AC Analysis

! DC Analysis: voltage and current are constant with respect to time

! AC Analysis: voltage and current vary with time
EE 411: Circuit Theory " AC can be sinusoidal, square waves, or arbitrary periodic waveforms
! Sinusoidal is particularly important

" Commonly used, e.g., power systems, communications, etc.

Sinusoidal Steady-State Analysis - I " Simple periodic function (e.g., derivative and anti-derivative of a
sinusoidal is also a sinusoidal)
" Any periodic function can be represented as the sum of sinusoidal
function " Fourier Series

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Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis Outline - Part 1

We assume that the input signal has been applied for a long
! The Sinusoidal Source
time such that the transient component of the total response
has died out. ! The Sinusoidal Response
! The Phasor
" In other words, we can ignore the initial condition.
! Kirchoff’s Laws in the Frequency Domain
output
transient steady-state ! The Passive Circuit Elements in the Frequency Domain
! Series, Parallel, and !-to-Y Simplifications
! Source Transformations and Thévenin-Norton Equivalent
t Circuits
! Node-Voltage Method and Mesh-Current Methods

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 Sinusoidal Function Sinusoidal Function (cont)
" T = period = time interval of a cycle " Root mean square of a periodic function
v(t) = Vm cos (#t + $) v(t) = Vm cos (#t + $) (square root of the mean value of the squared
A cosine or sine function repeats itself every 2%
function) - used in power calculations
amplitude #T = 2% " T = 2% [sec] amplitude
# ! Sinusoidal function:
angular frequency angular frequency
phase angle " Frequency (number of cycles per second) phase angle t0+T
(radian/sec) (radian/sec) Vm
% radian = 180 o f=
1
T
=
#
2%
[#cycles/sec] or Hz Vrms =
1
T
!
t0
Vm2cos2(#t + $)dt =
2

" Phase angle $ " time shift v(t) v

Vm Vm
cos (#t1 + $) = 1
#t1 + $ = 0 t1
t t
t1 = -$ if $ > 0, function $/# $/#
# shifts to the left
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AC Analysis for Sinusoidal Function

Outline - Part 1
- Example
! The Sinusoidal Source t=0 R i(t) vs(t) = Vm cos (#t + $)
! The Sinusoidal Response
! The Phasor vs(t) L di
KVL: L + Ri = Vm cos (#t + $) for t " 0
dt
! Kirchoff’s Laws in the Frequency Domain
! The Passive Circuit Elements in the Frequency Domain
" Solving the DE we obtain:
! Series, Parallel, and !-to-Y Simplifications
! Source Transformations and Thévenin-Norton Equivalent -Vm Vm
i(t) = cos ($ – &) e-t/(L/R) + cos (#t + $ – &)
Circuits R2 + #2L2 R2 + #2L2
! Node-Voltage Method and Mesh-Current Methods
transient component (dies off for t ' #) steady-state component (still exist
as long as the switch is closed)
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 Steady-State Sinusoidal Analysis:
Example (cont) Response Characteristics
-Vm Vm ! The steady state response signal is a sinusoidal function
i(t) = cos ($ – &) e-t/(L/R) + cos (#t + $ – &)
( forced response has the same form as the forcing function
R2 + #2L2 R2 + #2L2
! The frequency (#) of the response signal is identical to the
transient steady-state
Vm frequency of the source signal (forcing function)
i(t)
R2 + #2L2 " Only true for linear circuits, i.e., when the circuit parameters R, L,
t=0 R i(t) and C are constant.
! Amplitude and phase angle of the response signal are
vs(t) L t usually different from amplitude and phase angle of the
source

" So, the steady state analysis task is reduced to finding the amplitude
and phase angle of the response (the waveform and frequency of
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Outline - Part 1 Steady-State Circuit Analysis

! The Sinusoidal Source " Phasor
Phasor Analysis:
Analysis:solves
solvesthe
theproblem
problemin
inaasimpler
simplerway
way
! The Sinusoidal Response
Conceptually:
! The Phasor (time domain) (time domain)
! Kirchoff’s Laws in the Frequency Domain Actual input vs(t)
D.E.
Actual response vout(t)
! The Passive Circuit Elements in the Frequency Domain (hard)

