ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE

Abstract
AI is a branch of science which deals with
helping machines find solutions to computer problems
in a more human like fashion. we start by making a
distinction between mind and cognition, and by
positing cognition is an aspect of mind .The term AI was
coined in 1956 by John McCarthy at the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology. The field was founded on the
claim that a central property of humans, intelligence
the sapience of Homo sapienscan be so precisely
described that it can be simulated by a machine. This
raises philosophical issues about the nature of the mind
and limits of scientific hubris, issues which have been
addressed by myth, fiction and philosophy since
antiquity. Artificial intelligence has been the subject of
optimism, but has also suffered setbacks and, today, has
become an essential part of the technology industry,
providing the heavy lifting for many of the most difficult
problems in computer science, Mechanical or "formal"
reasoning has been developed by philosophers and
mathematicians since antiquity. AI generally involves
borrowing characteristics from human intelligence, and
applying them as algorithm in human friendly way. It is
basically the ability of a machine to think for itself. It
aims at getting computers to do tasks which require
human intelligence. In short it can be described as
simple things turn out to be the hardest to automate like:
Recognizing a face, Navigating a busy street,
Understanding what someone says.
We tried to explain the brief ideas of AI and its
application to various fields. It cleared the concept of
computational and conventional categories. It includes
various advanced systems such as Neural Network,
Expert Systems, Fuzzy Systems and Evolutionary
computation. AI is used in typical problems such as
Pattern recognition, Natural language processing and
more. This system is working throughout the world as an
artificial brain. This paper throws light on evolution of
ai in india along with pros and cons.

methods that are not observed in people or that involve

much more computing than people can do. We discussed
conditions for considering a machine to be intelligent.
We argued that if the machine could successfully pretend
to be human to a knowledgeable observer then you
certainly should consider it intelligent.

1. Introduction
It is the branch of Computer Science concerned with
making computers behave like humans. It is the Science
and Engineering of making intelligent machines,
especially intelligent computer programs. It is the hot
topic on many boards and software houses.
Although AI has a strong science fiction connotation, it
forms a vital branch of computer science, dealing with
intelligent behavior, learning and adaptation in machines.
It combines with and contributes to several other
disciplines, including:
Psychology
Philosophy
linguistics
biology
anthropology
logic
mathematics
computer science & software engineering
Research in AI is concerned with producing machines to
automate tasks requiring intelligent behavior. Examples
include control, planning and scheduling, the ability to
answer diagnostic and consumer questions, handwriting,
speech, and facial recognition. As such, it has become a
scientific discipline, focused on providing solutions to
real life problems.
AI systems are now in routine use in economics,
medicine, engineering and the military, as well as being
built into many common home computer software
applications, traditional strategy games like computer
chess and other video games.

2. History

We can learn something about how to make

machines solve problems by observing other people or
just by observing our own methods. On the other hand,
most work in AI involves studying the problems the
world presents to intelligence rather than studying
people or animals. AI researchers are free to use

methods now classified as machine learning,

characterized by formalism and statistical analysis. This
is also known as symbolic AI, logical AI, neat AI and
Good Old Fashioned Artificial Intelligence (GOFAI).
Methods include:
Expert systems: apply reasoning capabilities to reach a
conclusion. An expert system can process large amounts
of known information and provide conclusions based on
them.
Case based reasoning
Bayesian networks Behavior based AI: a modular
method of building AI systems by hand.
The intellectual roots of AI, and the concept of
intelligent machines, may be found in Greek mythology.
Intelligent artifacts appear in literature since then, with
real mechanical devices actually demonstrating
behaviour with some degree of intelligence. After
modern computers became available following World
War-II, it has become possible to create programs that
perform difficult intellectual tasks.
1950 - 1960:
The first working AI programs were written in 1951 to
run on the Ferranti Mark I machine of the University of
Manchester (UK): a draughts-playing program written
by Christopher Strachey and a chess-playing program
written by Dietrich Prinz.
19601970 :
During the 1960s and 1970s Marvin Minsky and
Seymour Papert publish Perceptrons, demonstrating
limits of simple neural nets and Alain Colmerauer
developed the Prolog computer language. Ted Shortliffe
demonstrated the power of rule-based systems for
knowledge representation and inference in medical
diagnosis and therapy in what is sometimes called the
first expert system. Hans Moravec developed the first
computer-controlled vehicle to autonomously negotiate
cluttered obstacle courses.
1980s onwards:
In the 1980s, neural networks became widely used with
the back propagation algorithm, first described by Paul
John Werbos in 1974. The 1990s marked major
achievements in many areas of AI and demonstrations of
various applications. Most notably Deep Blue, a chessplaying computer, beat Garry Kasparov in a famous sixgame match in 1997

