A Historical and Critical Survey of Recent Pedagogical Materials For The Teaching and Learning of Jazz

Council for Research in Music Education
A Historical and Critical Survey of Recent Pedagogical Materials for the Teaching and Learning
of Jazz
Author(s): Robert Witmer and James Robbins
Source: Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, No. 96, Research in Jazz
Education II (Spring, 1988), pp. 7-29
Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of the Council for Research in Music
Education
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A Historical and Critical Survey

of Recent Pedagogical Materials forthe Teaching and
Learning of Jazz
RobertWitmer
York University
James Robbins
of Illinoisat Urbana-Champaign
University
Jazz studentsand educators are faced today witha bogglingarray

of published pedagogical materials. This is not an entirelynew
phenomenon,despite the common perceptionofjazz as an unwritten
musical tradition,and despite near-legendaryaccounts of prominent
jazz musicians learningentirelyfromrecords or on (or behind!) the
or "legit"
bandstand. Music reading, and formsof institutionalized
training,have always been a part of jazz (Suber, 1976; Shapiro and
Hentoff,1966, pp. 26-33). The traditionof published instructional
musical traditionsextends at least as far
materialsforAfro-American
back as banjo tutorsin the 1850s (Nathan, 1962, p. 189). Down beat
has featured "how-to" columns on jazz since its inceptionin 1934.
Similarmaterialappears even earlier in Metronome.The "Jazz Age"
itselfwas notwithoutits methodbooks, includingsuch items as How
to Play Breaks and Endings(Winn,1924), Jazz Bass forPiano (Shefte,
1925/27), Up-To-The-MinuteJazz Breaks (Shefte, 1925), Axel
Christensen's InstructionBook For Song and NoveltyPiano Playing
(Christensen,1927) and even Das Jazz-Buch (Baresal, 1926).
years, however,a quantum leap in the instituDuringthe past thirty
a spate of
tionalizationof jazz pedagogy has occurred. Concurrently,
We
are conmaterials
for
education
has
jazz
appeared.
published
cerned here primarilywiththese more recent materials: withques-
Teaching and Learning of Jazz
tionsas to the premises fromwhichtheyare derived;the approaches

which theyemploy; and theirutilityin achieving theirpurportedend,
teaching studentsto play jazz.
How much material is there? Much more than we will discuss or
even mentionin this article.1Our selection of materialforthissurvey
has been less thantotallysystematic.We have chosen materialwhich
we knowto be widelyused or widelydiscussed, as a means of making
thissurveyas relevantas possible. We have also includedsome less
well knownmaterialin orderto illustratecertaintrends.For the most
part, we have excluded books on individualinstruments,or books
where the teaching of improvisationis clearlysecondary (e.g., books
on jazz composition,orchestration,arranging,stage band articulation). Nor have we dealt with the immense category of periodical
literature.
We willdeal firstwithwhat mightbe considered the 'mainstream'of
jazz pedagogy - books which attemptto deal generallyand comprehensivelywiththe task of improvisingjazz - thenconsider more
specific topics: namely,jazz 'theory',cliches and "licks", and rhythm.
Some key works of the 1950s and early 1960s
Bugs Bower's Complete Chords and Progressions (1952) likely
reflectsthe learning processes many jazz musicians went through
exerpriorto the publicationof his book - the technical instrumental
cises typicalof Arban, Hanon, et al, and the acquisition of a pool of
"licks". Atthe same time,itsattemptto condense these processes into a "jazz methodbook", its organization,and its contentanticipates
the works of pedagogues starting in the late 1960s which have
become standards in the field.
The firstsection of Bower's workis devoted to exercises on chord
which are, by and large, unidirectional
types fromtriadto thirteenth
notes. Exerarpeggios beginningon the rootin eighthor triplet-eighth
cises are writtenout in all keys.
While this practice may have been of value in the models from
which Bower appears to have borrowed- i.e., instrumentalbooks
whose purpose was to develop digitalcelerity- itis of limitedvalue in
a book designed forall instrumentalists.
In a second section there is
somewhat more wheat and less chaff:Bower writesout standardprogressions and describes common chord substitutions.Again, exercises appear inall keys,withthe possible negative resultof suppressing the motivationof the student to learn to transpose. In addition,
Witmer-Robbins
somewhat less-mechanical lines ("rhythmicalinversions") accomin each key.

