A Grounded Theory of Academic Change

Author(s): Clifton F. Conrad

Source: Sociology of Education, Vol. 51, No. 2 (Apr., 1978), pp. 101-112
Published by: American Sociological Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2112242
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THEORY OF ACADEMIC CHANGE

101

Meyer
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A GROUNDED THEORY OF ACADEMIC CHANGE*

CLIFTON F. CONRAD
College of Williamand Mary
Sociology of Education 1978, Vol. 51 (April): 101-112
A grounded theoryof academic change is offeredas an alternativeto existingmodels of
academic change. The constant comparative method, an inductivemethod of discovering
theory,is elaborated and applied to the emergenceof the theory.The theoryis thenpresented
througha series of theoreticalstatementswhichrelate a series of primarilypolitical concepts
and processes. Briefly,the theoryidentifiesseveral major processes whichlinkpressuresfor
change and a policydecision to change: conflictand interestgrouppressuresfollowedbypower
exertion, administrativeintervention,faculty leadership exercised throughinterestgroup
advocacy, and compromiseswhichare negotiatedthroughadministrativeleadership. Finally,
the theoryis brieflydiscussed and compared withalternativemodels of change, including
Baldridge's political model of academic change.

Duringthepast decade, theprocessof ten about the ostensible sources of

level change,littleis knownabout the condichangeat thecollegeanduniversity
debate. tionsunderwhich,orthedegreeto which,
has beenthetopicofconsiderable
upon
Whatis change?How does itcomeabout? ''sources of change"are influential
Whatare the majorprocessesinvolved? those who make the decision about
Whoaretheagentsofchange?Allofthese whetherchangewillor willnotoccur.
modelshavebeendevelFourprincipal
arecentralquestionsthathavebeenposed
academicchange. oped whichhave guidedresearchon acaby thoseinvestigating
arefrequentlydemicchange:the complexorganization
Collegesand universities
discussedin termsof theirsusceptibility(Griffiths,
1969;Hodgkin1964;Hefferlin,
to externaland internalenvironmentalson, 1970), diffusionof innovations
muchhas been writ- (Mitchell,1970; Rogers, 1962), planned
pressures.Although
* The data thatare used in thisstudyhave been change (Lippitt,Watson,and Westley,
dissertation, 1958;Bennis,Benne,and Chin,1961;Roadaptedfromthewriter'sunpublished
TowardA TheoryofAcademic Change. The Univer- gers, 1964), and the political(Fashing,
sityof Michigan,1975.I am indebtedto Professor 1969; Baldridge,1971; Lindquist,1972).
forhis
ofMichigan,
University
RobertT. Blackburn,
Each modelhas centereduponsomeparon thispaper.
comments
supportand insightful
comConrad, ticularaspect of change(authority,
to Dr. Clifford
Addresscommunications
but
grouppressures),
interest
Schoolof Education,Collegeof Williamand Mary, munication,
Va. 23185.
Williamsburg,
explananonehas provideda satisfactory

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102

CONRAD

tionas to preciselyhowchangeoccursor
who and whatare finallychangedat the
end of theentireprocess.
For the most part change has been
viewedas some mysticalprocessthatis
totallyunplanned.Kerr (1963:102)characterizesthisview:

METHODOLOGY

ConstantComparativeMethod

The constantcomparativemethod,an
inductivemethodof discoveringtheory
thathas been elaboratedmostsystematicallybyGlaserand Strauss(1967),served
Whenchangedoes come,it maybe by the as the majorresearchprocedure.In genorbysubversion eral, the comparativemethodcombines
slowprocessofpersuasion,
alliance,or by systematiccoding and analysis with
theinside-outside
as through
samplingto generatea theory
decision.Theacademiccommunity, theoretical
external
processinvolved, thatis integrated,
oftheparticular
regardless
close to the
consistent,
is morechangedthanchanging;changeis data, and in a formclear enoughto be
thanplanned.
moreunplanned
fortestingin quantitative
operationalized
fewattempts research. Unlike most methods of
Therehavebeen,however,
to isolatethosefactors,externalor inter- analysis,which are designedto ensure
whichare mostcritical thattwo analystsworkingindependently
nalto institutions,
thechangeprocess.Neither withthe same data willachievethesame
in originating
method
has therebeen muchresearchdirectedat results,theconstantcomparative
thekindofflexibility
the dynamicsand pro- is designedto permit
understanding
oftheory.
cessesofacademicchange.Moreover,the thataidsthecreativegeneration
in the
included
stages
are
four
There
attempts
few
includes
relevantliterature
incimethod:(1) comparing
to generate,muchless test,a theoryof comparative
academicchange.The fourmodelshave dentsapplicableto each category;(2) incategoriesand theirproperties;
dimen- tegrating
to different
sensitizedresearchers
the theory;and (4) writing
delimiting
(3)
may
these
and
process
sionsofthechange
insight.But there- thetheory(Glaserand Strauss,1967:105).
proveto offerfurther
searchhas been largelydescriptiveand First,theanalystcodes each datumincicriti- dentintoas manycategoriesofanalysisas
seldomcenteredaroundidentifying
to, possible.As categoriesemergeor as data
relationship
their
and
in,
variables
cal
emergethat fit existingcategories,the
thechangeprocess.
in termsof the
purposeofthisarticleis to analystbeginsthinking
The primary
of thecategory:its
properties
presenta groundedtheoryof academic theoretical
changethatis baseduponresearchguided dimensions,its relationshipto other
by two majorresearchquestions:What categories, and the conditions under
This
or minimized.
are the major sources of academic whichitis pronounced
to
change?What are the major processes processincludesa continualreturning
whichacademicchangeoccurs? the data until the categories become
through
saturated.
For purposes of this paper, grounded theoretically
moves from
from The analysisincreasingly
generated
is definedas theory
theory
obtainedandanalyzed comparisonof incidentwithincidentto
datasystematically
of
ofincidentwithproperties
through the constant comparative comparison
method.Because thisapproachhas not the categorythat resultedfrominitial
reof incidents.The further
beenexplicatedas a majorresearchmeth- comparisons
and
variables)
(or
of
categories
finement
literature,
education
odologyinthehigher
graduallyleads to
methodwillbe theirinterrelationships
theconstantcomparative
oftheory.The theoryis
elaboratedand applied to the research thedevelopment
delimitedas a smallerset of
theory continually
problemstatedabove. A grounded
ofacademicchange,whichis based solely higherlevel conceptsemerges.Finally,
is convincedthatthe
oftheconstantcompar- whentheresearcher
on theapplication
integrated,the
ative method, will subsequently be theoryis satisfactorily
Thefinal theoryis presentedeitherin a discussion
ina discussionformat.
presented
sectionexaminesthetheoryin lightofal- formor as a set of propositions.
Theoreticalsamplingis the processof
modelsof change.
ternative