3.Categories of AI :
AI divides roughly into two schools of thought:
Conventional AI:
Computational Intelligence (CI):
Conventional AI : Conventional AI mostly involves

Computational intelligence (CI):Computational

Intelligence involves iterative development or learning
(e.g. parameter tuning in connectionist systems).
Learning is based on empirical data and is associated
with non-symbolic AI, scruffy AI and soft computing.
Methods include:
Neural networks: systems with very strong pattern
recognition capabilities.
Fuzzy Systems: techniques for reasoning under
uncertainity, has been widely used in modern industrial
and consumer product control systems.
Evolutionary computation: applies biologically inspired
concepts such as population, mutation and survival of the
fittest to generate increasingly better solution to the
problem. These methods most notably divide into
evolutionary algorithms (e.g. genetic algorithms) and
swarm intelligence (e.g. ant algorithms).

4. Mechanisms
Over the past five decades, AI research has mostly been
focusing on solving specific problems. Numerous
solutions have been devised and improved to do so
efficiently and reliably. This explains why the field of
Artificial Intelligence is split into many branches. Some
of the branches have been explained below.
4.1 Planning:
Planning programs start with general facts about the
world (especially facts about the effects of actions), facts
about the particular situation and a statement of a goal.
From these, they generate a strategy for achieving the
goal. In the most common cases, the strategy is just the
sequence of actions.
4.2 Pattern recognition:
The main focus in AI today is getting a computer to
recognize, make senses and recreate in what it sees and
hears.
The two major divisions of pattern recognition are
machine vision and sound.

Pattern-Recognition-Vision:
It's goal is to get a computer to recognize pictures so that
it can recognize objects in its surroundings that would be
helpful in robotics.
Pattern-Recognition-Sound:
It wants to achieve a similar goal but is a primary
concern with companies that want to produce a new
means in which a person interacts with a computer by
talking.
4.2 Ontology:
Ontology is the study of what objects are and what are
they made of. It is the study of kinds of things that exist.
In AI, the programs and sentences deal with various
kinds of objects, and we study what these kinds are and
what their basic properties are.
4.3 Robotics:

4.4Artificial life: From robot dreams to

reality:
Artificial life is a field of scientific study that attempts to
model living biological systems through complex
algorithms. Scientists use these models to test and
experiment with a multitude of factors on the behaviour
of the systems.
It is a diverse field of research, but a common theme is
testing out the fundamental principles of life by building
detailed working models. One of the most ambitious
goals of artificial-life research is the construction of
living systems out of non-living parts. Artificial life is a
blanket term used to refer to human attempts at setting up
systems with lifelike properties all biological organisms
possess, such as self-reproduction, homeostasis,
adaptability, mutational variation, optimization of
external states, and so on.
4.5 Epistemology:
Epistemology is a study of knowledge that are required
for solving problems in the world.

5. Research challenges:
Artificial Intelligence and robotics are likely to creep into
our lives without us really noticing. However, AI has
spawned some useful applications like expert systems
and game AI, but the truly pervasive use of AI is still to
come as more research and improved technology surfaces
in the future. Here are a few applied innovations that AI
promises in the future and the technologies behind them.

Robotics is the study of how to design, build, use, and

work with robots. Robots are mechanical devices that
can move and react to sensory input giving them some
degree of autonomous control.
Robots are widely used in the industrial sector
performing high-precision jobs such as painting and
wielding. They are used in laboratories for repetitive
tasks in chemistry and biology, and in situations, which
would be dangerous for humans such as cleaning toxic
waste or defusing bombs.
Three laws of robotics:
1. A robot may not injure or harm a human being or
allow a human being to come to harm.
2. 2. A robot must follow the instructions given to it by a
human being without violating Rule 1
3. 3. A robot must protect itself as long as such
protection does not violate Rules 1 and 2.