pany each progression,and are different
Bower's Ad Lib (1953) continues the application of arpeggio and
scale exercises to songs including"La Cucaracha" and "Jimmy
Crack Corn" - hardlytypicaljazz repertoire!Anothertechnique is introduced inAd Lib, namelythe use of examples of solos. Each song is
presented withthree solos: one using arpeggios, one using scales,
and one mixed. The technique of using model solos has been less
pervasive in later pedagogy but is stillcentral in some works (e. g.,
Mehegan 1962 and 1964).
Mehegan's Tonal and RhythmicPrinciples(1959), the firstof his
four-volumeseries on jazz improvisation,has become fairlywellknownamong students and teachers of jazz, ifnot widelyused. His
choice of terminologyand notationalconventionsis clearlydesigned
to distance his workfromits 'vernacular' counterparts.2But in basic
approach and content of the Mehegan series is essentially a
sophisticated version of Bower's method. The scope is extended in
Mehegan's workto the considerationof a few more chord types, to
their application to more progressions, and (exceptionally for this
literature)to widely-playedstandards, which formthe basis of many
exercises.
Mehegan's approach to jazz melody differssignificantlyfrom
Bower's in its emphasis on the concept of mode. This coincides
chronologicallywith a florescence of interestin the application of
modal concepts to jazz, one manifestationofwhichwas Russell's The
LydianChromaticConcept of Tonal Organization(1959; firstpublished
1953). There is a fundamentaldifferencebetween Mehegan's and
Russell's employmentof modes, however: in the formercase, the
mode is builton the rootofthe chord formingthe underlying
harmony;
inthe latter,itis builton otherpitches inspecific relationto the root.In
both cases, the particular mode employed depends on the scale
degree of the root,in relationto a tonic or temporarytonic.
The Mehegan series deals with rhythmmore extensivelythan do
most books. A concept of "rhythmiccounterpoint"is introduced(pp.
54-55): the relations between differentparts of a jazz ensemble in
termsof predominantnote values. Arpeggioexercises employa varie(pp. 57-67), the latterbeing comtyof note values and mixed rhythms
parable to Bower's "rhythmicinversions." Anothersuggested practice technique involves the use of "rhythmiccomposites" - fourmeasure rhythmicphrases to be used as isorhythmsover standard
tempi(pp.
"rhythmiccomposites" fordifferent
songs - withdifferent
ideas are also employedwithinthe contextof
72-80). These rhythmic
10
Teachingand LearningofJazz
scale exercises. There is a discussion of "basic syncopations" (includinganticipations),witha drillon "the 60 arpeggios" (p. 136).
In the second volume of the Mehegan series, Jazz Rhythmand the
formspartof a broader
ImprovisedLine (1962), discussion of rhythm
consideration of jazz styles and of the elusive phenomenon of
"swing." According to Mehegan, swing has three components:
"melodic swing," "harmonic swing," and "rhythmicswing." Fortunately,the three are not completely separated into homostatic
elements. For example, one of the twelve points comprised by
"Melodic swing" is the relationof the line to the pulse. An extensive
treatsvarious types of
descriptionof style-specificaspects of rhythm
and
tempo ranges, and
"rhythmiccounterpoint,"average tempos
ranges fornote values in the melodic line. The latteris demonstrated
by a paradigmatic transcriptionof twelve well-knownsolos over a
twelve-barblues progression.
The presentationof the materialon rhythmin this volume is problematic in thatthe approach is primarily
analyticaland thereare few
exercises forthe student.The second section of the volume,"The improvised line" (pp. 59-137), goes even furtherin this direction,conwithoutcommentary.
sistingsimplyofa numberofsolo transcriptions,
Similarilyproblematicis a two-page section (pp. 200-201) on ear
trainingand memorization.Typical of subsequent literatureas well,
the caveats about the importanceof ear trainingare belied by the
relativelack of space givento it,and the failureto integrateear trainingwiththe rest of the text.
The most impressive of the immediatesuccessors to Mehegan's
1959 and 1962 volumes is Coker's Improvising
Jazz (1964), a concise,
readable, and practical text. Many of its emphases overlap with
Mehegan: modal-chordalrelations,Roman numeral notationof progressions to standards3,a sense of "rhythmiccounterpoint,"and a
similarapprach to harmony.In addition,Coker emphasizes "motivic"
organization of melody. There is proportionatelymore attention
devoted to ear training(pp. 34-37) than in most general works.Special
attentionis given the rhythm
section (pp. 20-25), and there are exercises for group performance throughoutthe book. A chapter on
"swing" (pp. 45-49) anticipates books designed primarilyto teach
students how to properly interpretjazz charts (Niehaus, 1966;
Niehaus, 1964; Giuffre,1969) by suggesting that writtenexamples
witheighthnotes be played as tripletquarter-eighth,
withupbeat accents and "jazz articulation,"and withupbeats slurredto subsequent
downbeats. Coker furthersuggests that performancesof writtenexamples be "followedby an improvisedchorus, attemptingto carryon
- Robbins
Witmer
11
the feelingof the writtenchoruses intothe improvisedchorus" (p. 49).

This way of integratingwrittenexamples (or transcriptions)into the
teaching methodcontrastswithmore common instructionswhich introduce an analytical step between example and improvisedsolo,
thereby limitingthe scope of the exercise to what the student is
already able to describe analytically.
These methods share a common predominantemphasis on pitch
control. However, technical exercises which use arpeggios and
scales are in some instances followed by less mechanical work
developingotheraspects of melody:"rhythmicinversion,""rhythmic
composites," or "motifs". Like many of the methods which succeed
them, these methods concentrate on "a technical approach which
consists of the more easily objectified. . . aspects of music performance" (Bash, 1983, p. 1).
The ascendancy of 'pattern playing' pedagogy, chord/scale
recipes, and play-along records
Coker's The Jazz Idiom(1975) is similarin formatto his earlierImprovingJazz, but more diffuse,and withmore questionable material.
The chaptertitled"Jazz improvising"emphasizes the masteryof patterns governed by chord/scale relations. Other chapters deal with
transcription,playing along with records to develop "tone quality,
phrasing, articulation,time feeling, etc." (p. 12), and functional
keyboard skills. Coker suggests that the beginningimprovisoruse
"fast moving chord progressions", do "musical pushups" (p. 61),
because he or she is:
not likelyto be ready fora lyrical-melodicconcept of playing. . . [and]
needs to be letoffthe creativehook . . . Anotherreason itis easier to begin
withprogressionshavingchords of shortdurationis thatthe playeris forced (fornow, anyway)to use shortand easily rememberedpatterns,such
as a 1-2-3-5patternplayed in foureighthnotes to encompass the duration
of a chord lastingonly two beats. The patternwould have to be played
twice to accommodate a chord lastingfourbeats ... (p. 61).
Somethingcurious seems to have happened in the years between

the publicationof ImprovisingJazz (1964) and The Jazz Idiom(1975).
Mehegan's "scale fragments"and Coker's "motifs" appear to have
evolved into"patterns". As the modal jazz of the late-fifties
may have
in
modal
of
concepts jazz pedagogy (see Robbins
encouraged the use
and unusual root
fast harmonicrhythm
with
the
so
n.d.),
experiments
movement of the early-sixties(e.g., Coltrane's "Giant Steps" and
"Countdown") may have encouraged the use of patternsas a means
12
of bridgingthe gap between chord/scalerelationsand the improvised

line in jazz pedagogy.
At any rate, the late-sixtiessaw the emergence of publishedjazz
pedagogical materials stressing,above all else, the masteryof patterns. Prominentamong these were publicationsof David Baker and
Jamey Aebersold, the two most prolificproducers of jazz study
materialsto date.
The firstof what are now more than 30 volumes in Aebersold's A
New Approach to Jazz Improvisationseries appeared in 1967. The
series consists of booklets and play-along records of background
tracksbytop-raterhythm
sections, over whichthe aspiringstudentimis
to
solo.
This aspect of the "new approach" was
proviser expected
anticipated by the "Acompo Records" of the late 1930s (with orchestral accompaniment),the "Jam at home" records (withrhythm
section accompaniment) of the late-1940s (Suber, 1976, pp. 367 and
369), and the "Music Minus One" series, which began in the 1950s
(Kuzmich, 1975, p. 6).
Whilerecordingsare potentiallyexcellenttools forthe transmission
of musical skillswhichare noteasily described verbally,thispotential
is somewhat quashed by Aebersold's dictum:"The basic ingredients
in music are SCALES and CHORDS" (1979a, p. 1, italicsinoriginal).In
keeping with this view of music, the booklets accompanying each
record providenotationnotonlyforchord progressionsand melodies
foreach ofthe recordedtracks,butalso forthe appropriatescale from
which to play foreach chord.
Those volumes which contain a significantamount of printedinstructionalmaterial(volume 1, 1979a, orig.1967; volume21, 1979b both designed for beginners) furtheremphasize the primacy of
chord/scalerecipes. First,a methodof practisingchords and scales is
presented, i.e., playing them up and down from the root on a
downbeat. This formof exercise is writtenout (1979a, pp. 2-10) and
the studentis then advised to apply the same methodof practisingto
the chord progressionson the record(1979a, p. 5). "Beginningto improvise" involves playing scales in "prearranged rhythms" iso(1979a, p. 14). Hence, the exercises involveno true 'imrhythmically
provisation',in the sense of doing somethingunforeseen:the musical
resultsare completelyprescribed.
In additionto playingscales up and down, theyare to be practiced
in sequential patterns (Aebersold, 1979a, pp. 5-13, 20-22). These
"digitalpatterns" as theyare later described (1979b, p. 34), may be
WitmerRobbins
13
supplementedby patternsfromRubank,Arbans, Belwin,H.L. Clarke