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THEORY OF ACADEMIC CHANGE

103

collectingdata forcomparative
analysis, for theoretically
relevantdata, firstbeand it is especiallyintendedto facilitate tween similarand different
comparison
thegeneration
oftheory.Beyondthedeci- groups, continuesuntil all the critical
sions concerning
the initialcollectionof variablesandtheirinterrelationships
have
data,theprocessofdatacollectionis con- beentheoretically
The criterion
saturated.
trolledonlyby theemerging
theory.That forsaturationis thatno additionaldata
is, the emerging
theoryenables the re- can be foundwhichfurther
embellishthe
searcherto selectcomparison
groups(in- theory.
cludinggroupswithininstitutions)
on the
method
thecomparative
To summarize,
basis of theirtheoretical
relevance,thus is notbuiltupona predetermined
designof
avoidingthecollectionofa largemass of datacollectionandanalysisbutrepresents
dataofquestionable
theoretical
relevance. a methodof continually
the
redesigning
Put differently,
the universeof data is researchinlightofemerging
conceptsand
graduallydelimitedthroughthe use of interrelationships
amongvariables.Using
theoretical
criteria.
a comparativetechniquethatallows for
The criticalquestionintheoretical
sam- similarities
between
and laterdifferences
plingis: To whatcomparison
groupsdoes groups,qualitative
data are soughtfroma
one turnnextin data collection?Andfor varietyof sourcesto ensurea richcomwhattheoretical
purpose?The basic crite- parative data base. The comparative
riongoverning
the selectionof compari- methodof continualcodingand analysis,
son groupsfordiscovering
theoryis their controlled
of
bytheguidelines
throughout
theoreticalrelevancefor furthering
the theoretical
lendsitselfto differsampling,
of emerging
development
categories.The entmethodsofdatacollectionwhichyield
researcher
is throughout
an activesampler a diversity
of data,butdata thatare colof theoretically
relevantdata as he/she lectedandanalyzedtotheextentthatthey
identifiesthe central variables of the are in the serviceof groundedtheory.
must Thereare severalreasonsfortheselecemerging
theory;thustheresearcher
method.First,itis
continually
analyzethedata to see where tionofthecomparative
wellthe next theoreticalquestionwill lead. a methodology
whichis particularly
When initially generating the basic adaptedto thetaskofgenerating,
and not
categoriesand theirproperties,the re- simplyverifying,
theory.Insteadof relysearcher minimizesdifferencesin the ing on preselectedgroups,as in most
comparative
groups.Underthesecondi- methodologies
whichplace relativeemindataleadsto: phasis on verification,it includes the
tions,maximum
similarity
the usefulnessof the vari- comparison
groups
(1) verifying
ofsimilaranddifferent
oftheory.In
basic properties;
and to facilitate
thedevelopment
ables; (2) generating
sets of conditionsfor a particular, the maximization of dif(3) establishing
degreeof variation.
ferencesbetweengroupspromotesthe
Withtheemergence
ofa basic theoreti- embellishment
of the theory.Thus the
cal framework,
the researcherturnsto comparative method provides not a
slicesof data are
differences
maximizing
amongcompari- methodwheredifferent
son groups. The maximizationamong seen as a test of each otherbut rather
whichmustbe
comparisongroups(by maximizingdif- different
modesofknowing
ferencesindata)stimulates
by
thegeneration explainedand integrated
theoretically
and further
refinement
oftheoretical
pro- addingslicesofdatato qualifythetheory.
pertiesonce the basic frameworkhas Coupled with theoreticalsampling,the
of thediver- comparative
methodencouragesa multiemerged.The maximization
inwhichthereareno
sityinthedataforces:(1) thedensedevel- facetedinvestigation
ofthevariables; limitsto thetechniquesofdatacollection,
opmentoftheproperties
of the scope of the thewaytheyareused,orthetypesofdata
(2) the delimitation
of
theory.Theoreticalsamplingof differentacquiredexceptforthe requirements
comparativegroups complementsthe theoretical
saturation.
second and thirdstagesof the constant Second, the constantcomparisonof
comparativemethod.The active search variables(includingtheirpropertiesand