! Series, Parallel, and !-to-Y Simplifications Express in Transfer

complex (phasor) form back to
! Source Transformations and Thévenin-Norton Equivalent
Circuits Algebra
“Complex” input Vs “Complex” output Vout
(simple)
! Node-Voltage Method and Mesh-Current Methods
(complex number domain (complex number domain
or frequency domain) or frequency domain)
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 Representation of Complex Numbers
Representation of Complex Numbers
(cont)
! Complex number = real number + imaginary number ! Complex number = real number + imaginary number

z=x+jy , j * -1 z=x+jy , j * -1

Im(j) (complex plane) Im(j)

(1) Rectangular form (3) Exponential form z = re j&
z = 3 + j4
4 y r
x = Re{z} = r cos(&) &
3 Re x Re
z = r )&
(projections) y = Im{z} = r sin(&)
(2) Polar Form z = x + j y = r )& or | z | )&
z = x + j y = r cos(&) + j r sin(&) = r (cos(&) + j sin(&)) = re j& $
Im(j)
where r = | z | = x2 + y 2
| z | = z z* z = 3 + j4
4 r Euler identity: e±j& = cos& ± j sin&
& = tan-1(y/x) = 5)53.13o
z* = complex conjugate of z &
3 Re
(x – jy)
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Representation of Complex Numbers:

Summary
Phasor Notation
Im(j)
(1) Rectangular form z=x+jy " Suppose a sinusoidal voltage source: vs(t) = Vp cos (#t + &)
y
vs(t) = Vpcos (#t + &) Euler identity: e±j& = cos& ± j sin&
x Re
= Re {Vp ej(#t + &) }
(2) Polar Form z = r )& Im(j)
= Re { (Vp ej&) (ej#t )}
y r
r= x2 + y2 &
x Re = Re { (Vp )&) (ej#t )} = Re { (Vp )(& + #t)}
&= tan-1 (y/x)
phasor
standard polar form
(3) Exponential form z = re j& captures the two
unknowns of the
response signal (amplitude and phase angle)
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 Im b #t1 graphically: at t = 0,
Vp )& is a point in the
a t=0 complex plane (a)
r
Phasor: Summary Sinusoidal function
c & Re ej#t describes the
in the complex-number motion of a point
domain (also called in the complex plane
" The phasor of a sinusoidal function vs(t) = Vp cos (#t + &) is frequency domain) Re {} is the projection
onto the real axis
Vs = Vp )& vs(t) ex.: Re {Vp )&)]
t1 a
" The sinusoidal function of a phasor Vp )& is b sinusoidal function
is a cosine function
( vs(t) = Re {Vp ej#t } Sinusoidal function c t2 T
in the time domain
Time to go one cycle (i.e.,
complete one circle):

(from previous analysis) #T = 2%

vs(t) = Vp cos (#t + &)
vs(t) = Re { (Vp )&) (ej#t )} T = (2%)/#
= Re { (Vp )&) (ej#t )}

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Definition of Phasor Usefulness of Phasor Notation to Solve DEs

! Phasor for sinusoidal function v(t) = Vm cos (#t + &) = Vm Re{e j& e j#t } vs(t) = Vm cos (#t + $) Vs= Vm e j$
R i(t) = ?

V= P {Vm cos (#t + &)} = Vm e j& ( for hand writing use V instead of V )
vs(t) L di
exponential form KVL: L + Ri = Vm cos (#t + $) (1)
or dt
phasor transform (transfers the sinusoidal
V = Vm )& polar
function from the time domain to the " We know that the steady state solution for i is in the form [ same forcing form]
form
or complex number or frequency domain) of the forcing function (in this case, cos), and same frequency (#)):

V = Vm cos(&) + Vm j sin(&) rectangular form i(t) = Im cos (#t + +) = Re {I e j#t } (2)

where I = Im e j+ (a complex constant capturing
! Inverse phasor transform transfers the sinusoidal function from the substituting (2) in (1)
both unknowns)
frequency/complex domain to the time
P-1{V e j& } = Vm cos (#t + &) domain) d Vm cos (#t + $)
m L Re {I e j#t } + R , Re {I e j#t } = Re {Vs e j#t } (a)
(multiply by e j#t and extract the real part) dt
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 ej#t describes the motion
Usefulness of Phasor Notation to Solve DEs Usefulness of Phasor Im b t = t1
(cont) Notation to Solve DEs (cont) t = t0
r a
(b)
& Re
R i(t) = ? vs(t) = Vm cos (#t + $) Vs= Vm e j$ Re { ( j# L I + R I – Vs ) e j#t } = 0 what does it mean?