and otherinstrumental
technique books (1979b, p. 5).
It is evidentthatAebersold owes much of the approach described
here to Bower and Mehegan. In several respects, his ideas carry
Thus, while Mehegan suggests
Mehegan's a step furtherin rigidity.
improvisingpitches isorhythmically,Aebersold suggests playing
scales in the same way. Both relyon modal terminologyto describe
chord/scalematches: Mehegan suggests that the mode used over a
minorchord should be chosen according to the functionof the chord
(1959, pp. 89-92). Aebersold stresses the primacyof the Dorian mode
in minorchord situations(1979a, p. 2; see also the scales accompanyingthe chord progressionsof 1979b). WhileAebersold's "scale
syllabus" (1979a, p. 36a; 1979b, p. 10) lists scales otherthan Dorian
to use over minorchords, the lack of concrete examples of these
usages could encourage beginningstudents to automatically'think
Dorian' whenever improvisingover a minorchord. This would prove
disastrousfortheminsome situations,most notablywhen negotiating
a iiichord in a major key. A minorchord in this contextusually functions as a substitutetonic chord: the sixthdegree of a Dorian scale
builton iiiofa majorscale is, intermsofthe overallkeyarea, a 'raised
tonic' - a generallyavoided dissonance in mainstreamjazz treatmentof tonic harmonicareas. In otherwords, Mehegan's 'functional'
approach to minorchord/scale relations,cumbersome thoughit may
be, is pedagogically more astute than Aebersold's.
Some of the topics which are raised peripherallyalso appear
derivative. Aebersold's advice on ear trainingwill be familiarto
readers of Coker (1964) and Mehegan, withthe additionof a suggestionto tape one's own singingand thenattemptto replicateiton one's
instrument
(1979a, p. 16). A section on articulationis conceptuallythe
same as Coker's chapter on swing (Aebersold, 1979a, pp. 33-35).
Other peripherally-treated
topics are more original.Among these
are some excellent,but fartoo limited,foraysintoproblemsof phrasing(1979b, pp. 26-31) and timefeel. The lattermay be "Ahead of the
beat (on top),On the beat (righton) [or] Behindthe beat (layingback)"
(1979a, p. 28). It is preciselythistypeof statementwhich needs to be
illustratedwithsounds and accompanied byappropriateexercises imitatingthose sounds. It is regrettablethatnothingof the sort is found
on Aebersold's play-alongrecords (or any others,so faras we know).
David Baker's A Method forDeveloping ImprovisationalTechnique
(Based on the LydianChromaticConcept) (1968, republishedin 1971
as Techniques of Improvisation,volume 1: The LydianChromaticConcept) appeared shortlyafterthe firstvolume ofthe Aebersold series. A
14
compendiumof patterns,mostlysequential, mostlytwo,four,or eight

beats in duration,beginningon downbeats, it was designed foruse
over the scales of Russell's LydianChromaticConcept. The patterns
devoted to "Blues scales" differfromothers in thattheyare, by and
large, not sequential perpetuummobile exercises, but collections of
licks withvaried phrasing(Baker 1971b, Vol. 1, pp. 82-85). But the remaining three volumes in the Techniques of Improvisationseries
(1979b, Vols. 2, 3, 4) are largelycompendiumsof mechanical patterns
over ii-V7progressions (volume 2); "Turnbacks", e.g., l-blll-bVI-bll
(volume 3); and cycle of fifth
progressions(volume 4).
The core material of Baker's most general and comprehensive
book, Jazz Improvisation:A Comprehensive Method of Study forall
Players (1971a; firstpublished 1969) also concerns chord/scale relations,and patterns.This is evidentin boththe natureof the exercises
and Baker's recommendationthat "everyone be completelycomfortable with the materials in chapters one and two [the chapters on
chord/scale nomenclatureand the 'foundationexercises'] beforegoing on" (p. 6). The "foundationexercises" are arpeggios and scales,
(includingscales in broken thirds,fourths,and fifths),all but a few
startingon roots,all startingon downbeats, and all to be practised in
everykey (pp. 14-21).
A numberof topics are addressed, however,whichdo notappear in
Aebersold's publications. Materialon melody is presented by examof Baker's solos on threesongs (pp. 109-120).
ple, usingtranscriptions
Other chapters deal withcommon progressions,specific advice for
members of the rhythmsection (piano voicings; patterns for bass
of intervals,scales and
players);eartraining(singingand identification
and
arpeggios; instrumentalcall-response exercises; transcription),
melodic development (similar to Coker, 1964). Group interactionis
ambiguouslyaddressed withadvice on how to relate to the rhythm
section duringa solo: play withthem,against them,or "on a parallel
plane ... but functioningrelativelyindependently"(pp. 104-105).
Each chapter of Jazz Improvisationconcludes with suggested
reading,recordings,and exercises or assignments. A numberof the
latterare particularlyunfocused. For "Developing a feel forswing"
studentsare directedto "Form a playinggroupwithotherinstrumentalists and learn bebop tunes" (p. 77). Others are littlemore than
trivial.The chapter on scale constructionsuggests students "List at
least fourotherbooks thathave to do withscales" (p. 57). Obviously,
assignments and exercises such as these are of littlepedagogical
value.
Witmer-Robbins
15
Baker's other publications include a later series of patternbooks