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104

CONRAD

theirinterrelationships
witheach other) was carefullyemployedto avoid forced
results in a type of "development" responses.In the latterstagesof the retheory.The grounded
theoryis constantly search,as the theorygraduallybeganto
almost
beingdelimited
andmodified
inlightofthe emerge,the formwas restricted
thedata.
phenomena under investigation.The entirely
toa deviceforrecording
data,a considcomparative
methodespeciallyfacilitates In additionto interview
and secondary
thegeneration
of theoriesof processand erableamountof primary
changethrough
thejointprocessofcoding materialwas gatheredat each ofthefour
listsandmin(1) membership
and analysisuntiltheoretical
saturation
is institutions:
ad
committees,
reached.
utesfromtheappropriate
hoc groups,and facultysenates;(2) personal files of committeemembers;(3)
Sample Selection
campusnewspaperarticles;(4) published
According
to theguidelinesoftheoreti- and unpublished
reports;(5) personalletcal sampling,comparisongroupsor in- ters;(6) speeches;(7) publishedarticles;
stitutions
shouldbe selectedon thebasis and (8) tapes of facultymeetings.These
valuablein inwereextremely
oftheirtheoretical
relevance.In thecase documents
of thisparticularresearchproblemonly terpretingdata gathered from interinstitutions
that had changedtheircur- viewees and constitutedan excellent
riculum
metthatcriterion.
Butthecompar- checkon theotherdata.
by a
was confronted
ativemethodalso calls fortheminimiza- The investigator
andimmediately
tionand the maximization
of differenceslargebodyofdataduring
the initialfieldvisits.The colbetween comparativegroups. In this following
study,that criterionwas satisfiedby lecteddata wereexaminedin detailfrom
duringand folwhichhad utilized all fouroftheuniversities
choosinginstitutions
different
vehiclesto realizechange.For lowingthevisits.At thesametime,howbegan
example,formalcurriculum
committees ever, the researcherimmediately
variables,includoftheemerging
wereused in some institutions,
whileon thinking
and conditions
otheroccasionsad hoc groupswereem- ingtheircentralproperties
underwhichthey were maximizedand
ployed.
theirconsequences,and their
Four institutions
were selectedwhich minimized,
met the sample criterion.Two of the relationto other variables. Theoretical
schools,theUniversity
of Rochesterand propertiesgraduallyemergedfromthe
Ohio State University,were selected dataas conceptswerefirstdevelopedand
firstrecorded.
because the vehicleof change relationships
primarily
was the formalcurriculumcommittee. The Universityof Rochesterwas the
to be visited.The evidence
institution
Aquinas College and WesternMichigan first
were selectedbecause theve- at Rochesterearly suggestedthatwhile
University
conflictseemedto be a preunderlying
hicleof changewas an ad hoc group.
becamevisofchange,conflicts
condition
internal
presor
external
when
ible
only
Procedure
the statusquo. Several
suresthreatened
Duringthe initialvisitto each of the major pressures for change were
fourschools,data collectionwas guided suggestedby the evidence: curriculum
faculty
and sociologi- practices at other institutions,
bya generalorganizational
turnover.
and organizational
cal perspective.An extensiverange of subcultures,
qualitativedata was obtained,including It is useful to indicate how one
practicesat other
interviews
and documents.
pressure-curriculum
Interviewswere the main source of institutions-wasidentifiedas a major
data.In theearlystagesoftheresearch,as sourceof change.
thatthe
The evidencewas compelling
to make
the researcherwas struggling
sense out of the data, an open-ended majorpressureforchangewas curricular
formguidedthediscussion.Its innovation concurrently being iminterview
the in- plementedat institutions
thatRochester
mainvalue was in systematizing
quiryarounda broadset of questions.It considersin itspeergroup.For example,