DARPA Grand Challenge:

The DARPA Grand Challenge was a race for a $2
million prize where cars had to drive themselves over a
hundred miles of challenging desert terrain without any
communication with humans, using GPS,
computers and a sophisticated array of sensors. This
was the first in a series of challenges aimed at a
congressional mandate stating that by 2015 one-third
of the operational ground combat vehicles of the US
Armed Forces should be unmanned.
Telephone Translators:
One of the common cliches when one talks about the
future is how the world is shrinking every day. Distance
used to be a barrier in travel and the invention of the
airplane changed all that. Time used to be a factor in
communication since the mail system took months to
deliver a letter across the United States, but the telephone
dissolved such a hurdle. The combinations of travel and
communications has brought whole nations together

except now the last barrier in international relationship is

language. This is where telephone translators will
change all that.
Essentially, a person from the United States says some
things in English into his telephone. Almost
instantaneously, a computer intercepts the voice,
translates what was said, and synthetically generate the
appropriate Japanese words to the person on the other
line. Of Course, the translator would need advanced
voice recognition, natural language processing and
inferencing to extract what was meant by the Englishspeaker, and then synthesize a human-sounding Japanese
person's voice in conversational Japanese

probably continue into the future, but once a computer

convincingly passes the test and becomes more and more
integrated with society, this test would be at least the best
approximation of intelligence possible.

Research Assistants:
The world is moving from the Industrial Age to the
Information Age where the phrase "knowledge is power"
is becoming a reality. With so much information out
there, it has become harder and harder to find what is
really relevant. This is where a research assistant
powered by AI can help. Not only can the assistant
understand what one is looking for, which requires
natural language processing, it is smart enough to know
where to look and compare what it finds to what it is
looking for to see how relevant the information is, so the
person doesn't have to do the 'dirty work.' Research
assistants will be an important tool in the future by
keeping the world of information from exploding into an
infinite chaos of unorganized facts and figures.

Medicine: New blood test spots cancer

In one of the biggest advances in cancer research in
years, scientists have developed a blood test that can
detect cancer with a greater than 90% accuracy. This
artificial intelligence --already tested for cancers of the
breast, ovary, and lung--could one day be used to detect
many types cancer. 'All that's needed is a single drop of
blood 'The computer does the rest.'...In tests on
several hundred blood samples, some taken from women
with ovarian cancer and others from healthy women, the
test proved 'an astonishing' 100% accurate in detecting
cancer, even at the earliest stages.

A Greater Use of Expert Systems:

With such success as a diagnostic in medic and
mechanics presently, expert systems will be more
prevalent in other applications that require an expert
with whom people can consult with. Need to identify the
perfect pet for a friend? A pet expert system could ask
some questions related to the person's personality so that
it can conclude the types of animals that would be suited
for them. What kinds of dishes can one make tonight
with the food in the refrigerator? Input the foods into a
cook expert system and find out. The possibilities for
expert systems are almost endless. If expert systems are
designed and built correctly, users should be able to
easily program their own expert and should make better
decisions in their lives.
Passing the Turing Test:
The idea behind the test is that if a machine could make
a person think he/she was interacting with an intelligent
person, why not consider the machine intelligent in its
own right? The controversy over the Turing Test will

6. Applications
Artificial Intelligence is helping people in every field to
make better use of information to work harder not
smarter. The potential applications of Artificial
Intelligence are abundant. However, some of the
applications of AI have been listed below:

Artificial nose:
Scientists have endowed computers with eyes to see,
thanks to digital cameras, and ears to hear, via
microphones and sophisticated recognition software.
Now they're taking computers further into the realm of
the senses with the development of an artificial nose.
E-nose to sniff out hospital superbugs:
"E-nose analyses gas samples by passing the gas over an
array of electrodes coated with different conducting
polymers. Each electrode reacts to particular substance
by changing its electrical resistance in a characteristic
way. Combining the signals from all the electrodes gives
a 'smell-print' of the chemicals in the mixture that neural
network software built into the e-nose can learn to
recognize. As a result, it can be detected from the smell
alone that what the bacterial infections are.
Military:
A new model of army soldier rolls closer to the
battlefield:
The American military is working on a new generation of
soldier, far different from the army it has. 'They don't feel
hungry,' said Gordon Johnson of the Joint Forces