(Improvisationpatterns: The Bebop era, volumes one, two,and three,
1979a) which reproduce a number of the same patterns found in
volumes one and twoof 1971b. In each volumeofthe 1979a series the
first13 pages are identical.
Also among Baker's publicationsare two more specialized pattern
books (1979b; 1979c), and a pair of ear trainingbooks (1976, 1977).
pages of the 68-page volume two, Advanced Ear Training
Fifty-two
(1977), are verbatimreproductionsof materialfromA New Approach
to EartrainingforJazz Musicians (1976). In additionto liberal recycling, Baker's seemingly copious output includes a good deal of
material which is writtenout needlessly: transpositions; patterns
whichare merelyall possible permutationsof one another;arpeggios
and scales writtenout over chord progressionsafterbeing writtenout
forindividualchords.
Despite these reservations, some of Baker's books contain
Jazz Improvisation(1971a), and
valuable contributions- particularly
the two ear trainingbooks (1976; 1977). His advocacy of solo
and his discussion of procedures to thatend (1976, pp.
transcription
are
particularlylaudable. His recent Jazz Styles series (e.g.,
71-73)
Baker, 1982) contains transcriptions,
biographicaland discographical
material,and some comments on salient featuresof the styles of inhardividual musicians. Licks are taken fromsolos conformingwith
" and
books
his
other
"turnbacks,
in
with
(ii-V's,
monicsituationsdealt
tonic).Althoughrestrictive,his analyticalcategories convey informationin an assimilable formforthe student:preferencesin tune types,
tempos, meters, keys, scales used, range, "melodic devices,"
"dramaticdevices" (the last two being roughlyequivalentto licksand
instrumentaltricks).The approach of this series was anticipated by
Mehegan (1964, 1965) though these volumes dealt only with piano
players,and devoted more attentionto texturesand voicings than to
mattersof line.
The market for instructionalmaterials emphasizing chord/scale
relationsand patternshas by no means been cornered by the "big
ofjazz
three" (Aebersold,Baker,Coker).The increasingfashionability
efforts
1970s
late
the
musicians
by
promoted
during
among young
Ricker(1977), Kynastonand Ricci (1978), Most (1980), and Schenkel
(1983) which are clearly indebted to the publications of Aebersold,
Baker,and Coker. A shortcomingshared by virtuallyall such publications remains the conspicuous and apparentlydeliberate separation
of technique and music:
16
This book does not deal with the aesthetic aspects of jazz, nor does it
cover rudimental jazz theory ... It merely presents a method of studying
scales and chords (Ricker 1977, p. 1).
We have made no attempt in the course of this text to dictate or even
discuss style or related areas like phrasing and articulation (Kynaston and
Ricci, 1978, p. 215).
This is a book of tools; itshould in no way replace the experience of actually performing music (Schenkel 1983 p.vi).
While jazz certainlyhas its formulaicelements, the pedagogues

who emphasize patternsand chord/scale recipes imply,by this very
emphasis, thatjazz is essentiallya centnate music: a patchworkof
preexistingelements. And studentswho are taughtto negotiatechord
changes bypractisingscales are likelyto end up mainlyplayingscales
- as opposed to melodies - when they improvise.Again, Bash
(1983, p. 1) was in essence correctwhen he characterised most jazz
methodbooks as concentratingon a technical approach based on the
"easily objectified."
AlternativeApproaches
Ifany methodbook publishedin the late 1960s has a valid claim to
the word "new" it is likelyLaPorta's unpretentiousA Guide to Improvisation(1968). LaPorta's approach is distinctivein thatitdoes not
startwiththe assumptionthata studentmust learnto play scales and
arpeggios in every key beforeattemptingto improvise.The emphasis
of his "method" is, rather,making"simple" thingssound right.LaPorta begins witharticulation,discussing matterssuch as "Lester Young
halfnotes," (p. 5). His exercises involvelearningshort(two-measure)
all exrhythmic
patterns,and call-and-responseear training.Initially,
ercises are in Bb, usingpentatonicpitchmaterial;graduallyotherkeys
are introduced.Eventually,briefdiscussion of pentatonics(and other
scales) as theoreticalconstructsis presented. Initially,
however,they
appear simply as sets of notes with which to play, so that sound
precedes theory.The move beyond pentatonic materialcomes with
the introduction
of "blue notes," which notablyare presented as loci
suitable forcertaintypesof articulation("smears"), ratherthanmerely additionalpitch material.
The student gradually learns to build extended phrases by alternating longer sections of improvised material with writtenlines.
Toward the end of the book, the blues formis introduced.Here again,
LaPorta's treatmentis novel in its use of a "blues guide line" (p. 49):
the studentis not taughtto thinkfromroots,but rather,in termsof a
slow-movingmelodic framework.
Witmer-Robbins
17
WhileLaPorta's book is restrictedin scope, in the contextof beginningimprovisationthis may well be a virtueratherthan a defect: the
essential material on phrasing,ear training,and articulationis not
buriedin a mass of scale/chordtheory;norare beginningstudentsintimidatedbysuggestions theyliftCharlieParkersolos fromrecordings
or read Susanne Langer to get theirmusical sensibilitiestogether(cf.,
Baker 1971a, p. 11 and p. 162). Itpresents,inshort,a farmore holistic
approach than do the contemporaneous works of otherauthors.
Benward and Wildman(1984) attempta more integrativeapproach
than manyof theirpredecessors. They are perhaps representativeof
an emergingtrendin the literaturereactingto the overlyrigidthinking
that has oftendominated it in the past:
[It is not] sufficient for students to memorize changes from a number of
tunes if their improvisations on these tunes more closely reflect the contents of a scale pattern book than the possibilities withinthe original music
. . . Without the element of individuality,a formal jazz education will simply
produce regurgitated "school music tradition" and not the subtle interplay
of traditional concepts and their maturation in a personal style ... (p. xv).
Accordingly,Benward and Wildmangive relativelyeven treatment

to a broad range of subjects, (melodic patterns; scale formations;
chord formationsand relations; interdependence of scales, chords
and articulation),and the stuand keys; evolutionof structure,rhythm
dent is guided throughthem three times, at three differentlevels of
proficiency(p. xvii). Exercises continuallystress aural as well as
digitalskills,and theyare keyed to specific recorded examples so as
to providestudentswithmodels ofapplicationoftheoreticalconcepts.
The approach to the use of recorded examples is more realisticthan
thatin otherbooks, as theyare drawnfromthe easily accessible and
broadly representative Smithsonian Collection of Classic Jazz
(Williams,1973). The emphasis and exercises on developinga sense
of "group time" at the elementarylevel are particularlylaudable (pp.
57ff.).Also commendable is the deliberateexclusion oftechnical exercises at the advanced level: instead, "the studentis stronglyadvised
to create his or herown exercises inorderto establish logical and personal practice routines"(p. xviii).
To some extent, Benward and Wildman share the collective
culpabilityof most publishedjazz pedagogues forexcessive reliance
on the /efeesrecues of "legit" theoryand analysis. Exercises, once
again, tend to be heavilyorientedto rootsand downbeats. Discussion
of phrasingis based on the "motive-phase-period"mode of thinking
fromRiepel via Koch and Riemann,as
(see p. 49ff.)derivedultimately
opposed to whatwe consider would be a moreproductivetreatmentof
18
phrase placement withinthe cyclic chorus structure.The blame for

