UNIVERSITY OF BATANGAS

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR THE

REQUIREMENT IN THE SUBJECT
ME11 ENGINEERING LABORATORY 1

SUBMITTED BY:
DAMIREZ, VON ERIC A.

SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR. GILBERT M. MENDOZA
INSTRUCTOR

DECEMBER 2015

Evangelista Torricelli

Evangelista Torricelli was an Italian physicist and mathematician, best known for his
invention of the barometer. Torricelli was born to a poor family in 1608 and to make matters
worse, his father passed away when Torricelli was just a child. The family perceived that
Torricelli was a gifted child and so he was given to the care of an uncle who was a
Camaldolese monk. Torricellis uncle arranged for him to study with Benedetto Castelli, a
mathematics professor at the University of Sapienza in Rome. Castelli taught him
mathematics, mechanics, hydraulics, and astronomy and in return Torricelli acted as his
assistant and secretary. He held this post for six years until 1632.

Evangelista Torricelli made several important contributions in the fields of

mathematics and physics. One of the biggest and most controversial debates in those days
was about the existence of vacuums, a possibility that had been refuted by earlier scientists
such as Aristotle. First Galileo and subsequently Torricelli were of the view that vacuums did

in fact exist. Torricelli set up an experiment involving glass tubes filled with mercury (as it
was denser than water) and thus became the first person to create a sustained vacuum.
This led to the invention of the Mercury Barometer, an instrument used to measure
atmospheric pressure. The development of the barometer was a monumental achievement
in physics, and it is still widely in use today.
His other contributions include his work on the equations of curves, formulating
Torricellis Law about the speed of a fluid flowing out of an opening and being the first
person to give a scientific explanation for the cause of wind which he said was caused by
differences in air temperature and density between two areas. His other areas of interest
included geometry, infinite number series, fluid and projectile motion, calculus and
mechanics. The torr, a unit of pressure, is named after him.

Henri de Pitot

Henri Pitot was an 18th-century engineer most famous for his invention of the Pitot tube,
used to this day to measure the speed on aircraft and ships. Young Henri Pitot was a late
starter to become interested in his scientific education. It wasn't until he was 19 that he
discovered a passion for geometry, mathematics, physics, architecture and especially

astronomy. His house in Aramon had a tower on top (it's still there but a not very visible
from below) where he began observing the stars.

Beginning his career as a mathematician and astronomer, Pitot won election to the Academy
of Sciences in 1724. He became interested in the problem of flow of water in rivers and
canals and discovered that much contemporary theory was erroneousfor example, the
idea that the velocity of flowing water increased with depth. He devised a tube, with an
opening facing the flow, that provided a convenient and reasonably accurate measurement
of flow velocity and that has found wide application ever since (e.g., in anemometers for
measuring wind speed).
In 1732 Henri Pitot invented the tube de Pitot (pitot tube), a device for measuring the speed
of fluids, and which is still used in the 21st century for measuring the speed of aircraft and
ships. He developed the idea when tasked with measuring the water flow of the river Seine
(which passes through Paris).

Antoine Chezy
Antoine de Chzy is a French hydraulic engineer and author of a basic formula for
calculating the velocity of a fluid stream.
One of the group of brilliant engineers produced by the French School of Bridges and
Highways (cole des Ponts et Chausses) in the 18th century, Chzy carried out studies in
connection with the construction of French canals, notably in 1764 the difficult project of the
Canal de Bourgogne, uniting the Seine and Rhne basins.

Chzy was exceptionally modest and even timid, and, though he served as right-hand man
to the celebrated bridge-builder Jean-Rodolphe Perronnet, whose Pont de la Concorde in
Paris he completed (1795), his genius was only tardily recognized; he was appointed
director of the School of Bridges and Highways in the last year of his life.
In fluid dynamics, the Chzy formula describes the mean flow velocity of steady, turbulent
open channel flow:

where

is the mean velocity [m/s],

is the Chzy coefficient [m/s],

is the hydraulic radius (~ water depth) [m], and

is the bottom slope [m/m].