i(t) = Im cos (#t + +) = Re {I e j#t } (2)

vs(t) L # j# L I + R I – Vs is just a complex number,
where I = Im e j+ a Re
a point on the complex plane
(a) " at t = 0: {} = r e j& t1
d b
L Re {I e j#t } + R , Re {I e j#t } = Re {Vs e j#t } (previous)
dt " at t = t1: {} = r e j(& + # t1) magnitude r remains the
same, only the phase
angle changes
but d d substituting
Re {I e j#t } = Re I e j#t = Re { j# I e j#t }
dt in (a)…
dt ej#t rotates this point about the origin (a)
at frequency #.
Re { j# L I e j#t } + Re {R I e j#t } = Re {Vs e j#t }
So, equation (b) says that the real part of {} has to the t
Re { (j# L I + R I – Vs) e j#t Margarida
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ej#t describes the motion

Usefulness of Phasor Im Usefulness of Phasor Notation to Solve DEs
Notation to Solve DEs (cont) (cont)
Re { ( j# L I + R I – Vs ) e j#t } = 0 (b) Re Vs= Vm e j$
j# L I + R I – Vs = 0
I = Im e j+
Equation (b) says that the real part of {} has to the ( I = Vs
zero at all times Re R + j# L

Vm e j$
" In order for that to happen, the point must be =
R2 + #2 L2 e j& where & = tan-1(#L/R )
at the origin in the complex plane.
(converted to polar form)
i.e., both the real part and the imaginary part of Vm
this complex constant must be zero. = e j($ – &) same as the steady state solution
R2 + #2 L2 derived before solving DE (see SL 6)
( j# L I + R I – Vs = 0
( i(t) = P-1 {I} Vm
" i(t) = cos (#t + $ – & )
t R2 + #2 L2
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 Sum of Sinusoidal Functions
Outline - Part 1
Using Phasor Notation
" Let v = v1 + v2 +… + vn , where all voltages in the right hand side are
sinusoidal voltages of the same frequency #. ! The Sinusoidal Source
Then ! The Sinusoidal Response
V = V1 + V2 +… + Vn ! The Phasor
! Kirchoff’s Laws in the Frequency Domain
Example: v = 250 cos (377t + 30o) – 150 sin (377t + 140o ) sin (#t +- ) = cos (#t +- – 90o)
! The Passive Circuit Elements in the Frequency Domain
o o o
= 250 cos (377t + 30 ) – 150 cos (377t + 140 – 90 )
! Series, Parallel, and !-to-Y Simplifications
= 250 cos (377t + 30o) – 150 cos (377t + 50o )
! Source Transformations and Thévenin-Norton Equivalent
Moving to frequency domain:
Circuits
V = 250 ) 30o – 150 ) 50o = 250 [ cos (30o) + j (sin (30o)] – 150 [ cos (50o) + j (sin (50o)]
= 216.5 + j 125 – 96.4 – j 114.9 = 120.1 + j 10.1 ! Node-Voltage Method and Mesh-Current Methods
V = 120.1 + j 10.1 = 120.52 ) 4.8o " back to time domain: v = 120.52 cos (377t + 4.8o)
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KVL in Phasor Notation KVL and KCL in the Frequency Domain

+ vR (t) – " KVL: -vs(t) + vR(t) + vL(t) = 0
+ KVL applies to phasor voltages: V1 + V2 +… + Vn = 0
+ R Re{-Vs e j#t} + Re{VR e j#t} + Re{VL e j#t} = 0
vs(t) L vL(t)
– – Re{(-Vs +VR +VL ) e j#t} = 0
%0 " KCL: a similar derivation can be done for the sum of currents at a node
( (-V
(-Vs s+V +VLL))==00
+VRR+V
+ VR –
+ + KCL applies to phasor currents: I1 + I2 +… + In = 0
R
Vs L VL KVL in the Frequency Domain
– –