these shortcomingsmust be shared, however,by musicologistsand
theoristswho have not yet developed analytical tools to deal adequately withsome of the unique musical problems posed by jazz.
Jazz Theory
Jazz theoryhas deep roots reaching to songwritingand arrangtexts devoted to popular music (whichantedate the
ing/orchestration
century).It embraces a wide varietyof material,fromthe practical
"how-to" columns found in trade journals explaining "modern
sounds" and "voicings", to the mathematicallyoriented works of
Schillingerand Van Eps. A numberofpost-1960 writerson jazz pointto
George Russell as an important"father"figure(or jazz "mother",accordingto Brooks, 1960) in the developmentof "theoretical method
book[s] designed expresslyforuse byjazz musicians" (Robbins,n.d.,
p. 26 - see, forexample, Baker, 1968; Collier, 1978, p. 432; Tirro,
1977, p. 354.)
Russell's importantbook, The LydianChromaticConcept of Tonal
Organizationfor Improvisation,was firstpublished in 1953, but received littleattentionuntilits republicationin 1959.4 It begins witha
discussion of the theoryand practice of "Vertical Polymodality",the
part of the "concept" most often borrowed by later writers.The
essence of "verticalpolymodality"is the propositionthatchords may
be converted into scales, and the corollarythat a progression of
chords may be understoodas a progressionof scales forthe purpose
of improvising
or writinglines (Russell, 1959, p. 2, and p. 22). The fundamental ("parent") scale of the "concept" is the lydian.5There are
two alteredversions of the lydianwhichmay be used, as well as three
'auxilary' [sic] or nonlydianscales (pp. 2-5). The root of each chord
degree of the lydianscale, chosen to
typecorresponds to a different
maximize the correspondence between chord tones (including,implicitly,common tertialextensions) and scale tones. Thus, forexample, a dominantseventh chord is builtwith its root on the second
is evidentin
degree of a lydianscale (pp. 11-12). This kindof thinking
the terminologyof other vernacular harmonic practices in North
American music, both withinjazz (e.g., 'tritonesubstitution')and
without(e.g., 'cross-harp playing').
The application of "vertical polymodality"involves possibilitiesof
"framing"chord tones withscalar nonchordtones (p. 8), using alternative scales fora single chord type (p. 16), using "parent scales"
withthe same rootforii-Vtype progressions(p. 19) and "preparing"
for"improvisation"by writingout "parent scales" indicatedby chord
Witmer-Robbins
19
symbols(pp. 20-21). (The last mentionedpossibilityhas been exploited

by Aebersold - see 1974.)
This method of application of "vertical polymodality"is only one
part of the "concept," however. In total, it comprises four"types of
melodythatembrace all melodies thatare now being invented,or that
ever could be inventedin the equal temperamentsystem by any improviser" (p. 21). These are "Ingoing Vertical Melodies," "Outgoing
Vertical Melodies," "Ingoing Horizontal Melodies," and "Outgoing
HorizontalMelodies." Furtherrefinementsinvolvethe application of
"chromaticenhancement": the scale used inany ofthe melodictypes
may appear in its diatonic ("absolute") form,or with chromatic
embellishment(p. 21). "Ingoing" melodies use chord/scale relations
as described above; "outgoing" melodies potentiallyuse the entire
"lydian chromatic scale" (i.e., the twelve note chromatic scale),
typicallywithinterval-cellmelodic constructionor a 'substitute'scale
not related, or distantlyrelated, to the correspondingchord. While
"vertical polymodality"involves immediatechord/scale relations,in
"horizontalpolymodality,""the scale we choose conveys the tonal
center to the listener ratherthan the chord" (p. 29). Thus, single
scales may be used over several chords when related to long-range
harmonic goals ("tonic stations") (p. 34). Lester Young
characteristicallyplays in "horizontal polymodality"and Coleman
Hawkins in "vertical polymodality"(p. 28).
The ratherbroad range of possibilitiessuggested bythe "concept"
is governed by principlesof tonal "gravity"and by "relativity."Notes
are neither"right"not "wrong"; theyare relativelyclose or distantto
a center of tonal gravity.The use of the lydianscale to representthe
simplest form of the tonic scale is justified,in the section titled
"Theoretical Foundation," by its tetrachordstructure(both "resolve
to" - i.e., have semitones located below - tonic triadpitches) and
bythe positionofthe tonicas the lowest pitchwhen the scale degrees
series (pp. i-ii).
are arranged in an unbrokenascending fifth
Most of this has been lost on Russell's successors (most sadly, his
ideas on "horizontalpolymodality"),althoughsome jazz theoristsand
pedagogues have since occupied themselves with generative
systems based on fifthseries and modal substitutions,forexample,
most current'jazz theory'
YorkUniversity'sJohnGittins.Furthermore,
focuses on chord progression,a subject which Russell only briefly
touches upon (pp.42-48). The true heirs to Russell's concept of
chord/scalerelationshave been notthe theorists,butthe pedagogues
who have filledtheirbooks withexercises to develop facilityat using
chord symbols as cues to play scales.
20
Books on jazz harmonyinvolvea varietyof theoreticalapproaches,