Command at the Pentagon. 'They are not afraid. They

don't forget their orders. They don't care if the guy next
to them has just been shot. Will they do a better job than
humans? Yes.' The robot soldier is coming. The
Pentagon predicts that robots will be a major fighting
force in American military in less than a decade, hunting
and killing enemies in combat. Robots are a crucial part
of the Army's effort to rebuild itself as a 21st-century
fighting force, and a $127 billion project called Future
Combat Systems is the biggest military contract in
American history.
Game AI:
Only a pawn in its game:
Hydra is the latest chess supercomputer to lay down the
gauntlet to the world's top players. Its architects say it is
the greatest ever built, but don't expect it to rejoice in
victory or get the post-match drinks in.
It is a behemoth of a machine that pits 32-linked
processor against its flesh-and-blood opponents. Hydra's
backers claim it can analyze 200 million chess moves in
a second and project the game up to 40 moves ahead.
Natural Language processing:
The goal of the Natural Language Processing (NLP)
group is to design and build software that will analyze,
understand, and generate languages that humans use
naturally, so that eventually you will be able to address
your computer as though you were addressing another
person.
This goal is not easy to reach. "Understanding" language
means, among other things, knowing what concepts a
word or phrase stands for and knowing how to link those
concepts together in a meaningful way. It's ironic that
natural language, the symbol system that is easiest for
humans to learn and use, is hardest for a computer to
master. Long after machines have proven capable of
inverting large matrices with speed and grace, they still
fail to master the basics of our spoken and written
languages.

of tiny, subconscious rules-truths we that have learned

from experience. Add them up and you get instinct: a
doctor's sense that a patient's stomach-ache might really
be appendicitis, for example. Program those rules into a
computer and you get an expert system- one of many that
can screen lab tests, diagnose blood infections, and
identify tumors on a mammogram.

7. Pros and Cons

Pros:
Artificial intelligence finds applications in space
exploration. Intelligent robots can be used to explore
space. They are machines and hence have the ability to
endure the hostile environment of the interplanetary
space. They can be made to adapt in such a way that
planetary atmospheres do not affect their physical state
and functioning.
Intelligent robots can be programmed to reach the Earth's
nadirs. They can be used to dig for fuels. They can be
used for mining purposes. The intelligence of machines
can be harnessed for exploring the depths of oceans.
These machines serve human so well especially where
human intelligence has serious limitations.
Intelligent machines can replace human beings in many
areas of work. Robots can do certain laborious tasks.

Expert Systems:
The primary goal of expert systems research is to make
expertise available to decision makers and technicians
who need answers quickly. There is never enough
expertise to go around--certainly it is not always
available at the right place and the right time. Portable
with computers loaded with in-depth knowledge of
specific subjects can bring decades worth of knowledge
to a problem.
Expert Systems make a diagnosis:
Intution may seem like a human trick, but machines can
be pretty good at it too. Underlying a hunch are dozens

Pains taking activities, which have long been carried out

by humans can be taken over by the robots. Owing to the
intelligence programmed in them, the machines can
shoulder responsibility to a certain extent. They can be
made to manage themselves and their time to complete
the assigned tasks.
Emotions that often intercept rational thinking of a
human being are not a hindrance for artificial thinkers.
Lacking the emotional side, robots can think logically
and take the right decisions. Sentiments are associated
with moods that affect human efficiency. This is not the
case with machines with artificial intelligence.
Thus artificial intelligence can be utilized in the
completion of repetitive and time-consuming tasks
efficiently. Intelligent machines can be employed to do
certain dangerous tasks. Machines equipped with
artificial intelligence can be made to thoughtfully plan
towards the fulfillment of tasks and accordingly adjust
their parameters such as their speed and time. They can
be made to act quickly, unaffected by anything like
emotion and take the tasks towards perfection.
Cons:
The first concern regarding the application of artificial
intelligence is about ethics and moral values. Is it
ethically correct to create replicas of human beings? Do
our moral values allow us to recreate intelligence?
Intelligence is after all a gift of nature. It may not be
right to install it into a machine to make it work for our
benefit.
The idea of machines replacing human beings sounds
wonderful. It appears to save us from all the pain. But is
it really such an exciting idea? Concepts such as
wholeheartedness and dedication in work bear no
existence in the world of artificial intelligence.
Imagine robots working in hospitals. Do you picture
them showing care and concern towards the patients?
Imagine intelligent machines employed in creative
fields. Do you think the robots will excel in such fields?
Thinking machines lack a creative mind. Human beings
are emotional intellectuals. They think and feel. Their
feelings guide their thoughts.
If robots begin replacing humans in every field, it may
lead to unemployment. People will be left with nothing
to do. Empty time may result in its destructive use.
Thinking machines will govern all the fields and
populate all positions pre-occupied by people.

