is either
pushed to get it started, or it is brought somewhere high up and dropped, like a hang glider pilot starting
from the top of a cliff. In a powered airplane, the engines either push or pull the wings through the air.
The shape and positioning of a wing is very important. Most wings are curved, which makes the air going
over them go faster than the air going under them. Because the air above the wing moves faster, it is more
spread out than the air below the wing. Air presses on everything around it, even though you can't feel it.
When there is more air it pushes more on the things around it. The fast-moving, spread-out air over the top
of the wing lets the air on the bottom of the wing push the wing up, creating lift.
Another way to think of it is that the wing of an airplane is usually tilted so that the front is higher than the
back. The air that follows the upper and lower surfaces of the wing is directed downward by the wing's
shape and tilt. This creates an opposing upward lifting force on the wing itself. It is the lift from the wings
that carries a plane through the air.

[edit] How dangerous is it?

Airplane wings are not dangerous. Airplanes themselves have a good safety record when they are well
maintained. There are risks with any travel and planes travel at high speeds. However, nowadays air travel is
so safe that you are more likely to get killed driving to the airport than you are flying on the plane!

[edit] What does it do?

A commercial airplane landing. The flaps on the trailing edge of the wing are fully extended in
landing position.

A wing is a part of airplane that lifts it up. There are mainly four forces acting on airplane while in air.
Wings provide the force to the airplane that takes it up against the force of gravity due to earth. An airplane
wing is specially designed so that air that passes around it actually helps lift up the plane. It is also
streamlined in shape so that the plane can move at maximum speed.

[edit] How does it vary?

All airplane wings contain flaps to increase lift and drag. Some airplane wings, especially those of larger
jets, have spoilers that will further slow down the airplane. This is important in landing, where one must
land at the slowest speed possible without stalling and then stop the airplane's movement as quickly as
possible.
In larger airplanes the wings often have the engines fixed onto them.

[edit] How has it changed the world?

An airplane wing is one of the most fundamental things that allow a plane to fly. Without it, a plane does not
fly and it has brought planes all over the world.

[edit] What idea(s) and/or inventions had to be developed before

it could be created?
The first plane had to be invented before any experimentation with the wing could occur. The earliest wings
were simply light framed wooden planks, with no such inbuilt drag or lift functions.
To maintain its all-important aerodynamic shape, a wing must be designed and built to hold its shape even
under extreme stress. Basically, the wing is a framework composed chiefly of spars, ribs, and (possibly)
stringers (see figure 1-5). Spars are the main members of the wing. They extend lengthwise of the wing
(crosswise of the fuselage). All the load carried by the wing is ultimately taken by the spars. In flight, the
force of the air acts against the skin. From the skin, this force is transmitted to the ribs and then to the spars.
Most wing structures have two spars, the front spar and the rear spar. The front spar is found near the
leading edge while the rear spar is about two-thirds the distance to the trailing edge. Depending on the
design of the flight loads, some of the all-metal wings have as many as five spars. In addition to the main
spars, there is a short structural member which is called an aileron spar.
The ribs are the parts of a wing which support the covering and provide the airfoil shape. These ribs are
called forming ribs. and their primary purpose is to provide shape. Some may have an additional purpose of
bearing flight stress, and these are called compression ribs.
The most simple wing structures will be found on light civilian aircraft. High-stress types of military
aircraft will have the most complex and strongest wing structure.

Three systems are used to determine how wings are attached to the aircraft fuselage depending on the
strength of a wing's internal structure. The strongest wing structure is the full cantilever which is attached
directly to the fuselage and does not have any type of external, stress-bearing structures. The semicantilever
usually has one, or perhaps two, supporting wires or struts attached to each wing and the fuselage. The
externally braced wing is typical of the biplane (two wings placed one above the other) with its struts and
flying and landing wires (see figure 1-6).

-___________________

The spar is often the main structural member of the wing, running spanwise at right
angles (or thereabouts depending on wing sweep) to the fuselage. The spar carries
flight loads and the weight of the wings whilst on the ground. Other structural and
forming members such as ribs may be attached to the spar or spars, with stressed
skin construction also sharing the loads where it is used. There may be more than one
spar in a wing or none at all. However, where a single spar carries the majority of the
forces on it, it is known as the main spar.
Spars are also used in other aircraft aerofoil surfaces such as the tailplane and fin and
serve a similar function, although the loads transmitted may be different to those of a
wing spar.
In the framework of a wing, ribs are the crosspieces running from the leading edge to
the trailing edge of the wing. The ribs give the wing its contour and shape and
transmit the load from the skin to the spars. Ribs are also used in ailerons, elevators,
fins, and stabilizers. Former ribs, located at frequent intervals throughout the wing,
are made of formed sheet metal and are very lightweight. The bent-up portion of a
former rib is the flange and the vertical portion is the web.
A longeron or stringer or stiffener[1] is a thin strip of wood, metal or carbon fiber, to which
the skin of the aircraft is fastened. In the fuselage, longerons are attached to formers (also
called frames) and run the longitudinal direction of the aircraft. In the wing or horizontal
stabilizer, longerons run spanwise and attach to ribs.
Sometimes the terms "longeron" and "stringer" are used interchangeably. Historically, though,
there is a subtle difference between the two terms. If the longitudinal members in a fuselage
are few in number (usually 4 to 8) then they are called "longerons"If the longitudinal members
are numerous (usually 50 to 100) then they are called "stringers".
On large modern aircraft the stringer system is more common because it is more weight
efficient despite being more complex to construct and analyze. Some aircraft, however, use a
combination of both stringers and longerons.
_____Longerons often carry larger loads than stringers and also help to transfer skin loads to
internal structure. As stated above longerons nearly always attach to frames or ribs. But
stringers often are not attached to anything but the skin, where they carry a portion of the
fuselage bending moment through axial loading. [

The wings are the most important lift-producing part of the aircraft. Wings
vary in design depending upon the aircraft type and its purpose. Most airplanes
are designed so that the outer tips of the wings are higher than where the wings
are attached to the fuselage. This upward angle is called the dihedral and helps
keep the airplane from rolling unexpectedly during flight.