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THEORY OF ACADEMIC CHANGE

105

examination
of a numberof documents, evidencegatheredat Rochester.At the
includingfacultyminutes,revealedthat same time,however,it is important
to
the Rochesterfacultywas sensitiveto note thatthe researcheralso soughtexchangingacademicpracticesat selected planations
conceptsandproforemerging
Ivy League institutions,
including
Colum- positions,forgroundedtheorymustnot
bia, Yale, and Princeton.Moreover,in- onlybe inducedon thebasis ofevidence;
witha widevariety
offaculty
terviews
and itmustalso includeplausibleexplanations
administrators
supportedthe generaliza- forpurported
In thiscase,
relationships.
tionthata majorreasonforreviewing
the therewere two such explanations.First,
curriculum
was thatcertainIvy League administrators
are likelyto have an overinstitutions
had modifiedtheircurricula. all perspectiveof theirinstitutions
beThe Dean oftheCollegeofArtsand Sci- cause of theirformalposition.At many
ence, who servedas the majoragentof institutions,
to pressuresfor
sensitivity
change,admittedthatacademicchanges change, sine qua non, is essential for
at Princetonwere a major impetusto maintaining
position.
an administrative
change.Thus on the basis of the initial Second,theadministrative
leadershiphas
visitto Rochester,one tentative
proposi- a vested interestin identifying
and retionwas: Curriculum
Practicesat Institu- spondingto pressuresfor change. The
tionsPerceivedas Peer Institutions
are a maintenance
of theirpositionsis at least
MajorSourceofChange.Like manypro- partlydependentupon the accommodathisgen- tion of formaland informalcomponent
positionsintheemerging
theory,
eralizationwas later modifiedbecause partsof theirrespectiveinstitutions.
It is
additionalevidencedisconfirmed
the im- oftenintheinterests
oftheadministrative
portanceof the emphasisinitially
placed leadershipto controlor guidethosepreson peerinstitutions;
themodified
proposi- sures by initiating
the process of curtionthatcurriculum
practicesat otherin- riculumchange,regardlessof individual
stitutions
are a majorimpetusto change preferences
eitherforor againstchange.
was eventually
incorporated
intothefinal This discussion of the gradual
evi- emergence of a theory of academic
theorybecause of strongsupporting
dence fromeach of the sample institu- change,based on evidencefromRochestions.
ter,emphasizestheroleofbothevidence
The evidenceat Rochestertentativelyand explanationin the developmentof
suggesteda politicalperspectiveof the groundedtheory.At the same time,to
change process, and relationshipsbe- insurethatadditional
or alternative
explatweeninterestgrouppressures,conflict, nationsof curriculum
change were not
and changewere initiallyexplored.But overlooked,a concertedeffort
was made
one aspectofthechangeprocessemerged throughout
the fieldvisitsto avoid the
as central:the role of an administrativeearly delimitationof a theory which
agentwho providesthe impetusforthe would,in turn,lead onlyto thecollection
reexamination
of the academicprogram ofdatasupporting,
ormoddisconfirming,
for ifying
mechanism
by selectinga controlling
thatset of explanations.
change.
the reThis caveat notwithstanding,
The Rochesterevidence clearlyindi- searcheradopted a broad interpretative
catedthattheDean oftheCollegewas the framework,
whichespeciallyguidedthe
centralagentin the changeprocess.For interview
visprocess,as he subsequently
example,everysingleinterviewee,
except ited Aquinas College,WesternMichigan
the Dean himself,admittedthat cur- University,and Ohio State University.
riculumreexamination
probablywould Thisframework
consistedofa broadsetof
nothave been seriouslyentertained
with- questions which, based on the earlier
outhisinvolvement.
Morethanone inter- data-collection,
guided the
increasingly
vieweerecalledthe Dean's judicioususe research.Especiallyduringtheinitialvisof information
as a tool for promoting its,theprocessualand dynamiccharacter
change.
cannotbe overemphaof thisframework
The criticalrole of the administrativesized. Not infrequently,
for example,
in one
changeagentwas firstsuggestedby the variablesthat seemed important

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106

CONRAD

settingwere irrelevantin anotherand thepositiononlyunderthecondition

that
is
wereomitted
fromtheguiding
framework.thecollegewouldengagein a self-study
The roleofan outsideAdvisoryBoardat an indicationof the strongsentiment
for
Aquinas College is a case in point.Be- changeat Aquinas. Thus whilethe new
cause outsideconsultantswere not in- presidentservedas thevisibleagent,the
forhis selectionwas tied
cludedin thechangeprocessat theother hiddencriterion
institutions,
there was insufficient
evi- to quasi-interestgroup pressure for
dence to suggestthatconsultantsare a change.Without
pressuresforchange,the
necessary component of curriculum new president mightnot have been
change.
selectedundersuch unusualconditions.
was stronglysupTo illustratethe ongoingdynamicbe- This interpretation
In
it is in- portedby sevenof nineinterviewees.
tweendiscoveryand verification,
structiveto brieflyreviewsome of the any case; the new presidentwas hardly
forchangeand,
evidencefromAquinasCollege,the sec- unawareofthissentiment
to self-study
ond institution
visitedduringthe initial coupledwithhiscommitment
roundoffieldvisits.It was at Aquinasthat whenhe acceptedtheposition,it proved
rationale
forembarking
at
thepoliticalimageofacademicchangeas- tobe a powerful
oftheacasumed a more prominent
place in the onceon a majorreexamination
Based upona large demicprogram.
emerging
framework.
Regardlessof interestgrouppressures
numberof interviews,
the evidencesupportedtheinterpretation
thatpriorto the for change, curriculumreexamination
initiationof effortsto bringabout cur- would not have come aboutwithoutthe
All fourteen
personsinterthe newpresident.
riculumchange,conflictsconcerning
academicprogram
hadbeenemasculated. viewed at Aquinas,includingthe presiagreedthathe was theagent
But increasingly
the Aquinascommunitydenthimself,
becamedividedovertheissue of change of change.
in generaland curriculum
changein parThe politicalimageof the changeprodevice
ticular.The circumstances
leadingto the cess emergedas a usefulanalytical
to in explainingthe process of change at
committed
selectionofa newpresident
of the
the completion
curriculum
changehelpedto illuminate
a Aquinasfollowing
the
relationshipbetween an increasingly self-study
process.Morespecifically,
as opposedto
social structure
and adminis- conceptofpowerexertion,
fragmented
in theprocessofaca- morestaticnotionssuchas "powerholdtrativeintervention
demic change. Interviewevidence re- ing" or theinnocuousterm"power,"befor
vealed that the emergence of quasi- came a criticalvariablein accounting
interestgroup sentimentfor academic thedecisionto changetheacademicprooftheevidenceat
changewas the mostcriticalunderlying gram.An interpretation
factorleadingto the selectionof a presi- Aquinassuggeststhatpowerexertionby
dentcommitted
to change.As one inter- an interestgroupfavoringchangeis imfortworeasons.First,itforcesthe
viewee put it: "We wanted somebody portant
decision-making
bodyto conwho would shake the institution
to its appropriate
politicalroots." An influential
groupof sider seriously the recommendations
by thead hoc committee.
Secseniorlay facultyand manyyoungerfac- submitted
ultyviewedAquinasas a staticinstitution.ond, power exertionby interestgroups
changecombinesadvocacywith
In particular,
theyviewededucationalin- favoring
novationas a way of addressing
impend- a powerbase which,ifusedresourcefully,
tobringabouta decision
ingfinancialproblemsand responding
to maybe sufficient
In any event,the
thetrendtowardmajor.curricular
innova- to changecurriculum.
tionsat otherliberalartsinstitutions.
Be- evidence at Aquinas revealed a comcause theywereunwilling
to seize theini- promise decision between competing
tiativeundertheheavy-handed
leadership interestgroups,but one in which the
in terms
of theformer
president,
however,it was changesin thecurriculum-both
and magnitude-reflected
the
not untilhis retirement
thatan opportu- of direction
nityexistedforchange.The subsequent interestsof the groupexertingthe most
whowouldaccept power.
selectionofa president