The formula is named after Antoine de Chzy, the French hydraulics engineer who devised it
in 1775.
This formula can also be used with Manning's Roughness Coefficient, instead of Chzy's
coefficient. Manning derived the following relation to C based upon experiments:

where

is the Chzy coefficient [m/s],

is the hydraulic radius (~ water depth) [m], and

is Manning's roughness coefficient.

Unlike the Manning equation, which is empirical, the Chzy equation is derived from
hydrodynamics theory.

Gotthilf Heinrich Ludwig Hagen

Gotthilf Heinrich Ludwig Hagen was a German civil engineer who made important
contributions to fluid dynamics, hydraulic engineering and probability theory.
In 1839 Hagen undertook careful experiments in brass tubes that enabled him to discover
the relationship between the pressure drop and the tube diameter under conditions of
laminar
flow
of
homogeneous
viscous
liquids.
Hagen
observed
an
empirical exponential relationship between the pressure drop (P) and radius (R) of a tube
corresponding to P 1/R-4.12, but suggested in view of possible measurements errors that a
value of 4.0 be assumed. This relationship was also discovered independently at around the
same time by Jean Lonard Marie Poiseuille and is known as the HagenPoiseuille equation
or Poiseuille's law.

Hagen played a decisive role in planning the development of numerous German rivers and
harbors. The Prussian Admiralty appointed him to supervise the planning of Wilhelmshaven
in 1855. Hagen took leave from his post in the Ministry of Trade and became chair of the

Commission for the port construction in the Jade Bight. After rejecting the designs of two
internationally known experts, he proposed his own design to the Prussian Admiralty on May
29, 1856. This port design met the requirements of Prussian Admiralty but also allowed for
later expansions and additions. The design was approved by cabinet order on 25 June 1856.
After completion of the planning, he returned to the Prussian Ministry of Trade on August
12, 1856. The implementation of the plan was carried out in the following decade, and
despite many changes, still determines the current layout of the town center.
In 1863 Hagen published his encyclopaedic manual on hydraulic engineering. This
represented the state of the art for coastal protection and served for decades as the
guideline for coastal engineering in Germany.

Julius Weisbach
Julius Ludwig Weisbach, born 10 August 1806 in Mittelschmiedeberg (now Mildenau
Municipality), Erzgebirge, died 24 February 1871,Freiberg) was a German mathematician
and engineer.
Weisbach studied at the Bergakademie in Freiberg from 1822 - 1826. After that, he studied
with Carl Friedrich Gauss in Gttingen and withFriedrich Mohs in Vienna.
He refined the Darcy equation into the still widely used DarcyWeisbach equation. In 1868
he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In fluid
dynamics, the DarcyWeisbach equation is a phenomenological equation, which relates the
head loss, or pressure loss, due to friction along a given length of pipe to the average
velocity of the fluid flow for an incompressible fluid. The equation is named after Henry
Darcy and Julius Weisbach.
The DarcyWeisbach equation contains a dimensionless friction factor, known as the Darcy
friction factor. This is also called the DarcyWeisbach friction factor, resistance coefficient, or
simply friction factor. The Darcy friction factor is four times the Fanning friction factor, with
which it should not be confused.
Head loss hf due to viscous effects in a circular cross section of pipe with length L can be
characterized by the Darcy Weisbach equation:

;
where;

hf is the head loss due to friction (SI units: m); Note: This is also proportional to the
piezometric head along the pipe;

L is the length of the pipe (m);

D is the hydraulic diameter of the pipe (for a pipe of circular section, this equals the
internal diameter of the pipe) (m);

V is the average flow velocity, experimentally measured as the volumetric flow

rate per unit cross-sectional wetted area (m/s);

g is the local acceleration due to gravity (m/s2);

fD is a dimensionless parameter called the Darcy friction factor, resistance coefficient,

or simply friction factor.

George Gabriel Stokes

Sir George Gabriel Stokes, 1st Baronet was a mathematician, physicist, politician and
theologian. Born in Ireland, Stokes spent his entire career at University of Cambridge,
where he served as the Lucasian Professor of Mathematics from 1849 until his death in
1903. Stokes made seminal contributions to fluid dynamics (including theNavierStokes
equations), optics, and mathematical physics (including the first version of what is now
known as Stokes' theorem). He was secretary, then president, of the Royal Society.