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 Quest 7 Outline - Part 1
i1(t)
Given ! The Sinusoidal Source
i1 = 100 cos (500t + 20o)
R i2(t) i3(t) ! The Sinusoidal Response
vs(t) i2 = 50 sin (500t + 120o)
L2 L1 ! The Phasor
Determine i3 ! Kirchoff’s Laws in the Frequency Domain
Reduce i2 to cos form ! The Passive Circuit Elements in the Frequency Domain
sin (#t +- ) = cos (#t +- – 90o) ! Series, Parallel, and !-to-Y Simplifications
Move to frequency domain, compute I3: ! Source Transformations and Thévenin-Norton Equivalent
I3 = I1 – I2 Circuits
Move to back to domain (from I3, determine i3): ! Node-Voltage Method and Mesh-Current Methods

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The V-I Characteristic for a Resistor Definition of Impedance and Admittance

Time Domain Frequency Domain rate of the circuit’s
" Assume that the current in R varies sinusoidally with time Impedance is measured
i (t) voltage phasor to its in ohms
i(t) = Im cos (#t + &i) &i: phase angle of the current current phasor
+
R v (t) I
" The voltage at the terminals of R is V
– Impedance: Z =
v(t) = R[ Im cos (#t + &i)] = R Im cos (#t + &i)] + I
Z V (complex values)
Frequency Domain – I
Admittance: Y = Admittance is measured
I j&i " Magnitude relationship between voltage and current: V in Siemens
I = Im e
+ |V|= R|I| (i.e., Vm = R Im )
V=RI If the circuit element is a resistor with resistance R:
R V
– " Phase relationship between voltage and current: " Z = R (Resistance)
V = R Im e j&i )V =)I (i.e., &v = &i) (real values)
" Y = G (Conductance)
resistor in the frequency (both signals are said to be in phase)
domain Margarida Jacome - UT Austin 31 Margarida Jacome - UT Austin 32
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 The V-I Characteristic for an Inductor The V-I Characteristic for an Inductor (cont)
Time Domain Frequency Domain
" Assume that the current in L varies sinusoidally with time V = j#L Im e j&i
i (t) I " Impedance: Z = j#L
i(t) = Im cos (#t + &i) &i: phase angle of the current V = j#L I (imaginary values)
+ + " Admittance: Y = 1/j#L
L v (t) j# L V
" The voltage at the terminals of L is
– – (physically: current cannot vary
v(t) = L di = L[-#Im sin (#t + &i)] “instantaneously”)
dt
= -#L Im cos (#t + &i - 90o) [=#L Im cos (#t + &i + 90o)]
" Magnitude relationship between V and I
# ' 0 (DC) : | V | = 0 (short circuit)
Frequency Domain o o
| V | = #L | I |
V = -#L Im e j(&i -90 ) = -#L Im e j(&i)e -j90 |V|
#'.: |I| = = 0 (open circuit)
I #L
= j# L I m e j&i o
o o
+ e -j90 = cos (- 90 ) + j sin (- 90 ) = -j
j#L V " Phase relationship between V and I
– V = j#L I o
j = e j90 ( V = j#L Im e j&i = #L Im e j&i e j90o = #L Im e j(&i + 90o)
current “lags behind”
inductor in the frequency domain Margarida Jacome - UT Austin
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e j90 = cos (90o) + j sin (90o) = j Margarida Jacome
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( - UTv Austin
= i & + 90o voltage by 90o
34

The V-I Characteristic for an Inductor (cont) The V-I Characteristic for a Capacitor
Frequency Domain Time Domain Time Domain
" Assume that the voltage at the terminals of C varies sinusoidally with time
I i (t)
V = j#L I i (t) v(t) = Vm cos (#t + &v) &v: phase angle of the voltage
+ i(t) = Im cos (#t + &i) +
+ C
j#L V | V | = #L | I | L v(t) = -#L Im cos (#t + &i - 90o) v (t) " The current in C is
v (t)
– &v = &i + 90 o o –
– = #L Im cos (#t + &i + 90 ) i(t) = C dv = C[-#Vm sin (#t + &v)]
dt
v(t) = -#CVm cos (#t + &v - 90o) [=#C Vm cos (#t + &i + 90o)]
Im v, i
ej#t Frequency Domain o o
90o/# I = -#C Vm e j(&v -90 ) = -#C Vm e j(&v)e -j90
i(t)
| V | = #L | I | I
o +
= j#C Vm e j&v o
e -j90 = cos (- 90o) + j sin (- 90o) = -j
90 t
Re
&i
j#C V
ej#t – I = j#C V (current phasor )
|I|
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capacitor in the frequency domain EE411
 The V-I Characteristic for a Capacitor (cont) The V-I Characteristic for a Capacitor (cont)
Frequency Domain Frequency Domain Time Domain
I = j#C Vm e j&v
I " Impedance: Z = 1/j#C I I = j#CV i (t) v(t) = Vm cos (#t + &v)
+ I = j#CV (imaginary values)
" Admittance: Y = j#C +
1/j#C V + i(t) = -#CVm cos (#t + &v - 90o)
1/j#C V | I | = #C | V | C
– v (t) = #CVm cos (#t + &v + 90o)
(physically: voltage cannot vary – &i = &v + 90o
“instantaneously”) –