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THEORY OF ACADEMIC CHANGE

107

The emphasison discovery,

as muchas lection and the universe of data was
verification,
guided the data collection gradually delimited. Interviews were
and
processas subsequent
visitsweremadeto orientedtowardtesting,elaborating,
the theory.As a techniquefor
WesternMichiganUniversityand Ohio refining
the
StateUniversity.
Thusnumerous
alterna- achievingclosureat each institution,
tive explanationsof the changeprocess researcherasked several interviewees
thatwerebeingtested.
as the researcherre- aboutpropositions
were investigated
sistedthetendency
towardpremature
clo- This techniquerequiredcourage,but.its
sure.Indeed,severalnewconcepts,such dividendfor validationis immense.If
thatthepropositions
as "structural
reorganization"
as a major therewas agreement
of the
pressureforchange,were added to the were a reasonableinterpretation
framework.
Interestingly,
however,most process,thevisitwas concluded.If there
derived was some disagreement,then it was
oftheconceptsand relationships
fromthevisitsto thefirsttwoinstitutionsnecessaryto conduct additionalinterrewere confirmed
by evidencefromWest- views untila revisedinterpretation
ernMichiganUniversity
and Ohio State; ceivedvalidation.
Followingthe second fieldvisits,the
still,the evidence fromthe lattertwo
sheetswereamendedin
schoolsled to a considerablerefinementanalyticsummary
of severalof theconceptsand theirrela- light of the new data. Afterfurther
validationof certain
to academicchange.Increasingly analysis,in-cluding
tionship
moreusefuldefi- evidence,the researcherconcludedthat
rigorousand potentially
nitionsweredevelopedas conceptswere no additionaldata could be foundwhich
embellished
thetheory.
revisedbased upontheongo- further
continually
of thedata.
inginterpretation
fieldvisits,theinter- An Illustrationof theResearch Procedure
Followingthefirst
view data wereformally
recordedand a
The sheervolumeofthedata collected
lengthy
analyticsummary
sheetwas preas wellas a subThe broadin- duringtheinvestigation,
paredforeach institution.
whichhad been stantial numberof institutionalpecuterpretative
framework,
revisedduringthevisits,was liarities
at eachofthefoursampleschools,
continually
in theselengthy
summaries. precludesa thoroughdiscussionof the
systematized
By the conclusionof the firstroundof richness,complexity
and movement
that
the applicationof the confield visits, a primitivetheoryof cur- characterized
methodto thisinvestistantcomparative
riculumchangewas outlined.
Duringthesecondphase offieldvisits, gation.However,the readermightgain
the constant collecting, coding, and greaterinsightinto the dynamicof disby an illustration
morecloselyto the coveryand verification
analysisconformed
guidelinesof theoreticalsampling.Two of how one conceptwas abandonedand
comparison
groupswereselectedfortheir anotherwas modifiedduringthe second
theoretical
relevanceon thebasis of pre- fieldvisits.
As the investigator
began the second
liminary
analysisthattheprocessof curriculumchangewas relatedto thevehicle roundof visits,the conceptof faculty
in an ad hoc mechanism
during
of change.The University
of Rochester leadership
and Ohio State University,which had the policy-recommending
process had
useda formal
curriculum
were been incorporatedinto the primitive
committee,
comparedand contrastedwithAquinas theory.The concepthad beenfirstdevelCollegeandWesternMichiganUniversity oped duringthe initialvisitto Western
wherea preliminary
wheread hoc groupshad been utilized. MichiganUniversity
Thismaximization
thead hoc
ofdifferences
between analysisofeventssurrounding
thefurther group suggestedthatthe chairmanand
comparisongroupsstimulated
anotherfacultymemberexercisedan imrefinement
of thetheory.
A returnvisitwas made to all of the portantrole in the changeprocess.Five
had indicatedthatthechairof Roches- interviewees
schoolsexcepttheUniversity
perter.Duringthissecondphase,theemerg- manwas thesinglemostinstrumental
for
ingtheoryguidedtheprocessofdatacol- son in realizinga recommendation