His work on fluid motion and viscosity led to his calculating the terminal velocity for a
sphere falling in a viscous medium. This became known as Stokes' law. He derived an
expression for the frictional force (also called drag force) exerted on spherical objects with
very small Reynolds numbers. His work is the basis of the falling sphere viscometer, in
which the fluid is stationary in a vertical glass tube. A sphere of known size and density is
allowed to descend through the liquid. If correctly selected, it reaches terminal velocity,
which can be measured by the time it takes to pass two marks on the tube. Electronic
sensing can be used for opaque fluids. Knowing the terminal velocity, the size and density of
the sphere, and the density of the liquid, Stokes' law can be used to calculate the viscosity
of the fluid. A series of steel ball bearings of different diameter is normally used in the
classic experiment to improve the accuracy of the calculation. The school experiment uses
glycerine as the fluid, and the technique is used industrially to check the viscosity of fluids
used in processes. The same theory explains why small water droplets (or ice crystals) can
remain suspended in air (as clouds) until they grow to a critical size and start falling as rain
(or snow and hail). Similar use of the equation can be made in the settlement of fine
particles in water or other fluids. The CGS unit of kinematic viscosity was named "stokes" in
recognition of his work.

Moritz Weber

Moritz Gustav Weber (Neuendettelsau) was a German engineer and university

lecturer. Moritz Weber was born on July 18, 1871 in Leipzig. He grew up in Hanover in the
house his grandfather Moritz Rhlmann on. His academic teacher was the mathematician
Felix Klein, in which he was an assistant at Gttingen. After completing his studies he went
in 1904 to Berlin, where he worked as a government architect for the railroad on the first
project of electrification of the rail and at the water supply station CharIottenburg. In 1904
he became professor of mechanics at the Tec hnische Hochschule Hannover, and from 1913
full professor for mechanics of shipbuilding and ship engineering at the Technical University
(Berlin)Charlottenburg. There he worked until his retirement in the year 1936th. He was a
long-time dean of the Faculty of Mechanical Engineering. On the occasion of his retirement
he became Honorary Senator of the Technical University of Berlin. Moritz Weber was married
to Margaret nee Leyn, the couple had two children. He died on 10 June 1951 in
Neuendettelsau.
Weber worked on the motion of Halley's Comet, the d'Alembert's Principle, the Lagrangian
equation of motion, the perfect mass balancing and problems of coupling vibrations. His
particular interest was the similarity mechanics and model science, for which he developed a
Scheme. The so-called Weber number, a dimensionless quantity in fluid mechanics, is
named after him. From the problem to determine the ship's resistance to shipbuilding, the
requirement, an exact revealed similarity mechanics to construct. From the similarity
mechanics is Weber's first release from the 1919 yearbook of Shipbuilding Engineering
Society. Weber took the view that the scientific resources of similarity mechanics and
analysis directly have significance not only for the pilot nature of the shipbuilding industry,
but also for pilot projects in other fields of technical physics as thermodynamics, electrical
engineering and strength of materials.
The Weber number may be written as:

where

is the density of the fluid (kg/m3).

v is its velocity (m/s).

l is its characteristic length, typically the droplet diameter (m).

is the surface tension (N/m).

Theodor von Karman

Theodore von Krmn, (born May 11, 1881, Budapest, Hung.died May 6, 1963,
Aachen, W.Ger.), Hungarian-born American research engineer best known for his pioneering
work in the use of mathematics and the basic sciences in aeronautics and astronautics. His
laboratory at the California Institute of Technology later became the National Aeronautics
and Space Administration (NASA) Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
Specific contributions include theories of non-elastic buckling, unsteady wakes in circumcylinder flow, stability of laminar flow, turbulence, airfoils in steady and unsteady flow,
boundary layers, and supersonic aerodynamics. He made additional contributions in other
fields, including elasticity, vibration, heat transfer, and crystallography.
The Fpplvon Krmn equations, named after August Fppl and Theodore von Krmn are
a set of nonlinear partial differential equations describing the large deflections of thin flat
plates.[3] With applications ranging from the design of submarine hulls to the mechanical
properties of cell wall,[4] the equations are notoriously difficult to solve, and take the
following form: [5]

where E is the Young's modulus of the plate material (assumed homogeneous and
isotropic), is the Poisson's ratio, h is the thickness of the plate, w is the outofplane
deflection of the plate, P is the external normal force per unit area of the plate, is
the Cauchy stress tensor, and , are indices that take values of 1 or 2. The 2dimensionalbiharmonic operator is defined as

Equation (1) above can be derived from kinematic assumptions and the constitutive
relations for the plate. Equations (2) are the two equations for the conservation of linear
momentum in two dimensions where it is assumed that the outofplane stresses
(33,13,23) are zero.