fromthe generativeto the descriptive/empirical.
For the purposes of
improvising,the empirical are most useful in teaching students the
kindsof progressionstheymightexpect to encounterina typicalplayingsituation.The value ofgenerativeapproaches lies intheirpotential
to teach studentshow to create theirown chord progressionsforthe
purposes of compositionor reharmonization.
A good example of a practical, empirically-orientedtext is
Michalek's Modern Harmonic Progression (1977). Its practicalityis
enhanced by the intelligent
applicationof reductiveanalyticaltechniques to understandingand creating substituteprogressions and extensions. As well, specific common progressions and idiosyncratic
harmonicpractices (tritonesubstitution,
"minorkeycliche lines," progressions employingdiminished sevenths, etc.) are dealt with individually.Students are thus prepared to be flexiblein theirharmonic
and, at the same time,taughtto recognize situationswhere
thinking,
is not generallycalled for. Michalek's book is a model of
flexibility
clear explanation. His eschewal of tables and lists of transpositions,
which onlyserve to promotelaziness, is to be commended and, one
mighthope, widelyimitated.
Stanton's Jazz Theory: A Creative Approach (1982) is of the
generativeschool. Simple rules forcreatingsequences of chords are
basically) and elaborated. As with
presented (root movementby fifth,
Michalek's book, additionalprogressionsare dealt withseparatelyas
"Practical Devices" (p. 183). A limitednumberof substitutechords
are taughtby rote (p. 99), and these are used to generate alternate
progressions.To some extent,the "creative approach" willteach a
studentwhat to expect froma typical chart, but the real emphasis
(clearly expressed in the exercises) is on writing.
The sections dealing withharmonyinJaffe'sJazz Theory(1983) are
also concerned with describing the principles of creating progresand negotiatingthem. However, the
sions, ratherthan of rethinking
book is potentiallymore usefulthanStanton's in itsextensive reliance
on 'real' examples, frequently
citingsongs and performances.Jaffe's
inclusionof chapterbibliographiesand discographies is exceptionalin
a jazz theorybook, as is the inclusionof a chapter on rhythm.
As is the case withcontemporary"legit" theorytextsaimed at student musicians,jazz theorytextsemphasize aspects of pitchmanagement(scalar resources, harmony,progression,etc.) while givingless
attentionto explicatingthe abstract principlesof otherparametersof
the music.
Witmer-Robbins
21
Licks
Among the more enduringmethods of teaching various types of
NorthAmerican vernacular music is the masteryof a repertoireof
shortmusical fragments,eitherforinsertionat appropriatetimes,or to
stringtogetherin orderto create a longermusical fabric.Winn'sHow
to Play Breaks and Endings (1924) featured"more than 100 novelty
jazz and blues 'breaks', endings,space 'fillers',and moderncounter
melodyforms." Readers of the April,1937 Down Beat (Vol. 4, No. 4)
were beckoned withthe advertisement,"Hey Cats, Get the Book-oLix" (p. 20). The more soberlytitledProgressiveJazz Patterns(Smith,
1972) exemplifieswhat could be termedthe puristapproach to licks:
the firstsection consists of short melodic fragmentstaken fromthe
solos of "Jazz greats," all transposed to the keyofC "so thattheycan
be pieced together"(p.i). The second section comprises "Jazz" and
"Blues Cocktails" - "constructedfromthe phrases inthe firstpartof
the book'" (p.i) - whose "ingredients" are attributedto musicians
such as Miles Davis, Joe Newman and ShortyRogers. The finalsection offersstudents opportunitiesto concoct theirown "cocktails":
chord progressionsare providedfora "Modern Jazz solo," a "Swing
Solo," a "Rock 'n' Roll Solo," and so on.
Stillmore soberlytitled,Alston's ImprovisationAnalyzed(1975) is a
late representativeof the "old school". Here, separate sections are
chordtypes(1,17, V7) and progressions
devoted to licksover different
(ii-V).A similarformatis foundin some of Baker's books (1979b and
1979c). Alstonincludes some patternsbuilton fourths,notassociated
with particularchord types, and provides "Rhythm" changes and
blues changes (in C) forthe applicationof the licks.
materials
Whilethe "lick" approach is stillprevalentin instructional
individual
instruments
on
with
(space does not
improvisation
dealing
it lost
of
of
this
extensive
examination
an
materials),
category
permit
ground duringthe sixties to the chord/scale approach in the books
Perhaps forthat reason, Coldesigned foruse by all instrumentalists.
Iverprefaced his 100 Jazz Cliches (1972) withthis defense:
Cliches are a vital part of improvisationas they can 'bail you out1when
The 'language' ofjazz is based a great
originalideas are notforthcoming.
and melodiccliches, therefore,theyare always accepdeal upon rhythmic
table and can oftenbe passed offas originalideas ifdone tactfully
(1972,
P. 1).
world of jazz pedagogy, this demonstrates

In the often-pretentious
refreshinghonestyand directness.
22
The organizationof the cliches in Colliver's book, unlikeothers,is

by style: Dixieland" (pp. 3-10); "Contemporary"(pp. 11-24), witha
subsection employingthe "blues scale"; and "Modal" (pp. 25-28).
Style classification is not unique to the "lick" approach, but it is
almost certainlymore valid here than in,forexample, Grove's equationof various scale types withvarious styles (Grove 1975, p. 38).
The 'lick' approach shares culpabilitywithpatternplyingpedagogy
in its implicationthatjazz is essentiallya centnate music.
Rhythm
Given the emphasis upon the rhythmic
qualities of jazz in most ator
characterize
the
to
define
music, it is surprisinghow few
tempts
This
books have been specificallydevoted to the area of jazz rhythm.
lacuna is only partiallyfilledby percussion manuals, which tend to
concern themselves withshort, rudimentary
patternsand coordination exercises, and have limitedapplicabilityfor nonpercussionists
(e.g., Rothman,1974).
In more general worksof jazz pedagogy the thornyproblemofjazz
rhythmhas most often been dealt with in a manner similarto that
described above as the "lick" approach. Patternsare to be memorized, then inserted at appropriate points, strung together,or used
cyclically.Colin and Bower (1975-76) is a typicalexample. The Dick
Grove Encyclopedia (1971a, 1971b, 1975, 1976) even includes
"rhythmcards" containinga totalof eighteen two-measurepatterns,
which are to be used forpractisingscale and arpeggio exercises. To
his credit,however,Grove does address rhythmic
concerns such as
phrases whichcross barlines,pickups to shortphrases, and relations
between two-measure phrases, eight-measure sections and
32-measure songs (1976, pp. 35-43).
Despite the effortsof Aebersold, Coker, Grove, and Mehegan
(among others)to analyze and discuss aspects ofwhat one mightcall
'mainstream' jazz rhythm,
the most common assumption made by
pedagogues seems to be that there is not a great deal one can say
about it. Consequently, relativelyextended treatmentsof rhythmic
the exotic or avant-garde. Jaffe's chapter on rhythm(1983, pp.
112-124) devotes more attentionto the functionof the rhythm
section
in playing "latin grooves" than to playing "swing" or, as contemporary parlance has it, "playing time." Similarly,Levy's book on
forjazz musicians is concerned exclusivelywithodd meters
rhythm
(Levy 1973).
Witmer-Robbins
23
Conclusions
Earlyinthisarticlewe dweltat some lengthon the firsttwovolumes
ofthe Megegan series, because theyexhibitmostofthe strengthsand
weaknesses foundin books which have followedthem,and similarity
of presentation.Amongthese salient features are the following:
1. Heavy emphasis on "tonal principles,"approached via the twinroutes
of chords and scales, the latterusuallydescribed withmodal terminology
(e.g., Mehegan) or, more rarely,withreferenceto Russell (e.g., Baker). Exercises are usuallymechanical, beginningon rootsand downbeats and using perpetual motion or eighth notes sprinkledwith tripletsor quarter
notes to make the exercises repeatable at a bar-line.Followingsuch exercises, some licks may be presented. Nonmodal scales are usuallygiven,
especially the diminished,whole-tone and some version of a "blues
scale." The exercises forthese scales conformas much as possible to
those givenforthe modal scales, while"blues scale" exercises tendto be
more lick-oriented.
and "swing," generallywithfarless
2. Some general discussion of rhythm
space and farfewerexercises thanfor"tonal principles."(Mehegan is exbut not in the contentof exerceptional in the space devoted to rhythm,
patternsof a
cises.) Such exercises as thereare take the formof rhythmic
few bars, and perhaps some systematic presentation of syncopated
quarter notes.
3. Some discussion of typicalprogressions.Often,this is presented with
extensive examples of lines forii-V-land blues progressions. More often,
thereare arpeggios and scales startingon the rootsof such progressions,
laboriouslywrittenout in all keys.(Mehegan is again exceptional inbasing
so manyexercises on standard tunes.)
4. Transcribed examples of solos, often with very littlecommentary
beyond "analyze this and use what you can fromit in yoursolos."
5. A very brief section on ear training.(Later books often suggest
transcriptionand call-response exercises, which are absent from
Mehegan.)
6. Beyondthe "meat and potatoes" ofchord/scalerelationsand basic progressions,theremaybe foundthe occasional "condiment"ofthe author's
insight.This, in Mehegan's case, is exemplifiedby his treatmentof interpretationof commercial sheet music for the purpose of soloing (i.e.,
harmony,rationalizingharmonic rhythm,altering meter
simplifying
on
few
ideas
be
a
it
201
Elsewhere,
phrasing
186,
may
165,
1959, pp.
ff.).
or articulation,advice on expressive effects,shaping solos, group interaction, developing ideas, and so on. The quality, usefulness, and
thoroughnessof these musical "relishes" varies dramatically.
24
The chord/scale approach has been justifiedby recourse to the