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108

CONRAD

change.Followingthe establishment
of tant role in accommodating
substantial
theprimitive
theory,
theinvestigator
con- differences
within
theirrespective
groups.
cludedthattheconceptshouldbe furtherThe leadersof studygroupson Teaching
testedat WesternMichigan;moreimpor- Resourcesand LearningResources,for
tant,evidenceshouldbe obtainedfrom example, accommodateddifferences
of
the other institution
(Aquinas College) opinionthatwould have otherwisesplit
utilizing
an ad hoc mechanism
in orderto thegroupsoverproposedchangesin gensupport,disconfirm,
or modify
thetenta- eral education.Thus the evidencefrom
tiveproposition
regarding
facultyleader- Aquinas, like WesternMichigan,manship.
datedthatchairpersons
of ad hoc groups
The returnvisitto WesternMichigan are essentialcomponentsof the change
yieldeddata whichtendedto disconfirmprocessin thebrokeragesenseofaccomtheimportance
previously
placedon fac- modatingdifferences;
in particular,the
ultyleadership.In particular,interview mythof collegialityis judiciouslyemdatasuggested
ofthe ployedby powerbrokersto delegitimize
thatthecomposition
ad hoc group and the commitment
to deviantsandmoldapparentconsensusfor
an ad hoc vehicle, academicchange.
changeaccompanying
together
witha policy-recommending
proThisillustration
providesan instructive
cess relatively
freeofinterest
grouppres- exampleof howone conceptwas disconsures,werefarmoreresponsibleforthe firmed while another was modified
to changethanfaculty throughthe gradualdelimitation
recommendation
of the
leadership.In thetestingof thisproposi- theoryduringthe second roundof field
the
tion,however,data werecollectedwhich visits.At theveryleast,it illustrates
shed furtherlight on the developing dynamicprocessoftheory
construction
in
theconcept the researchsetting.The theory,which
theory.AtWestern
Michigan,
developedand refined
of "collegiality"was further
developed hadbeengradually
andmodified
as theinvestigator
attempted throughout
theentireresearchprocess,is
toverify
theconceptoffaculty
leadership. presentedbelow.
It was verified
thatthechairman
ofthead
hoc grouppromoted
themythofcollegialA GROUNDED
THEORY
OF
ity to mold apparentconsensusby acACADEMIC
CHANGE
the
differences
commodating
throughout
processand duringthewriting
ofthefinal Premises of the Theory
committee
report.Thuswhiletheconcept
1. Conflictis a naturalprocessin coloffaculty
was disconfirmed,
an leges and universities
leadership
whichmayor may
importantvariable in explaining the notlead to change.Change,on theother
policy-recommending
process in ad hoc hand,willinvariably
includesomeconflict
refined.The concept betweenold and new social conditions
groupswas further
of collegiality
was definedas brokerage and theirproponents.Moreover,change
leadershipby the chairpersonwhereby mustalso involvetheexerciseofpowerby
dissatisfied
interest
potentially
groupsare a group(s)favoring
change.
2. Colleges and universities
persuadednot to exertpowerto realize
are splintheirpreferred
goals.
socialgroupshaving
teredintodivergent
The return
visitto AquinasCollegeand variousinterests.
Thatis, theyare made
the collectionof additionaldata furtherup of a loose assemblageof formaland
disconfirmed
the earlierpropositionre- informalparts,withvaryingdegreesof
gardingfacultyleadership.Indeed, no integration.
thegoalsofcolleges
Although
singlefacultyleaderof the threevisible and universities,
as in thearea ofgeneral
Aquinasfacultywas agreedupon by in- education,maybe statedso broadlyas to
tervieweesas havingexercisedan indis- be acceptableto nearlyeveryonein an
pensable role in the self-study.
At the institution,
how these goals are to be
sametime,however,pinpointed
observa- achievedandpreciselyhowtheyareto be
tionsrevealedthattheleadersof several interpreted
is a majorsourceof conflict
thelargerad hoc betweenvariousinterest
studygroupscomprising
groups.
groupat Aquinashadexercisedan impor- 3. Colleges and universitiesare not