Paul Richard Heinrich Blasius

Paul Richard Heinrich Blasius (18831970) was a German fluid dynamics physicist. He
was one of the first students of Prandtl who provided a mathematical basis for boundarylayer drag but also showed as early as 1911 that the resistance to flow through smooth
pipes could be expressed in terms of the Reynolds number for both laminar and turbulent
flow. After six years in science he changed to Ingenieurschule Hamburg (today: University
of Applied Sciences Hamburg) and became a Professor. On 1 April 1962 Heinrich Blasius
celebrated his 50th anniversary and was active in teaching until he died on 24 April 1970.
One of his most notable contributions involves a description of the steady twodimensional boundary-layer that forms on a semi-infinite plate that is held parallel to a
constant unidirectional flow .
For a steady fluid flow with complex potential
around a fixed body enclosed by a
contour , the net force on the body due to fluid motion is given by

Where
is the constant fluid density. This is a contour integral which may be
computed by using Cauchy's residue theorem.
First law of Blasius for turbulent fanning friction factor:

Second law of Blasius for turbulent fanning friction factor:

Law of Blasius for friction coefficient in turbulent pipe flow:

Ludwig Prandtl
Ludwig Prandtl, (born Feb. 4, 1875, Freising, Ger.died Aug. 15, 1953, Gottingen),
German physicist who is considered to be the father of aerodynamics.
In 1901 Prandtl became professor of mechanics at the Technical Institute of Hannover,
where he continued his earlier efforts to provide a sound theoretical basis for fluid
mechanics. From 1904 to 1953, he served as professor of applied mechanics at the
University of Gottingen, where he established a school of aerodynamics and hydrodynamics
that achieved world renown.

where:

: momentum diffusivity (kinematic viscosity),

: thermal diffusivity,

: dynamic viscosity, (SI units: Pa s = N s/m2)

: thermal conductivity, (SI units: W/m-K)

, (SI units: m2/s)

, (SI units: m2/s)

: specific heat, (SI units: J/kg-K)

: density, (SI units: kg/m3).

Typical values for Pr are:

around 0.015 for mercury

around 0.16-0.7 for mixtures of noble gases or noble gases with hydrogen

around 0.7-0.8 for air and many other gases

between 4 and 5 for R-12 refrigerant

around 7 for water (At 20 C)

13.4 and 7.2 for seawater (At 0C and 20C respectively)

between 100 and 40,000 for engine oil

around 11025 for Earth's mantle.

Osborne Reynolds

Osborne Reynolds FRS (/rnldz/; 23 August 1842 21 February 1912) was a prominent
innovator in the understanding of fluid dynamics. Separately, his studies of heat transfer
between solids and fluids brought improvements in boiler and condenser design. He spent
his entire career at what is now called University of Manchester.
Reynolds most famously studied the conditions in which the flow of fluid in pipes
transitioned from laminar flow to turbulent flow. From these experiments came the
dimensionless Reynolds number for dynamic similaritythe ratio of inertial forces to viscous
forces. Reynolds also proposed what is now known as Reynolds-averaging of turbulent
flows, where quantities such as velocity are expressed as the sum of mean and fluctuating
components. Such averaging allows for 'bulk' description of turbulent flow, for example
using the Reynolds-averaged NavierStokes equations.