" Magnitude relationship between V and I i(t)

# ' 0 (DC) : | I | = 0 (open circuit) Im v, i
ej#t
| I | = #C | V | |I| 90o/#
# ' . : | V |= = 0 (short circuit) v(t)
#C | I | = #C | V |
90o t
" Phase relationship between V and I Re
&v
o
ej#t
j = e j90 ( I = j#C Vm e j&v = #C Vm e j&v e j90o = #C Vm e j(&v + 90o)
|V|
o
& + 90 90-oUT Austin
o
e j90 = cos (90o) + j sin (90o) = j EE411
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37 voltage lags behind Margarida
current byJacome
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Terminology Outline - Part 1

I
+
! The Sinusoidal Source
V
Impedance: Z =
I
= R+jX (/) ! The Sinusoidal Response
V
–
! The Phasor
resistance reactance ! Kirchoff’s Laws in the Frequency Domain
! The Passive Circuit Elements in the Frequency Domain
I
! Series, Parallel, and !-to-Y Simplifications
Admittance: Y = = G+jB (S)
V ! Source Transformations and Thévenin-Norton Equivalent
Circuits
conductance susceptance ! Node-Voltage Method and Mesh-Current Methods

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 Series and Parallel Combinations Voltage & Current Divider
a Z1 Z2 + V1 – I
Vab = Z1 I + Z2 I + … + Zn I Vab
V1 = Z1 I I= a Z1
+ Z 1 + Z2
Vab I + +
( Zab = = Z 1 + Z2 + … + Z n Vab Zn
I Z1 V2 Z2
V1 = Vab Vab
– Z 1 + Z2 –
(total impedance) –
b
b

a I
1 1 1 1 Z1 I1 = Z2 I2 = Z2 (I - I1)
= + +…+ +
Zab Z1 Z2 Zn I1 I2
Zn Zn Zn Z2
or Vab I1 = I Z1 Z2
Yab = Y1 + Y2 + … + Yn – Z 1 + Z2
b
Z 1 Z2
if n = 2: Zab = Margarida Jacome - UT Austin 41 Margarida Jacome - UT Austin 42
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Thevenin & Norton Equivalents /

Phasor Domain
Source Transformations
a
All other methods and transformations also directly apply in
Zs a
the phasor domain
Is
! Source Transformations and Thevenin-Norton Equivalent Vs +–
0 Zs

Circuits b
! !-to-Y Simplifications b
with Is = Vs / Zs
! Node-Voltage Method and Mesh-Current Methods (A) (B)

Thevenin equivalent " Circuit (A)

(rely on KCL & KVL) For linear networks only (as before).
Norton equivalent " Circuit (B)

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 Problem 1 Problem 1 (cont)
1/ j3/ 0.2/ j0.6/ 0.2/ j0.6/
Use the concept of source transformations Is = 4 - j 12 Vo= ?
+ +
to find the phasor voltage Vo.
40)0o 9/ 10/ 1/
+ Vo 9/ 10/ Vo
– Is (1 + j 3) (9 – j 3)
-j3/ -j19/ Zs = = 1.8 + j 2.4
j3/ -j3/ 1+j3+9–j3
– -j19/ –
Vs = Is Zs = (4 - j 12 )(1.8 + j 2.4) = 36 – j 12
0.2/ j0.6/ Zs
40 40 (1 - j 3)
Is = = 1.8/ j2,4/ 0.2/ j0.6/ (voltage divider)
+
1/ 1+j3 1+9 + 10 – j 19
9/ 10/ Vo = 36 – j 12 =
Is Vs 10/
Vo 12 – j 16
j3/ = 4 - j 12 + Vo
-j3/ -j19/ –
-j19/
= 36.12 – j 18.84 V
–
–
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Problem 2 Problem 2 (cont)