Attributes

Natural
Artificial
Intelligence Intelligence
(Human)
(Machine)

The ability to use sensors

(eyes, ears, touch, smell)

HIGH

LOW

The ability to be creative

and imaginative

HIGH

LOW

The ability to learn from

experience

HIGH

LOW

The ability to be adaptive

HIGH

LOW

The ability to afford the

cost of acquiring
intelligence
The ability to use a variety
of information source

HIGH

LOW

HIGH

HIGH

The ability to acquire large

amount of external
information
The ability to make
complex calculations

HIGH

HIGH

LOW

HIGH

The ability to transfer

information

LOW

HIGH

HIGH
The ability to make a series LOW
of calculations rapidly and
accurately
Apart from all these issues, there is a fear of robots
superseding us! Ideally human beings should continue
being the masters of machines. If things turn the other
way round, the world will turn into chaos. Intelligent
machines may prove to be smarter than us; they might
enslave us and start ruling the world. Man's greedy
creativity may endanger mankind!

Eventually, it is up to you whether to stand by artificial

intelligence or understand the likely disaster that it may
lead to. In my view, there is no ideal replacement for
human beings. Artificial intelligence can help alleviate
the difficulties faced by man but intelligent machines can
never be 'human'

6.1 Limitations
If robots start replacing human resources in every field,
we will have to deal with serious issues like
unemployment in turn leading to mental depression,

poverty and crime in the society. Human beings deprived

of their work life may not find any means to Human
beings will be left with empty time.
Secondly, replacing human beings with robots in every
field may not be a right decision to make. There are
many jobs that require the human touch. Intelligent
machines will surely not be able to substitute for the
caring behavior of hospital nurses or the promising voice
of a doctor. Intelligent machines may not be the right
choice for customer service.
One of the major disadvantages of intelligent machines
is that they cannot be 'human'. We might be able to make
them think. But will we be able to make them feel?
Intelligent machines will definitely be able to work for
long hours. But will they do it with dedication? Will they
work with devotion? How will intelligent machines
work wholeheartedly when they don't have a heart? (!)

9.Bibliography
[1]Programs with Common Sense :John McCarthy, In Mechanization of Thought Processes,
Proceedings of the Symposium of the National Physics
Laboratory, 1959.
[2]Artificial Intelligence, Logic and Formalizing
Common Sense :Richmond Thomason, editor, Philosophical Logic and
Artificial Intelligence. Klver Academic, 1989.
[3]Concepts of Logical AI :- Tom Mitchell. Machine
Learning. McGraw-Hill, 1997.
[4]Logic and artificial intelligence :-Richmond
Thomason.
[5]In Edward N. Zalta, editor, The Stanford
Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Fall 2003.

7. Goals
The goal of artificial intelligence (at least according to
the fields founders) is to create computers whose
intelligence equals or surpasses humans. Achieving this
goal is the famous AI problem. To some, AI is the
manifest destiny of computer science. To others, its a
failure: clearly, the AI problem is nowhere near being
solved. Why? For the most part, the answer is simple: no
one is really trying to solve it. This may come as a
surprise to people outside the field. What have all those
AI researchers been doing all these years? The reality is
that they have largely given up on the grand ambitions of
AI and are instead working on increasingly specialized
subproblems: not just machine learning or naturallanguage understanding, say, but issues within those
areas, like classifying objects or parsing sentences.

8.Conclusion
Over the past few decades, despite many stumbling
blocks, AI has grown from a dozen researchers, to
thousands of engineers and specialists; and from
programs
capable of playing checkers, to systems
designed to diagnose disease. As we progress
in the
development of artificial intelligence,other theories are
available,in addition to blocks, AI has grown from a
dozen researchers, to thousands of engineers and
specialists; and from programs
capable of playing
checkers, to systems designed to diagnose disease. As
we progress
in the development of artificial
intelligence,other theories are available,in addition to
building on what we can do with AI.