Reynolds' contributions to fluid mechanics were not lost on ship designers ("naval
architects"). The ability to make a small scale model of a ship, and extract useful predictive
data with respect to a full size ship, depends directly on the experimentalist applying
Reynolds' turbulence principles to friction drag computations, along with a proper application
of William Froude's theories of gravity wave energy and propagation. Reynolds himself had a
number of papers concerning ship design published in Transactions of the Institution of
Naval Architects.
The Reynolds number is defined below:

[8]

where:

is the maximum[9] velocity of the object relative to the fluid (SI units: m/s)

is a characteristic linear dimension, (travelled length of the fluid; hydraulic

diameter when dealing with river systems) (m)

is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid (Pas or Ns/m or kg/(ms))

is the kinematic viscosity (

is the density of the fluid (kg/m).

) (m/s)

John William Strutt, Lord Rayleigh

John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh OM PRS was an English physicist who, withWilliam
Ramsay, discovered argon, an achievement for which he earned the Nobel Prize for Physics
in 1904. He also discovered the phenomenon now called Rayleigh scattering, which can be
used to explain why the sky is blue, and predicted the existence of thesurface waves now
known as Rayleigh waves. Rayleigh's textbook, The Theory of Sound, is still referred to by
acoustic engineers today.
For free convection near a vertical wall, the Rayleigh number is defined as:

where:
x is the characteristic length
Rax is the Rayleigh number for characteristic length x
Grx is the Grashof number for characteristic length x
Pr is the Prandtl number
g is acceleration due to gravity
Ts is the surface temperature
T is the quiescent temperature (fluid temperature far from the surface of the object)
is the kinematic viscosity
is the thermal diffusivity
is the thermal expansion coefficient (equals to 1/T, for ideal gases, where T is
absolute temperature).
For most engineering purposes, the Rayleigh number is large, somewhere around 10 6 to
108.

Daniel Bernoulli
Daniel Bernoulli was a Swiss mathematician and physicistand was one of the many
prominent mathematicians in the Bernoulli family. He is particularly remembered for his
applications of mathe matics to mechanics, especially fluid mechanics, and for his
pioneering work in probability and statistics. His name is commemorated in the Bernoulli
principle, a particular example of the conservation of energy, which describes the
mathematics of the mechanism underlying the operation of two important technologies of
the 20th century: the carburetor and the airplane wing.
In Hydrodynamica (1738) he laid the basis for the kinetic theory of gases, and applied the
idea to explain Boyle's law. He worked with Euler on elasticity and the development of the
Euler-Bernoulli beam equation. Bernoulli's principle is of critical use in aerodynamics.

The constant in the Bernoulli equation can be normalised. A common approach is in terms
of total head or energy head H:

The above equations suggest there is a flow speed at which pressure is zero, and at even
higher speeds the pressure is negative. Most often, gases and liquids are not capable of
negative absolute pressure, or even zero pressure, so clearly Bernoulli's equation ceases to

be valid before zero pressure is reached. In liquids when the pressure becomes too low
cavitation occurs. The above equations use a linear relationship between flow speed
squared and pressure. At higher flow speeds in gases, or for sound waves in liquid, the
changes in mass density become significant so that the assumption of constant density is
invalid.

Leonhard Euler
Leonhard Euler (1707 1783) was a revolutionary Swiss mathematician and physicist. He
made extremely important discoveries in many branches of mathematics like infinitesimal
and graph theory. He also introduced much of the modern mathematical terminology and
notation, particularly for mathematical analysis, such as the notion of a mathematical
function. He is also renowned for his work in mechanics, fluid dynamics, optics, astronomy,
and music theory.
In fluid dynamics, the Euler equations are a set of quasilinear hyperbolic equations
governing adiabatic and inviscid flow. They are named after Leonhard Euler. The equations
represent Cauchy equations of conservation of mass (continuity), and balance of momentum
and energy, and can be seen as particular NavierStokes equations with zero viscosity and
zero thermal conductivity.
Incompressible Euler equations with constant and uniform density
(convective or Lagrangian form)

where:

is the flow velocity vector, with components in a N-dimensional

space

denotes the material derivative in time,

denotes the scalar product,
is the nabla operator, here used in the flow velocity divergence (first equation),
and in flow velocity and specific pressure gradients (second equation), and

is the convective operator,

is the specific (with the sense of per unit mass) thermodynamic work, the
internal source term.

represents body accelerations (per unit mass) acting on the continuum, for
example gravity, inertial accelerations, electric field acceleration, and so on.