(b) If ig = 0.75 cos #t mA (where # is the
The frequency of the sinusoidal current source
frequency found in part (a)), what is the
3.2k/ is adjusted until vo is in phase with ig. 3.2k/
steady-state expression for vo?
+ +
ig 20k/ 250nF (a) What is the value of # in radians per second? ig 20k/ 250nF
vo vo 1 + 1 + j# (0.25,10-6)
Yo =
– 4H – 4H 2,104 3200 + j#4
Yo = 1 + 1 + j# (0.25,10-6)
2,104 3200 + j#4 = 1 + 3200 – j#4 + j 0.25,10-6 #
Yo Yo from (a) 2,104 10.24 ,106 + 16#2
= 1 + 3200 – j#4 + j 0.25,10-6 #
2,104 10.24 ,106 + 16#2
1 3200
Imaginary component of Yo (600rad/s) = + = 250µS
admittance (susceptance) – 4# 2,104 10.24 ,106 + (16)(36,104)
( + 0.25,10-6 # = 0 (Im = 0)
must be zero 10.24 ,106 + 16#2 Zo = 1/ Yo = 4k/ " Vo = Zo Ig = 4000 (0.75,10-3) )0o
#2 = 36 ,104 " # = 600 rad/s VVo ==3)0oo
V vvo(t) = 3 cos 600t V
o 3)0 V o(t) = 3 cos 600t V
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 Problem 3 Problem 3 (cont)
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit with respect to the terminals a and b Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit with respect to the terminals a and b

12 -j40 -j40 KVL:

10
a a 100 = 10 I – j40 I + 120 I + 10Vx
+
120)0o + 120 o
100)0 I = (130 – j40)I + 10Vx (1)
+ 120
– Vx 60 +
– Vx
– + 10Vx + Vx = 100 – 10 I substituting in (1)
– – 10Vx
(12//60)=10 -j40 –
b b
Th a 100 = (130 – j40)I + 10 (100 – 10 I )
12 +
120 -900 -900 (30 + j40)
100)0o + I= =
+ – Vx 30 – j40 302 + 402
(120)(60) + 10Vx
120)0o +
– 60 )0o – –
b = (-270/25) - j(360/25) = 18 )-126.87o A
– 72

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Problem 3 (cont) Problem 3 (cont)

Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit with respect to the terminals a and b Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit with respect to the terminals a and b

10 -j40 VTh = 120 I + 10Vx Vx = 100 – 10 I 10 -j40 IT a ZTh = ? Thevenin Impedance

a
+ – Vx +
100)0o I 120 I1 120 ZTh = VT / IT IT = I1 + I2
+
– + VT
Vx VTh = 120 I + 10 (100 – 10 I) = 20 I + 1000 –
+ 10Vx I2 + 10Vx VT
– –
– I1 =
b 10 - j40
I = (-270/25) - j(360/25) = 18 )-126.87o A b

Thevenin VTh = 20 ((-270/25) - j(360/25)) + 1000 = 784 - j 288 = 835.22 )-20.17o VT

voltage phasor VT – 10Vx VT – -(9 + j4)
" I = 1 - j4
VTh I2 = 2 = VT
120 120 120 (1 - j4)

Check: -100 + 10 (-270/25 - j(360/25)) – (j40)(-270/25 - j(360/25)) + 784 - j 288 = 0 $

Margarida Jacome - UT Austin 51
Vx = 10 I1 Margarida Jacome - UT Austin 52
EE411 EE411
 Problem 3 (cont)
Find the Thevenin equivalent of the circuit with respect to the terminals a and b

10 -j40 IT a ZTh = ? Thevenin Impedance

– Vx +
I1 ZTh = VT / IT Vx = 10 I1
120
+ VT
–
I2 + 10Vx VT -(9 + j4)
–
I1 = I2 = VT
10 - j40 120 (1 - j4)
b

VT (9 + j4)
IT = I1 + I2 = 1– " ZTh = VT / IT = 91.2 - j38.4 / $
10 - j40 12

Margarida Jacome - UT Austin 53

EE411