argumentof the evolutionof jazz:
and structuralcomplexitiesof con[T]he increasing harmonic,rhythmic,
temporaryjazz make itvirtually
impossibleforthe novice,who would play
well, to findhis way around withoutsome professionalhelp.
Some twentyyears ago, when blues, tunes with"I Got Rhythm"changes,
and standards comprised the greaterportionof the jazz repertoire,itwas
conceivable that a player mightachieve competency withoutrequiring
help in a formalsense, such as schools, etc. Now, however,withincreasingtechnical and musical demands bornof advanced and rapidlygrowing
assume a positionof utmost
compositionalskills,courses in improvisation
importance(Baker 1971a, p. 5).
This is tantamountto saying thatthe "old guys couldn't reallyplay,

buttheydidn'thave to because the tunes were simple." The important
point unwittingly
implicitin Baker's statement is that currentjazz
pedagogy does notaddress the central issues ofjazz performanceas
itexisted beforethe currentpedagogy came along.8
As much of the preceding discussion has no doubt implied,we
believe thatmuch of the available publishedmaterialforthe teaching
and learningof jazz is problematicin a numberof ways. Part of the
problem is the tendency to concentrate on what Bash (1983)
describes as the "easily objectified" (p. 1), which certainlyincludes
chord/scale relationshipsin the mechanical formin which they are
usually presented,and also such thingsas polymeter(as opposed to
the complex rhythmic
of most
play occurringin the typicalfour-four
jazz). Anotherpartof the problemis the concentrationon momentary
activity(whichreflectsa weakness injazz analysis and scholarshipat
on ideas such as 'shaping' solos:
large).There is verylittleinformation
the vague admonitionsconcerning shaping are rarelyaccompanied
by examples of differentways jazz musicians do so. Harmony
("theory")textsdescribe ways ofadding inchords and increasingharmonic rhythm,
ratherthanways of using long range goals as a means
of organizingplaying(withsome exceptions, e.g., Russell's "horizontal Polymodality").A thirdpartofthe problemis the pervasiveassumption of most methods that the studentneeds to gain controlof complete systems - chord/scale relations,sequential patterns,repertoires of rhythmic
patterns,and so on - beforeconsideringrelations
them.
The
among
resulting isolation of musical 'components',
'elements', or 'parameters' inevitablyproduces students whose
less
fingersfunctionindependentlyof theirears. Perhaps fractionally
obvious,the unsophisticatedtreatmentof an isolate such as 'scale' or
'mode' (as an available set of pitches ratherthan a typification
of
- Robbins
Witmer
25
melodic tendencies) leads to a crude understandingof the functionof