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THEORY OF ACADEMIC CHANGE

109

of
characterizedby an authoritystructuremaylead to changesin thedistribution
whichis centralizedvis-a-visacademic powerwhichin turnlead groupsto reintointerest evaluate their preferredgoals. Other
policy.Theyare fragmented
groupsand potentialpower blocs, each major internalpressuresinclude orgaattempting
to influencepolicyso thatits nizationalturnover
and the development
valuesand goals are givenconsideration.of facultysubcultures;major external
Insofaras it is possible,thereis a tend- pressures include fluctuatingfinancial
and
ency for interestgroupswithpower to conditions,
newfacultyand students,
excludeotherswithless power,such as curriculum
practicesat otherinstitutions.
through
administrators
excludingstudentsfrom 3. Conflictis oftenheightened
groupswith
theclash of vestedinterests;
the decision-making
process.
4. Although
thereare conflicting
values and goals seek to find
poweris diffuse,
in colleges meansforthe translation
of thesegoals
elementsof formalauthority
in orderto initiate
influence
and universities,and a recognizable intoeffective
decision-making
processdoes exist. Ad- action by the appropriate policybody.
ministratorsare agents of academic recommending
inthe
leadership,
change,thoughtheyare notas frequently 4. The administrative
advocatesofchangeas theyareproviders personof an agent,respondsto interest
ofthe grouppressuresforchangeby selectinga
ofan impetusto thereexamination
of mechanism
academicprogramand the negotiators
of acaforthereexamination
betweeninterest
groups.
compromises
providesan imdemicpolicyand thereby
5. To understand
change,thegoalsand mediateimpetusforchange.
mustbe taken
values of administrators
5. As interestgroupsexertpower to
are achieve theirown goals, quasi-interest
into accountbecause administrators
the most frequentinterpreters
of orga- groupsjoin together
forcommonpurposes
nizationalgoals.
as poweris exertedand countereduntil
groups
thereare onlytwo majorinterest
is
exertion.
Conflict
in
power
involved
The Theory
of
intopolicyin thedirection
transformed
1. Conflictexistsin thecollegeor uni- thegroupexerting
morepower.Thusit is
versityto the extent that all interest thegroupor groupsthateithersingularly,
amountof
groupsbelievethattheyare participatingor inconcert,exertthegreatest
in the decision-making
process. Those power upon/againstthe administrators
of due to theirnumbersor the voice they
interestgroupsin the social structure
that
thatdo notbe- have in the academic community
collegesand universities
lieve theyare in a positionof poweror is/aremostlikelyto have theirinterests
equally and goals articulated throughpolicy
influenceor are not benefiting
fromtheacademicrewardsystemtendto changes. If the policy-recommending
be agentsofconflict
and agitation
against bodyis an ad hoc group,however,then
the statusquo. Administrators
may be power is not exerteduntilthe recomofacademic mendations
seen as eitherthefacilitators
to changereachtheapproprichange or the "establishment"holding ate legislativebody. Underthesecondithepowerand unwilling
to change.They tions,chairpersons
ofad hoc groupspropotentially
bypersuading
maynotmerelybe "brokers"duringthe motecollegiality
In thecollegeanduni- dissatisfiedinterestgroupsto accept a
processofconflict.
versity,how and by what methodsad- carefullyorchestrated
proposalfor acaministratorsare influencedby power demicchange.
whether
or not
groupslargelydetermines
6. Although
decisionsdo notnecessarchangewilloccur.
orders,
ily take theformof bureaucratic
2. Althoughunderlying
conflictsmay administrators
may indeed exercise a
be embeddedinthesocialstructure
ofcol- brokeragerole betweencompetingintertheybecomevisi- est groups.In particular,
leges and universities,
certainmythsble when one or more externaland/or such as collegiality-areused by power
thestatusquo. brokersto moldapparentconsensusand
internal
pressuresthreaten
for example, delegitimize
Structuralreorganization,
deviants.On theotherhand,

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110

CONRAD

thefaculty
at largeserveas advocatesfor justmentsby the organization
to disrupinterest
groupsand forchangeproposals tiveforces.Althoughthismodelemphaemanatingfrom policy-recommendingsizes externalsourcesof change,it does
bodies.
sources;changeis imnotignoreinternal
7. Oncetheprocesshas proceededpast posed on the organization
and is essenthepolicy-making
stage,a new academic tiallyunplannedand unintentional.
policy is the officialclimax to interest Viewedintermsofthegrounded
theory
groups'pressuresforchange,administra-discussedabove, the complexorganizative intervention
and brokerage,faculty tionmodelis particularly
usefulas a tool
advocacy,and powerexertionby interest to sensitizeresearchers
to theunderlying
groupsfavoringchange. The new aca- sources of change, because academic
demic policy may in turncreate con- changeis initiallymoreunplannedthan
troversy,
alienatecertaininterest
groups, plannedandmoretheresultofimpersonal
and engenderanotherpowerstruggle
and forces than intentionalactions. At the
movement
forchange.
same time,however,the modelassumes
8. Competent administrators,when that pressuresare nearlyautomatically
aware thatsuch a struggle
existswithin accommodatedwithinthe institution
as
the college or universityenvironment,minorchanges are made. Because the
mayfacilitate
theprocessofchange,make modeldoes notfocuson theproblematic
itless divisiveand,at times,less destruc- outcomeofpressuresforchange,itfailsto
tivebyproviding
channelsofcommunica- explainhow pressuresare linkedto a detionbetweenvaryinginterest
groupsand cision to changethe academicprogram.
byattempting
to establishuniversity
goals Thislackofattention
to thedynamicproand valuesin concertwiththeentireuni- cess is compoundedbecause the formal
versity
environment.
However,onegroup bureaucraticstructureis emphasizedat
or anotherwill periodicallyattemptto the expense of informal
processes. For
exertits power to the maximumextent example,themodeldoes notsatisfactorily
possible withinits particularacademic accountforconflict,
interest
groupformaenvironment.
betweengroups,and
tion,theinteraction
informal
powerrelationships.
change perspective
The
planned
DISCUSSION
suggeststhat the impetusfor change
Four different
modelshave guidedre- comesfromwithinan organization,
witha
search on academic change: complex changeagent servingas a catalyst;the
of greateremphasis,however,is on theproorganization,
plannedchange,diffusion
innovation,and political. This section cess ofchange,wherechangeis viewedas
ofthefirstthreemod- rationaland intentional.
evaluatestheutility
The searchfor
els in lightof thetheorydevelopedhere. the commongood of the institutionBecause Baldridge'spoliticalmodelmost whenaccompaniedbyinterpersonal
trust,
itwillbe communication, and participationthetheory,
closelyapproximates
sec- invariably
discussedintheconcluding
summary
leads to change.
tion.
The plannedchangemodelis especially
usefulin explainingthe immediateimA Comparison withAlternativeModels of petusto changein thepersonofa change
agent,and itis also a goodtoolforunderChange
prostandingthe policy-recommending
Proponentsof a complexorganization cess whenan ad hoc groupis appointedto
viewchangeas a responseto reviewthe academic programof an inperspective
pressuresand demandsfromtheenviron- stitution.
The policy-recommending
phase
is threatened
ment.Whenan institution
by can fruitfully
be analyzedthroughusing
itactstoprotectitself thisapproach.But the modelfallsshort
stressesandstrains,
actionswhich withregardto explainingthe sourcesof
by initiating
compensatory
oftenlead to changesin the programor change and the dynamicsof the final
Put simply, decision-making
structure
oftheorganization.
process. Althoughthe
changeis viewedas a resultofminorad- processmayappearrational,
itis mislead-

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THEORY OF ACADEMIC CHANGE

111

ingto inferthattheimpetusto changeis nal social structuralforces,which frethe "conscious, deliberative,and col- quentlythreatenthe statusquo, are the
laborativeeffort
to improvetheoperation underlying
sourcesof academicchange.
of a systemthrough
theutilization
of sci2. Conflictand InterestGroup Formaentificknowledge"(Bennis,Benne, and tion.In responseto one or moreofthese
Chin,1961:3).Moreover,theassumption pressures for change, quasi-interest
are
conflicts
that the final decision is consensually groupsemergeas preexisting
reachedrepresents
a normative
prescrip- forcedinto the open. Conflictis often
tionratherthana heuristic
framework
for heightenedthroughthe clash of vested
values
grapplingwiththe empiricalworld.The interests
as groupswithconflicting
model cannot account for the informal andgoalsseekto findmeansforthetransinfluprocesseswhichprompttheinterventionlationof thesegoals intoeffective
of the change agent and which,in the ence.
decision-making
stage,lead to a decision
3. AdministrativeIntervention. In reto changetheacademicprogram.
sponse to interestgroup pressuresfor
agentprovides
The diffusion
of innovations
approach change,an administrative
of the
of the impetusforthe reexamination
viewschangeas a resultofthediffusion
by selectinga controlinnovativeeducationalpractices.How- academicprogram
forchange.
ever, the focus is more on the process lingmechanism
4. Policy-Recommending Stage. A
thanthe antecedentsourcesof academic
is made to changethe
change.The diffusion
paradigmis useful recommendation
in alertingthe researcherto the role of existingacademicprogram.
inthecommunica- 5. Policy-MakingStage. Finally,policy
interpersonal
influence
tions process: Who (source) says what will be determinedin the appropriate
body.
(message) to whom (receiver)through decision-making
stagesfourandfive,power
what channels(medium)to what effect Throughout
faculty
(consequences).But the modelprovides is exertedand counteredthrough
an incompletepictureof the process of advocacyuntilthereare onlytwo major
of interestgroupsinvolvedin power exeracademicchange. Althoughdiffusion
thenenacta brokeroutside innovationsserves as a major tion.Administrators
groupsas
sourceofchange,thereare otherexternal age rolebetweentheremaining
and internal
sources.Moreimportant,
the a compromisedecision is reached to
inthedirecdiffusionmodel assumes that interper- changetheacademicprogram
morepower.
sonal influenceand communication
are tionof thegroupexerting
witha
The theoryhas manysimilarities
sufficient
to bringabout change. The
modelcannotaccountforotherinformal politicalmodelofacademicchange.In its
processeswhichfirstprompt'
thereexam- generally accepted usage, a political
and sub- modelfocusesexplicitlyon the political
inationoftheacademicprogram
the process of
lead to a decisionto changethe dimensionssurrounding
sequently
academicchange,givingspecialattention
program.
groupsandthe
ofinterest
All threeof thesemodelsofferinsights to theformation
into the sources and dynamicsof aca- ways in whichthese groupsattemptto
in theshaping
demicchange.But takenindividually
or utilizepowerand influence
be
collectively,
theyfail to accountforthe ofnewpolicy.The theorycan fruitfully
withBaldridge's(1971)insightproblematic
outcomeof changewithout contrasted
distinctlypolitical pressures and pro- fulpoliticalparadigmofacademicchange
the and governance.
cesses. They also fail to investigate
Whilepoweris exertedduringall five
natureof academicpowerin the change
stages,it is stagethreethatbecomesthe
process.
criticalstagein thetheory.It is therethat
the administratorbecomes either the
Summaryand Conclusions
for change or resistschange.
facilitator
oftheadministratTo summarizebriefly,the theoryfol- Thustheunderstanding
ive rolenotonlyas a "brokeragerole" in
lows fiveoverlapping
stages:
1. Social Structure.Externaland inter- the'processof academicchange,as Bal-

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112

CONRAD

dridge'smodelsuggests,
butalso as a ves- groundedtheoryof academic change,
ted interestgroup with a substantial generatedfromdata systematically
obamountof poweris a criticalelementin tainedand analyzedthrough
theconstant
the process of change.The appropriate comparative
method,nowrequiresfurther
through
choice by the administrative
theapplication
agentof a testing
ofverificavehicleforchangewillthenaccountfora tionmethodologies.
At the veryleast,it
a testedapproachto guideresearch
changeinpolicyin stagesfourandfive.It offers
is this aspect of the theory,the under- on academicchange.
standing
ofwhohas powerwithin
theacademicarena,and how thatpoweris used
to influence
in theirselecadministrators
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