those isolates in music.9
An area whichshould be much betterrepresentedthan itis, is that
of phrasing.Books whichdeal specificallywithjazz phrasingdeal with
it primarily
as an isolate to be applied to the interpretation
of charts
(mainlywithschool stage bands in mind),and overlap withliterature
for'reading' bands (e.g., Raph 1962, LaPorta 1965, Guiffre1969 and
Henry1981). The aim of these works is neatlysummed up by Guiffre
when he asks, "How can we make writtenmusic sound as thoughit
the
were being improvised?"(1969, p. 30, his italics). Unfortunately,
systematicstudyof jazz phraseology,and the generationof a 'grammar', is yet in its infancy.
The same may be said about jazz melody. Baker's remarks on
melody (see especially 1971a) are a step in the rightdirection,but
receives nowhere near
generally,melodic construction/development
the attentionit meritsin theoryor pedagogical materials.
and ideas conEven more disquietingis the paucityof information
and critics
that
most
musicians,
scholars,
jazz
cerningrhythm,
given
features and 'peculiarities' of jazz to lie at its
consider the rhythmic
veryheart.
The productionof jazz pedagogy books is, like the productionof
other textbooks,a commercial industry.Ifthere is an abundance of
dross, it is because there is a large market. But the presence of
unimaginativerecyclings of crude concepts, fleshed out with unnecessary and even harmfulfiller,does not negate the possibilityof
imparting,if not everythingthat can turnan average student into a
new Charlie Parker,at least a lot more about jazz performancethan
has been generallyaccomplished. It is our opinionthatthis mightbe
facilitatedthrougha combinationof: (1) the integrativeand balanced
approaches foundinthe worksofCoker (1964, nothis laterworks),La
Porta, and Benward and Wildman;(2) much closer attentionto the
learned (includingatways in whichjazz musicians have traditionally
tentionto older published pedagogical material); and (3) a better
understandingand explicationof the less-easily objectifiablebut no
less teachable aspects of the music itself.
A numberof the authorsunder reviewhere advise jazz studentsalbeit,generallyonlyin passing - to listenincessantly,to transcribe
at least) theirjazz
recordedsolos theyadmire,and to imitate(initially,
heroes exactingly.Such a programof activities,in our experience,
gets results.Still,itis nottruepedagogy unless itprovidesthe student
advice accompanied bya fewtips.What is
morethanwell-intentioned
26
needed are more thorough,exhortative,well-explicatedand programmed approaches thanare presentlyavailable to teach studentshow to
do all of this: whatto listenfor;how to avoid a mindless or obsessive
(and time-consuming)'transcriptionhabit' and instead transcribepurposefully;how to absorb, apply (and transform)the aural and visual
stimuliof recordingsand transcriptions.
The factthatestablished jazz
musicians have oftenbeen heard to mutter"school jazz" when adjazz musijudicatingthe effortsof high school or college/university
cians is to some extenta tellingindicationof the inadequacies in the
students'training.Authorsofjazz methodbooks have beforethemthe
challenge of attendingmore conscientiouslyto these inadequacies.
Footnotes
1For more extensive bibliographiccoverage, we direct the reader to Meadows 1981
(items 2350-2563) and Kuzmich's "An annotated surveyof Dazz] teaching materials,"
which has appeared on a more-or-lessregularbasis in columnarformin the National
Association ofJazz Educators Journal- laterretitledJazz Educators Journal- since
the April-May1975 issue.
2For example, Mehegan employs a combinationof Roman numeraland figuredbass
chord notation,at variance withtypicaljazz notation(see Witmer,n.d.). While such
notationsare of value in certaincontexts,theyhave provenquite impracticalas vehicles
forjazz performance,and have been entirelysupplantedby the chord symbolsystem
diminished
(see Brandtand Roemer, 1976). The practicalvalue ofthisnotationis further
in Mehegan's materialsby his adherence to the common practice of needlessly writing
all transpositions(e.g., the "60 chords," 1959, p. 11).
3lnCoker's book, unlikeMehegan's chord progressionsto standards are not identified
by title.
4A briefRezeptionsqeschichte of Russell's theorymay be foundin Robbins n.d.
5We are followingRussell's terminologyin the use of the expression "lydianscale".
6Anexception among theoristsis Dick Grove,whose massivelypadded four-volume
Encyclopedia of Basic Harmonyand TheoryApplied to Improvisationon All Instruments
deals not only with progressions (1971b), but also with scale exercises (1975) and
chord/scalerelations(1971a) presented ina mannerreminiscentof "paint-by-numbers"
kits.
7Similarmusical thinking
is foundoutside of the NorthAmericanvernaculartradition,
of
course: one of many examples is the proliferation,
in the late-eighteenthcentury,of
"compose by dice" books (see Hedges, 1978).
aConversely,itshould be noted here that Baker,Aebersold,Coker,et al, have probably
had some influencein stimulatingthe development of 'patternplaying' in 1960s-80s
jazz.
Witmer-Robbins
27
9Here,foronce, jazz scholars have not been caught "withtheirpants down". Sargeant
of
a blues scale, abstracted fromactual performances,thatwas a typification
identified
melodic tendencies, as early as 1938 (Sargeant, 1975, pp. 147-172).
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Inc. 1925/27Jazz Bass For Piano. Chicago: ForsterMusic PublisherInc.
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Shapiro, Nat, and Nat Hentoff,eds.
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Reprintedfromthe firstedition,(1955).
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Improvisation.New York:Charles Colin. Originalpublicationdate unknown.
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COMING
SPECIAL ISSUE ON CRITIQUE AND ARTICLE WRITING
One of the most popular articles ever printedin the Bulletin
was Carroll Gonzo's "On WritingA Critical Review" which
appeared 15 years ago, Bulletin 28, Spring 1972. A steady
stream of requests came to the Bulletin office requesting
guidelines on professionalismin research reporting:the writing
of critiques,rebuttals,and articles on research topics.
CarrollGonzo of the Universityof Texas, BennettReimer of
NorthwesternUniversity,Robert Petzold of the Universityof
Wisconsin, Michael Saffle of VirginiaPolytechnicInstituteand
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A Historical and Critical Survey of Recent Pedagogical Materials For The Teaching and Learning of Jazz

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Council for Research in Music Education

A Historical and Critical Survey

Jazz studentsand educators are faced today witha bogglingarray

Teaching and Learning of Jazz

tionsas to the premises fromwhichtheyare derived;the approaches

somewhat less-mechanical lines ("rhythmicalinversions") accomin each key.

the feelingof the writtenchoruses intothe improvisedchorus" (p. 49).

Somethingcurious seems to have happened in the years between

of bridgingthe gap between chord/scalerelationsand the improvised

supplementedby patternsfromRubank,Arbans, Belwin,H.L. Clarke

Teaching and Learning of Jazz

compendiumof patterns,mostlysequential, mostlytwo,four,or eight

Baker's other publications include a later series of patternbooks

While jazz certainlyhas its formulaicelements, the pedagogues

Accordingly,Benward and Wildmangive relativelyeven treatment

phrase placement withinthe cyclic chorus structure.The blame for

symbols(pp. 20-21). (The last mentionedpossibilityhas been exploited

Teaching and Learning of Jazz

Books on jazz harmonyinvolvea varietyof theoreticalapproaches,

world of jazz pedagogy, this demonstrates

The organizationof the cliches in Colliver's book, unlikeothers,is

Teaching and Learning of Jazz

The chord/scale approach has been justifiedby recourse to the

This is tantamountto saying thatthe "old guys couldn't reallyplay,

melodic tendencies) leads to a crude understandingof the functionof

Teaching and Learning of Jazz

Teaching and Learning of Jazz

tionon all Instruments.Vol. 3 Studio City,CA: FirstPlace Music.

(1975). The Encyclopedia of Basic Harmony and Theory Applied to Improvisation

on all Instruments.Vol. 1 Studio City,CA: Dick Grove.

(1968). A Guide To Improvisation.Boston: Berklee Press.

Delaven, NY: Kendor

Eddie, S. (1981). Jazz Reference and Research

New York: Garland.

York: Watson Guptill.

York: Watson GuDtill).

New York: Watson Guptill.

sional Music Products.

Transformation of the Jazz Solo. Tustin, CA: Profes-

Universityof Oklahoma Press.

Ricker,Ramon (1977). New Concepts in Linear Improvisation.Lebanon, IN: Studio 224.

The Lydian Chromatic Concept of Tonal Organization for Im-

provisation.New York:Concept. Firstpublished 1953.

Jazz Breaks. Chicago: Forster Music Publisher

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